Index
ABET (Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology), 557
Absorption through skin, 58
Accelerating Rate Calorimeter (ARC), 348–350
Access security, 516
Accidents
accident pyramid, 15
suggested reading, 50
Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET), 557
Accumulated charges in electrostatic ignition sources, 304
Accumulation
electrostatic charge, 289, 300
reliefs, 382
ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists)
dispersion toxic effect criteria, 199
threshold limit values, 207
toxicology threshold limit values, 75
Actions required in hazards identification/evaluation and risk analysis, 483
Active IPLs in LOPA method, 519–521
Active methods for reactive hazard controls, 373
Active strategy for inherently safer design, 45
Active systems for fire and explosion prevention, 333
Acute exposure guideline levels (AEGLs) in dispersion toxic effect criteria, 198, 204–206
Acute toxicity
dose curves, 68
Safety Data Sheets, 86
toxicology studies, 62
Adiabatic compression for fires, 245–247
Adiabatic flow in gases and vapors through pipes, 145–152
Adiabatic mode in APTAC devices, 350
Advanced Reactive System Screening Tool (ARSST), 348–350
Advection equation in neutrally buoyant dispersion models, 183
AEGLs (acute exposure guideline levels) in dispersion toxic effect criteria, 198, 204–206
Aerosol droplets in flashing liquids, 167
Agitators in process diagram symbol, 600
AICHE. See American Institute for Chemical Engineers (AICHE)
AIHA (American Industrial Hygiene Association), 198–202
Air blower coolers process diagram symbol, 600
Airflow velocity in local ventilation, 113
AIT (autoignition temperature)
definition, 222
selected hydrocarbon data, 578–582
Alcoa (Aluminum Company of America), 1–2
Alveoli as toxicant route into bodies, 58–59
Ambient temperature issue in worst-case releases, 170
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH)
dispersion toxic effect criteria, 199
threshold limit values, 207
toxicology threshold limit values, 75
American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA), 198–202
American Institute for Chemical Engineers (AICHE)
Bhopal, India response, 48
Chemical Reactivity Worksheet from, 345
fire and explosion prevention, 332
process safety definitions, 2–5
toxicology definitions, 56
American Petroleum Institute (API)
fire and explosion prevention standards, 332
relaxation guidelines, 317
relief pressure requirements, 383–385
standards, 32
two-phase relief sizing, 428
vents for fires external to processes, 442
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standards, 32
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), 32, 416, 418
Ammonia in refrigeration systems, 46
Ammonium nitrate explosion from emergency management failure, 566–567
AND logic functions
Anti-static additives for static electricity, 321
Anticipating hazardous workplace exposures, 80–83
Antifreeze sprinkler systems, 330
API. See American Petroleum Institute (API)
APTAC (Automatic Pressure Tracking Adiabatic Calorimeter), 348–353
ARC (Accelerating Rate Calorimeter), 348–350
Area classifications in explosion-proof equipment and instruments, 324–325
Arrhenius equation for calorimeters, 358, 364
ARSST (Advanced Reactive System Screening Tool), 348–350
ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers), 32, 416, 418
Asset integrity and reliability
case history and lessons learned, 560–561
ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) standards, 32
Atmospheric stability
Pasquill–Gifford model, 185
Auditability for independent protection layers, 516
Auditing
case history and lessons learned, 570
Auto-oxidation for fires, 245
Autoignition temperature (AIT)
definition, 222
selected hydrocarbon data, 578–582
Automatic Pressure Tracking Adiabatic Calorimeter (APTAC), 348–353
Availability in revealed and unrevealed failures, 497–498
Average discharge velocity in flow of liquid through holes, 124
Awareness of reactive chemical hazards, 340–346
Backflow preventers for pilot-operated reliefs, 397
Backpressure
relief sizing for liquid service, 417–418, 420
relief sizing for vapor and gas service, 422, 424
spring-operated reliefs, 393–394
Baker–Strehlow–Tang method, 269–270
Balanced bellows relief devices, 394
Barrier analysis, 513
Basic events in fault trees, 506–507
Basic process control system (BPCS)
high pressure prevention, 36
IPLs, 522
Benzene flow through holes in tanks, 128–130
Best-in-class safety programs, 11
Bhopal, India chemical plant tragedy
conduct of operations, 565–566
containment system, 544
suggested reading, 50
Binary interactions in reactive chemical hazards, 344–345
Black powder, 281
Blasius approximation for flow of liquid through pipes, 134
Blast sources in TNO multi-energy method, 266–267
Blast strength in TNO multi-energy method, 267
Blast waves in explosions
damage from overpressure, 261–265
description, 259
Blast winds in explosions, 262
Blenders
LOTO permit problem, 555
process safety competency failure, 554–555
safety review failure fatality, 564–565
BLEVEs (boiling-liquid expanding-vapor explosions)
training and performance assurance failure, 562–563
Blood counts, toxicant effect on, 61
Bloodstream, toxicants in, 56–58
Blowdown
definition, 383
description, 385
spring-operated reliefs, 392, 403–405
Blowout panels for deflagration venting, 434
BLS (Bureau of Labor Statistics) accident statistics, 17–18, 23
Boiling-liquid expanding-vapor explosions (BLEVEs)
training and performance assurance failure, 562–563
Boiling point temperature in flashing liquids, 162
Bonding for static electricity, 317–320
Bourne, Doug, 1
Bow-tie analysis and diagrams
hazard identification/evaluation and risk analysis, 456
Box-type enclosed hoods for local ventilation, 113
BPCS (basic process control system)
high pressure prevention, 36
IPLs, 522
Britter and McQuaid model, 198
Brittle metal fatigue, fire due to, 557–558
Brode’s method in energy of mechanical explosions, 272, 274
Bronchial disease from toxicant effects, 60
Bronchial tubes as toxicant route into bodies, 58
Brush discharges
electrostatic discharges, 301–302
Buckling pin reliefs
advantages and disadvantages, 401
sizing, 425
Buoyancy
Pasquill–Gifford model, 193–194
Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) accident statistics, 17–18, 23
Burning parameters for gases, 437–438
Burns from thermal radiation, 96–97
Bypass hoods for local ventilation, 112
Calorimeters
application of data from, 371–372
estimation of parameters from data, 364–369
heat of reaction data, 370
theoretical analysis of data, 353–364
Canopies for local ventilation, 114
Capacitance
electrostatic ignition sources, 304
Capacitors, energy of, 308–312
Capacity correction factors
relief sizing for liquid service, 417–418, 420
relief sizing for vapor and gas service, 423
Carbon dioxide for inerting, 284
Carbon tetrachloride, 46
Case histories and lessons learned
asset integrity and reliability, 560–561
auditing, 570
compliance with standards, 553–554
conduct of operations, 565–566
contractor management, 561–562
hazard identification and risk analysis, 557–558
incident investigation, 567–568
management review and continuous improvement, 570–571
measurement and metrics, 569–570
operational readiness, 564–565
overview, 551
problems, 572
process knowledge management, 556–557
process safety competency, 554–555
process safety culture, 552–553
stakeholder outreach, 556
training and performance assurance, 562–563
workplace involvement, 555
Cause–consequence analysis (CCA), 456
Causes in HAZOP studies, 472
CCPS. See Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS)
CEI (Chemical Exposure Index) in relative ranking method, 469
Ceiling concentrations in dispersion toxic effect criteria, 199
Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS)
20 elements of risk-based process safety, 36–42, 50
Bhopal, India response, 48
Chemical Reactivity Worksheet from, 345
fire and explosion prevention, 332
process safety definitions, 2–5
safety culture features, 11–12
toxicology definitions, 56
CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) in refrigeration systems, 46
Change management
case history and lessons learned, 563–564
independent protection layers, 516
level 3 safety program, 9
Characteristic plume in dispersion, 178
Charge accumulation in static electricity, 300
Charged capacitors, energy of, 308–312
Chatter in spring-operated reliefs, 393
Check valves, process diagram symbol, 599
Checklist analysis in hazard identification/evaluation and risk analysis, 455–456, 462–467
Chemical explosions, energy of, 270–271
Chemical Exposure Index (CEI) in relative ranking method, 469
Chemical plant losses from fires and explosions, 219
Chemical plant tragedy in Bhopal, India
conduct of operations, 565–566
containment system, 544
suggested reading, 50
Chemical reactivity. See Reactivity
Chemical Reactivity Worksheet (CRW), 344–345
Chemical releases. See Releases
Chemical Safety Board (CSB)
contractor management failure, 561–562
emergency management failure, 567
pharmaceutical plant explosion, 553
reactive hazards report, 338–339
runaway reaction explosion, 556–557
Texas City Refinery explosion, 552
Chemical Thermodynamics and Energy Release Evaluation (CHETAH) program, 345
Chemical vapors, respirators for, 108–109
Chemicals
compatibility matrix, 344
hazard identification/evaluation and risk analysis, 457
industrial hygiene data, 81
threshold quantities, 30
CHETAH (Chemical Thermodynamics and Energy Release Evaluation) program, 345
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in refrigeration systems, 46
Choked flow
flashing liquids, 166
flow of gases and vapors through holes, 142–143
flow of gases and vapors through pipes, 148–150, 154–155, 157
two-phase relief sizing, 429
Choked pressure
flashing liquids, 164
flow of gases and vapors through holes, 142
flow of gases and vapors through pipes, 161
Choking deaths, 25
Chronic effects in magnitude of exposures and responses, 89
Chronic toxicity
dose curves, 68
toxicology studies, 62
Clausius–Clapeyron equation for flashing liquids, 166–167
Close calls incident investigations, 535
Closed-cup method for flash point temperature, 224–225
Cloud boundaries for Pasquill–Gifford model, 192
Clouds in dense gas dispersion, 198
Codes
definition, 31
international, 33
selected, 32
Coincidence in probability, 499–500
Columbia space shuttle fatalities, 568
Combustion, definition, 221
Commitment in reactive chemical hazards, 340–346
Common-cause failures in probability theory, 501
Communication in safety culture features, 12
Community outreach, case history and lessons learned, 556
Compatibility matrix, 344
Compliance
case history and lessons learned, 553–554
Compressibility factor in relief sizing, 422
Compression, adiabatic, 245–247
Concentration
calorimeters, 355
dispersion, 183
flammability diagram, 295
flammability limit estimating, 230–231
inerting, 284
isopleths, 192
vaporization rate of liquids, 101
worst-case dispersion conditions, 194
Conceptual design in hazard identification/evaluation and risk analysis, 459
Condensers for reliefs, 406
Conditional modifiers
definition, 3
description, 34
Conditions in hazard identification/evaluation and risk analysis, 458
Conduct of operations
case history and lessons learned, 565–566
Confined explosions
characteristics, 261
definition, 222
Confined-space entry in safe work practices, 540–541
Conical pile discharges
electrostatic discharges, 301
preventing, 316
Consequence plots vs. frequency plots, 526
Consequences
definition, 3
estimation in LOPA method, 518
HAZOP studies, 472
Conservative analysis, source models in, 169, 171
Construction and startup in hazard identification/evaluation and risk analysis, 460
Construction industry fatalities, 20–22
Construction materials
HAZOP study, 472
Contact charging in static electricity, 300
Containers, GHS labels for, 89
Contractor management
case history and lessons learned, 561–562
Control techniques to prevent exposures
ventilation, dilution, 114–115
Control velocity in local ventilation, 113
Controls
double block and bleed systems, 541–542
emergency isolation valves, 541
explosion suppression, 543–544
process diagram symbol, 599
safeguards and redundancy, 542–543
Convective heat transfer in boiling, 169
Costs. See also Losses
myths, 7
ventilation, 110
Countermeasures in dispersion release prevention and mitigation, 211
Critical flow of gases and vapors through holes, 142
Crude petroleum and natural gas extraction injury statistics, 24
CRW (Chemical Reactivity Worksheet), 344–345
CSB. See Chemical Safety Board (CSB)
Cubic law in experimental characterization of gases and vapors, 251–252
Culture
case history and lessons learned, 552–553
metrics, 16
Dalton’s law in vacuum purging, 286
Damage from overpressure in explosions, 261–265
Darby and Molavi equation in relief sizing, 417
Darcy formula for flow of gases and vapors through pipes, 149
Days away from work (DAW)
definition, 20
statistics, 19
Days away from work, job restriction, or job transfer (DART)
definition, 20
statistics, 19
DDT (deflagration to detonation transition) in explosions, 260–261
DeBlois, L., 10
Debris from explosions, 274
Decommissioning in hazard identification/evaluation and risk analysis, 460
Deflagration index for gases or dusts, 439
Deflagration to detonation transition (DDT) in explosions, 260–261
Deflagration venting
dust and vapor explosions, 434–440
suggested reading, 448
Deflagrations
definition, 222
process vessels, 546
Delaware City, Delaware explosion, 560
Deluge sprinkler systems, 329–330
Density
flow of gases and vapors through holes, 140
flow of liquid through holes, 123
Department of Homeland Security (DHS) regulations, 32
Dermal absorption as toxicant route into bodies, 56, 58
Design basis for reliefs, 383
Design intent in HAZOP studies, 472–473
Designs for process safety
inherently safer design, 541
materials of construction, 545–546
miscellaneous, 547
problems, 550
suggested reading, 549
Detailed engineering in hazard identification/evaluation and risk analysis, 459
Detected onset temperatures in calorimeters, 364–366
Detonations
definition, 222
Detoxification, 59
Deviations in HAZOP studies, 472–473
DHS (Department of Homeland Security) regulations, 32
Differential Scanning Calorimeters (DSCs), 348–351
Diffusivity in neutrally buoyant dispersion models, 184
Dig pipes for static electricity, 320
Dilution ventilation
exposure prevention, 106
fire and explosion prevention, 326
Dimensionless approach for calorimeters, 356–359
Discharge coefficient
2-K method, 136
flow of gases and vapors through holes, 141
flow of liquid through holes, 124–125
flow of liquid through holes in tanks, 127
relief sizing for liquid service, 420
relief sizing for vapor and gas service, 423
two-phase relief sizing, 429
Discharge mass flow in relief sizing, 422
Discharge rates in releases, 171
Dispersion
neutrally buoyant models, 183–184
Pasquill–Gifford model. See Pasquill–Gifford model
release prevention and mitigation, 210–211
suggested reading, 212
toxic effect criteria, 198–210
Dispersion coefficients in Pasquill–Gifford model, 184–188
Dispersion conditions in Pasquill–Gifford model, 194–195
Dispersion models, 119
quantitative risk analysis, 515
releases, 171
TNO multi-energy method, 266
Displacement during vessel filling operations, 103–104
Dissipating energy in explosions, 259
Distillation columns process diagram symbol, 600
Divisions in explosion-proof equipment and instruments, 325
Documentation
checklist analysis, 467
FMEA, 480
hazards identification/evaluation and risk analysis, 483
inherent safety reviews, 468
preliminary hazard analysis, 468
safety culture features, 11
safety reviews, 467
what-if analysis, 482
Domino effect in explosions, 274
Dose range in toxicology studies, 61
Dose vs. response
Double block and bleed systems, 541–542
Double-layer charging in static electricity, 300
Dow Chemical
calorimeters, 347
CHETAH program, 345
Dry pipe sprinkler systems, 330
DSCs (Differential Scanning Calorimeters), 348–351
Ducts for ventilation, 110, 112–113
Dust explosions
definition, 223
experimental characterization of, 255–258
prevention features, 549
Dusts
designs and practices, 548–549
flammability characteristics, 247–248
upper respiratory toxicants, 59
Early vapor detection and warning in dispersion release prevention and mitigation, 211
ED (effective dose) curves
dose vs. response, 68
relative toxicity, 74
Eddy diffusivity in neutrally buoyant dispersion models, 184
EEGLs (emergency exposure guidance levels), 198, 202–204, 207
Effective dose (ED) curves
dose vs. response, 68
relative toxicity, 74
Effects in toxicology studies, 61
Effluent handling in reliefs, 403–406
Electricity, static. See Static electricity
Electrons in static charge, 299
Electrostatic discharges
energy, 303
Electrostatic ignitions
sources, 304
Electrostatic voltage drops, 307–308
Elephant trunks for local ventilation, 114
Emergency exposure guidance levels (EEGLs), 198, 202–204, 207
Emergency isolation valves, 541
Emergency management
case history and lessons learned, 566–567
Emergency material transfer, 176
Emergency Response Division, Chemical Reactivity Worksheet from, 345
Emergency response in dispersion release prevention and mitigation, 211
Emergency Response Planning Guidelines (ERPGs)
dispersion toxic effect criteria, 198–202, 208–209
relative ranking method, 469
Empowering individuals as safety culture features, 12
Enabling conditions
definition, 3
and safeguards, 33
Enclosed hoods for local ventilation, 111–112
Enclosures for exposure prevention, 106
End-of-line flame arrestors, 544–545
Energy
electrostatic discharges, 303
electrostatic ignition sources, 304
flow of gases and vapors through holes, 140
mechanical explosions, 272–274
two-phase relief sizing, 429
unit conversion constants, 574
Energy balance
flow of gases and vapors through holes, 140
flow of gases and vapors through pipes, 146, 153–154
flow of liquid through holes, 123
flow of liquid through holes in tanks, 127
thermal expansion of process fluids, 446
vents for fires external to processes, 441
Energy isolation in safe work practices, 539–540
Energy of equivalent fuel–air charges in TNO multi-energy method, 267, 269
Energy release
explosions, 259
fires vs. explosions, 221
Engineering design for dispersion release prevention and mitigation, 211
Environmental controls for exposure prevention, 107
Environmental factor
inherently safer design, 46
vents for fires external to processes, 442
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Chemical Reactivity Worksheet from, 345
dispersion toxic effect criteria, 198, 207
regulations, 32
Equilibrium rate model (ERM) in two-phase relief sizing, 429
Equipment
fault trees, 507
hazard identification/evaluation and risk analysis, 457
HAZOP study, 472
industrial hygiene data, 81
Equivalent mass in TNT, 265–266
Ergonomics in process safety, 534
ERM (equilibrium rate model) in two-phase relief sizing, 429
ERPGs (Emergency Response Planning Guidelines)
dispersion toxic effect criteria, 198–202, 208–209
relative ranking method, 469
ET (event tree analysis), 456
Ethane heat transfer, 169
Ethylene
flammability diagrams, 241–242
heat transfer, 169
Ethylene oxide odor thresholds, 83
Evaporation
vaporization rate of liquids, 100–103
during vessel filling operations, 103–104
Event tree analysis (ET), 456
Events, 509
bow-tie diagrams, 513
event trees, 502
in incident sequence, 33
quantitative risk analysis, 515
Excess energy in flashing liquids, 162
Excess head loss
flow of gases and vapors through pipes, 150
flow of liquid through pipes, 131, 137
Excretion, toxicant elimination from bodies through, 59
Existing events in fault trees, 507
Exothermic reactions in heat loss, 346–347
Expansion factor in flow of gases and vapors through pipes, 155–156
Expertise as safety culture feature, 12
Explosion-proof equipment and instruments
area and material classifications, 324–325
Explosions. See also Fires
blast damage from overpressure, 261–265
blast damage to people, 274–276
boiling-liquid expanding-vapor explosions, 277–278
conduct of operations, 565–566
confined, 261
designs for safety, 547
detonation and deflagration, 259–261
emergency management failure, 566–567
energy of chemical explosions, 270–271
energy of mechanical explosions, 272–274
experimental characterization of dusts, 255–258
experimental characterization of gases and vapors, 251–254
vs. fires, 221
flammability characteristics of dusts, 247–248
hot-work-permit system, 560
ignition sources, 250
incident investigation failures, 568
management of change failure, 563–564
management review and continuous improvement, 569–571
measurement and metrics, 569–570
missile damage, 274
overview, 219
pipe rupture, 561
probit correlations, 71
runaway reactions, 556–557, 559
static electricity. See Static electricity
suggested reading, 278
T2 Laboratories, 338
TNO multi-energy method, 266–270
vapor cloud explosions, 276–277
Exposures
magnitude of. See Magnitude of exposures and responses
prevention. See Control techniques to prevent exposures
during vessel filling operations, 103–105
Exterior hoods for local ventilation, 111
F-N plots for societal risk, 527–529
F-stability in worst-case dispersion conditions, 194–195
F&EI (Fire and Explosion Index) in relative ranking method, 469
Factory Mutual Engineering Corporation ignition sources study, 250
Fail safe concept, 484
Failure density function in component failure, 488
Failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA), 455–456, 479–481
Failures
probability theory. See Probability theory
revealed and unrevealed, 496–499
Fanning friction factor
flow of gases and vapors through pipes, 147, 149, 154–155
flow of liquid through pipes, 131–133
Fans for ventilation, 110
Fatalities
chemistry industry, 24
definition, 20
by industry, 21
by nature of occupation, 22–23
non-occupational, 26
by worker activity, 23
Fault tree analysis (FTA), 456
Fault trees
advantages and disadvantages, 512–513
quantitative calculations, 512
Fauske method in two-phase relief sizing, 428
FEV (forced expired volume) in respiratory problems diagnosis, 60–61
Field inspections in TNO multi-energy method, 266
Filling operations exposure estimates, 103–105
Final temperatures in calorimeters, 364–366
Fire and Explosion Index (F&EI) in relative ranking method, 469
Fire points, definition, 222
Fire prevention
documentation, 334
explosion-proof equipment and instruments, 323–325
inerting. See Inerting
overview, 283
reliefs for, 391
set pressure and accumulation limits, 413
static electricity. See Static electricity
suggested reading, 334
Fires. See also Explosions
adiabatic compression, 245–247
auditing failures, 570
auto-oxidation, 245
autoignition, 244
brittle metal fatigue, 557–558
contractor management failure, 561–562
designs for safety, 547
vs. explosions, 221
external to processes, vents for, 440–444
flammability characteristics of dusts, 247–248
flammability characteristics of gas and vapor mixtures, 227–229
flammability characteristics of liquids, 224–227
flammability diagrams, 236–244
flammability limit dependence on pressure, 229–230
flammability limit dependence on temperature, 229
flammability limit estimating, 230–233
ignition sources, 250
limiting oxygen concentration and inerting, 234–236
overview, 219
probit correlations, 71
sprays and mists, 248
suggested reading, 278
First aid instructions on GHS labels, 88
First-degree burns, 97
Fishing, hunting, and trapping industry, hours-based fatal injury rate, 20–22
Fittings loss coefficients, 135
Five Why technique in root cause analysis, 536–537
Flammability characteristics
gases and vapors mixtures, 227–229
Flammability data
industrial hygiene study, 81
selected hydrocarbons, 578–582
Flammability diagrams
Flammability limits
dependence on pressure, 229–230
dependence on temperature, 229
selected hydrocarbon data, 578–582
Flammability rating
NFPA diamond, 116
Flammable atmospheres, avoiding, 293–298
Flammable liquids, SDS information for, 86
Flares for reliefs, 405
Flash point temperature
definition, 222
selected hydrocarbon data, 578–582
Flashing liquids
suggested reading, 172
Flixborough, England explosion
management of change failure explosion, 563–564
VCEs in, 276
Flow
gases and vapors through holes, 140–145
gases and vapors through pipes, 145–162
liquids through holes, 123–126, 172
liquids through holes in tanks, 126–130
liquids through pipes, 130–139, 172
streaming current, 306
vapor through holes, 172
vapor through pipes, 172
Flow sheets in HAZOP studies, 473
Flowcharts for reactive chemical hazards, 341–342
Flowmeter process diagram symbol, 600
Fluid height change in flow of liquid through holes in tanks, 127–128
FMEA (failure modes and effects analysis), 455–456, 479–481
Forced expired volume (FEV) in respiratory problems diagnosis, 60–61
Forced vital capacity (FVC) in respiratory problems diagnosis, 60
Fraction of liquid vaporized in flashing liquids, 162–163
Free expansion releases in flow of gases and vapors through holes, 140
Free-field overpressure, explosions from, 262
Free-hanging canopies for local ventilation, 114
Frequency estimation in LOPA method, 518–525
Frequency plots vs. consequence plots, 526
Frictional charging in static electricity, 300
Frictional losses
flow of gases and vapors through pipes, 146–147
flow of liquid through holes, 124
flow of liquid through pipes, 131–133
Froth in pressure–time plots, 381
FTA (fault tree analysis), 456
Fuels
flammability diagram, 295
Functionality in independent protection layers, 516
Furnaces, process diagram symbol, 600
FVC (forced vital capacity) in respiratory problems diagnosis, 60
Gas and vapor mixtures flammability characteristics, 227–229
Gas expansion factor in flow of gases and vapors through pipes, 150–151
Gas mass transfer coefficients, 101
Gas-phase diffusion coefficients, 102
Gas plant chemical release
auditing failures, 570
brittle metal failure, 557–558
Gas station injury statistics, 24
Gases
calorimeters pressure data, 371
experimental characterization of explosions, 251–254, 258
Gastrointestinal tract as toxicant route into bodies, 57
Gaussian distribution in response to exposure to a toxicant, 62–66
Gibbs energy of formation in explosions, 270
Globally Harmonized System (GHS)
overview, 83
Good housekeeping for exposure prevention, 107
Gravitational unit conversion constants, 575
Ground conditions in dispersion, 181–182
Ground-level concentration in puff dispersion, 189–191
Grounding for static electricity, 317–320
Groups for explosion-proof equipment and instruments, 325
Guidelines for Risk Based Process Safety, 36
Guidewords in HAZOP studies, 472–475
Hazard and operability (HAZOP) studies, 455–456, 471–478
Hazard classes in Globally Harmonized System, 84–85
Hazard evaluation/analysis, definition, 3, 6
Hazard identification, definition, 3
Hazard Identification and Risk Analysis (HIRA)
case history and lessons learned, 557–558
documentation and actions required, 483
inherent safety reviews, 467–468
non-scenario-based methods, 462–467
preliminary hazard analysis, 468
scenario-based methods, 471–482
suggested reading, 483
what-if analysis, 482
what-if/checklist analysis, 483–484
Hazardous chemicals, data for, 592–597
Hazardous exposures, anticipating and identifying, 80–83
Hazardous material dispersion. See Dispersion
Hazards
GHS labels, 88
HAZOP (hazard and operability) studies, 455–456, 471–478
HCFCs (hydrochlorofluorocarbons) in refrigeration systems, 46
Heads in sprinkler systems, 329
Health rating in NFPA diamond, 116
Heat capacity data for calorimeters, 369–370
Heat capacity ratios
flow of gases and vapors through holes, 142–144
unit conversion constants, 574
Heat exchangers
process diagram symbol, 600
relief design, 388
Heat flux in vents for fires external to processes, 442
Heat losses in two-phase relief sizing, 429
Heat of combustion
in explosions, 270
fuel in flammability limit estimating, 231
Heat of reaction data for calorimeters, 370
Heat release rate in two-phase relief sizing, 433
Heat transfer in evaporating pools, 168–169
Height of release issue in worst-case releases, 170
HEM (homogeneous equilibrium model) for two-phase relief sizing, 429
Herbert, Ralph, 1
Hierarchy in process safety, 8–9, 533
High standards as safety culture feature, 11
HIRA. See Hazard Identification and Risk Analysis (HIRA)
Histograms for response to exposure to a toxicant, 65
Holes
gases and vapors flow through, 140–145
liquid flow through in tanks, 126–130
Holland formula for smokestack releases, 193
Homogeneous equilibrium model (HEM) for two-phase relief sizing, 429
Hoods for local ventilation, 111–113
Horizontal knockout drums in reliefs, 403, 405
Hoses in release guidelines, 170
Hot work system
explosion case history and lessons learned, 560
safe work practices for, 539
Hours-based fatal injury rate
calculations, 19
by industry, 21
Housings, explosion-proof, 323–324
Huddle chambers in spring-operated reliefs, 392
Human factors in process safety, 533–534
Human health impacts risk matrix, 28–29
Humidity issue in worst-case releases, 170
Hybrid mixtures, vents for, 439–440
Hybrid/nontempered reactions in calorimeters pressure data, 371
Hybrid/tempered reactions in calorimeters pressure data, 371
Hydrocarbon combustion explosions, 270
Hydrocarbon plant losses from fires and explosions, 219
Hydrocarbons flammability data, 578–582
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) in refrigeration systems, 46
Hydrogen halides
lower respiratory toxicants, 59
upper respiratory toxicants, 59
Hydrogen in flammability diagrams, 243
Hydroxides as upper respiratory toxicants, 59
Hygiene, industrial. See Industrial hygiene
Ideal gas constant, 575
Ideal gas law in flow of gases and vapors through holes, 141
Identification
hazardous workplace exposures, 80–83
HIRA. See Hazard Identification and Risk Analysis (HIRA)
reactive chemical hazards, 340–346
IDLH (immediately dangerous to life and health) levels
dispersion toxic effect criteria, 198–199, 202, 207
toxicology threshold limit values, 76
IEC (International Electrochemical Commission) standards, 32
Ignition, definition, 221
Ignition energy in fires and explosions, 248–249
Ignition sources
electrostatic, 304
fires and explosions, 250
Illness, definition, 20
Immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH) levels
dispersion toxic effect criteria, 198–199, 202, 207
toxicology threshold limit values, 76
Impacts, definition, 3
Imperial Sugar Company refinery explosion
dusts, 247
incident investigation failures, 568
Impure nitrogen, inerting with, 291–292
In-service oxygen concentrations (ISOCs) in flammability diagram, 296–298
Incidence rates
calculations, 19
by industry, 21
Incident investigations
case history and lessons learned, 567–568
hazard identification/evaluation and risk analysis, 461
safety strategies, 535
Incident outcome cases, definition, 4
Incident outcomes, definition, 3
Incidents
definition, 3
quantitative risk analysis, 515
Incompatible materials
chemical hazards, 343
runaway reactions, 547
Independence in independent protection layers, 516
Independent protection layers (IPLs)
hazard identification/evaluation and risk analysis, 456
Individual risks
definition, 4
description, 13
Induction charging in static electricity, 300
Industrial hygiene
anticipating and identifying hazardous workplace exposures, 80–83
Globally Harmonized System, 83–89
magnitude of exposures and responses, 89–106
online resources, 116
suggested reading, 117
Industries
injury rates by, 21
property damage by, 25
Industry strategy for fire and explosion prevention, 332–334
Inerting
flammability diagrams, 240, 293–298
limiting oxygen concentration, 234–236
overview, 284
pressure-vacuum purging, 289–290
siphon purging, 293
static electricity, 316
sweep-through purging, 292–293
Information analysis in what-if analysis, 482
Infrastructure in fire and explosion prevention, 333–334
Ingestion as toxicant route into bodies, 56–57
Inhalation
Safety Data Sheets, 86
as toxicant route into bodies, 56–57
Inherent methods in reactive hazard controls, 372
Inherent safety area in dispersion release prevention and mitigation, 211
Inherent safety reviews, 455–456, 467–468
Inherent strategy in inherently safer design, 45
Inherently safer design
simple design, 541
suggested reading, 50
Initiating events
event trees, 502
in incident sequence, 33
quantitative risk analysis, 515
Injection
calorimeters, 352
toxicant route into bodies, 56–57
Injuries, definition, 20
Injury Facts accident statistics, 18
Inline flame arrestors, 544
Inspection intervals for unrevealed failures, 497
Instability rating
NFPA diamond, 116
Installation practices for reliefs, 400–403
Instruments, explosion-proof, 323–325
Integrity for independent protection layers, 516
Intentional chemical operations, reaction hazards in, 339
Interactions between process units, 489–496
Interlocks, 485
Intermediate events in fault trees, 506–507, 509
International Electrochemical Commission (IEC) standards, 32
Inversions in dispersion, 181
Involuntary risk, 14
IPLs (independent protection layers)
hazard identification/evaluation and risk analysis, 456
Isentropic expansion method in energy of mechanical explosions, 272, 274
ISOCs (in-service oxygen concentrations) in flammability diagram, 296–298
Isolation valves, emergency, 541
Isopleths
Pasquill–Gifford model, 192
worst-case dispersion conditions, 194
Isothermal expansion method in energy of mechanical explosions, 272
Isothermal flow in gases and vapors through pipes, 145, 152–162
Job safety assessment (JSA), 9
Kidneys
toxicant effect on, 61
toxicant elimination from bodies, 59–60
Labeling in Globally Harmonized System, 87–88
Laboratory hoods for local ventilation, 111–112
Laboratory safety vs. process safety, 8
Lagging metrics in accident pyramid, 15–17
Laminar flow of liquid through pipes, 132
Layer of protection analysis (LOPA) method
consequence estimation, 518
hazard identification/evaluation and risk analysis, 456, 458
TMEF for, 28
LC (lethal concentration) in dose vs. response, 68
LD (lethal dose) curves
relative toxicity, 74
Le Châtelier’s equation in flammability characteristics of gas and vapor mixtures, 228
Leadership as safety culture feature, 11
Leading metrics in accident pyramid, 15–17
LELs (lower explosion limits), 222
Lethal concentration (LC) in dose vs. response, 68
Lethal dose (LD) curves
relative toxicity, 74
Lethality in dose vs. response, 67–68
Lettering notation
event trees, 502
piping and instrumentation diagrams, 601
Leung method in two-phase relief sizing, 428–429, 441, 443
Level of concern (LOC) in dispersion toxic effect criteria, 207
Levels
accident pyramid, 15
resolution in fault trees, 507
LFLs. See Lower flammable limits (LFLs)
Lightning-like discharges
electrostatic discharges, 302
preventing, 317
Likelihood, definition, 4
Limited-aperture releases
flow of liquid through holes, 124
source models, 121
Limiting oxygen concentrations (LOCs)
flammability diagrams, 237–239, 241–242, 296
Linear measure unit conversion constants, 574
Liquefied natural gas (LNG) heat transfer, 169
Liquid ammonia in flashing liquids, 165
Liquids
flammability characteristics, 224–227
flow through holes in tanks, 126–130
pool evaporation and boiling, 168–169, 172
thermal expansion coefficients, 445–446
Liquified petroleum gas (LPG) leak, training and performance assurance failure from, 562–563
Liver
toxicant effect on, 61
toxicant elimination from bodies, 59–60
LNG (liquefied natural gas) heat transfer, 169
LOC (level of concern) in dispersion toxic effect criteria, 207
Local ventilation
fire and explosion prevention, 106, 326
Lock-Out/Tag-Out (LOTO), 9
ribbon blender fatality, 555
LOCs (limiting oxygen concentrations)
flammability diagrams, 237–239, 241–242, 296
Logic functions
common-cause failures, 501
Longford gas plant chemical release and fire
auditing failures, 570
brittle metal fatigue, 557–558
LOPA method. See Layer of protection analysis (LOPA) method
Loss coefficients in flow of liquid through pipes, 135
Loss of Primary Containment (LOPC) in IPLs, 523
Loss prevention, definition, 5
Losses
gas plant chemical release and fire, 557–558
Texas City Refinery explosion, 552, 569–570
weld corrosion, 546
Lost time injury (LTI), definition, 20
LOTO (Lock-Out/Tag-Out), 9
ribbon blender fatality, 555
Lower explosion limits (LELs), 222
Lower flammable limits (LFLs)
flammability diagrams, 241–242, 294–298
flammability limit dependence on pressure, 229–230
flammability limit dependence on temperature, 229
flammability limit estimation, 230–233
gases and vapors mixtures, 227–228
mists, 248
Lower oxygen limits (LOLs) in flammability limit estimation, 232–233
Lower respiratory system as toxicant route into bodies, 58–59
LPG (liquified petroleum gas) leak, training and performance assurance failure from, 562–563
LTI (lost time injury), definition, 20
Lungs for toxicant elimination from bodies, 59–60
MAC (maximum allowable concentration) in toxicology, 75
Mach (Ma) number for flow of gases and vapors through pipes, 145, 147–150, 154
Magnitude of exposures and responses
exposure prevention. See Control techniques to prevent exposures
exposure to thermal radiation, 96–97
exposure to toxic vapors, 97–100
exposures to volatile toxicants, 90–93
vaporization rate of liquids, 100–103
during vessel filling operations, 103–105
Maintenance
metrics, 16
process safety, 534
Management
dispersion release prevention and mitigation, 211
Management of change (MOC)
case history and lessons learned, 563–564
independent protection layers, 516
level 3 safety program, 9
Management review and continuous improvement
case history and lessons learned, 570–571
Manual valves, process diagram symbol, 599
Manufacturer information on GHS labels, 88
Mars Climate Orbiter flight failure, 569–570
Martin, Charles, 1
Martinez, California, refinery explosion, 565–566
Mass balance for volatile vapors, 98
Mass discharge rate for releases, 171
Mass flow rate
flow of gases and vapors through holes, 141, 144
flow of gases and vapors through pipes, 152, 157
flow of liquid through holes, 125
flow of liquid through holes in tanks, 127
flow of liquid through pipes, 137
sweep-through purging, 292
Mass flux
flow of gases and vapors through pipes, 147–149, 153–154
two-phase relief sizing, 429, 433
Mass transfer coefficients for vaporization rate of liquids, 101–102
Mass unit conversion constants, 573
Mass velocity in flashing liquids, 165–166
Material balance in sweep-through purging, 292
Materials
explosion-proof equipment and instruments, 324–325
HAZOP study, 472
in process safety design, 545–546
thermal radiation effects on, 96–97
Maurer discharge, 300
MAWP (maximum allowable working pressure)
sprinkler systems, 329
MAWT (maximum allowable working temperature), 382
Maximum allowable concentration (MAC) in toxicology, 75
Maximum allowable relief pressure, 383
Maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP)
sprinkler systems, 329
Maximum allowable working temperature (MAWT), 382
Maximum pressure
experimental characterization of dusts, 255
experimental characterization of gases and vapors, 251–254
explosions, 259
vents for dusts and hybrid mixtures, 439
Maximum safe oxygen concentration (MSOC) in fires, 234
MDMT (minimum design metal temperature) in reliefs, 382
Mean response to exposure to a toxicant, 62–67
Mean time between coincidences (MTBC), 500
Mean time between failures (MTBF)
description, 488
revealed and unrevealed failures, 496–498
Measurements and metrics
case history and lessons learned, 569–570
unit conversion constants, 573–575
Mechanical energy balance
flow of gases and vapors through holes, 140
flow of gases and vapors through pipes, 146, 153–154
flow of liquid through holes, 123
flow of liquid through holes in tanks, 127
Mechanical explosions
definition, 222
Metal fatigue case history and lessons learned, 557–558
Methane in flammability diagrams, 241
Methyl ethyl ketone odor thresholds, 82
Methyl isocyanate (MIC) vapor in Bhopal, India chemical plant tragedy, 46–47
Metrics. See Measurements and metrics
MIE (minimum ignition energy)
electrostatic ignition sources, 304
static charge, 299
Minimal cut sets in fault trees, 509–511
Minimize strategy in inherently safer design, 43–44
Minimum design metal temperature (MDMT) in reliefs, 382
Minimum ignition energy (MIE)
electrostatic ignition sources, 304
static charge, 299
Minimum oxygen concentration (MOC) in fires, 234
Missile damage in explosions, 274
Mists
fires and explosions, 248
Mitigation for dispersion, 210–211
Mixing factors
dilution ventilation, 114
dispersion, 181
reaction hazards, 339
runaway reactions, 559
Mixtures
flammability diagrams, 238–240
MOC (management of change). See Management of change (MOC)
MOC (minimum oxygen concentration) in fires, 234
Moderate strategy in inherently safer design, 43–44
Mole balance in calorimeters, 354–355
Mole weight in hazardous chemicals, 592–597
Molecular weight factor in dispersion, 182–183
Momentum
Pasquill–Gifford model, 193–194
Monitoring
exposures to volatile toxicants, 90–93
safety culture features, 12
Monitors in sprinkler systems, 330–331
Monomers as upper respiratory toxicants, 59
Motivation factor in hazard identification/evaluation and risk analysis, 461
Motor starters, explosion-proof, 323–324
Motor vehicle deaths, 25
MSOC (maximum safe oxygen concentration) in fires, 234
MTBC (mean time between coincidences), 500
MTBF (mean time between failures)
description, 488
revealed and unrevealed failures, 496–498
Mutual trust as safety culture feature, 12
National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council (NRC) dispersion toxic effect criteria, 198, 202–204
National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors, 416
National Electrical Code (NEC)
electrical installations safety practices, 323
NFPA relationship, 115
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
hazardous chemical ratings, 592–597
inerting recommendations, 284
pharmaceutical plant explosion, 554
sprinkler systems, 329
standards, 32
vents for dusts and hybrid mixtures, 439
National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
dispersion toxic effect criteria, 198, 202
respirators, 109
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Chemical Reactivity Worksheet from, 345
National Safety Council (NSC) accident statistics, 18
Near misses
accident pyramid, 15
incident investigations, 535
NEC (National Electrical Code)
electrical installations safety practices, 323
NFPA relationship, 115
Negative-pressure ventilation systems, 110
Nervous system disorders diagnosis, 61
Net frequency in event trees, 504
Neutral atmospheric conditions in dispersion, 181
Neutrally buoyant dispersion models, 183–184
NFPA. See National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
NIOSH (National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health)
dispersion toxic effect criteria, 198, 202
respirators, 109
Nitrogen
flammability diagrams, 241–243, 294, 297–298
NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration), Chemical Reactivity Worksheet from, 345
Nodes in HAZOP studies, 472
Non-reclosing relief devices, 392
Non-scenario-based methods in hazard identification/evaluation and risk analysis, 455–456, 462–472
Non-XP process areas, 323
Nonfire scenarios, set pressure and accumulation limits in, 413
Nontempered reactions in calorimeters pressure data, 371
Normal distribution for response to exposure to a toxicant, 62–66
Nozzle discharge rate, 330
NRC (National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council) dispersion toxic effect criteria, 198, 202–204
NSC (National Safety Council) accident statistics, 18
Objectives in safety reviews, 484
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
14 elements of risk-based process safety, 37
accident statistics, 19
dispersion toxic effect criteria, 199, 207
Globally Harmonized System, 83
injury definitions, 20
regulations, 32
reports to, 17
respirators, 109
toxicology threshold limit values, 76
vents for fires external to processes, 441
Occupations, fatality rates by, 22–23
Odor thresholds for chemicals, 81–82
Office of Emergency Management, Chemical Reactivity Worksheet from, 345
Oil refinery corrosion failure incident, 546
Oil refinery explosions
conduct of operations, 565–566
measurement and metrics, 569–570
pipe rupture, 561
process safety culture, 552–553
100 Largest Losses in the Hydrocarbon Industry
accident statistics, 18
O’Neill, Paul, 2
Open-air plants, fires and explosions prevention in, 325–326
Open calorimeters, 348
Open-cup method for flash point temperature, 224–225
Operability process safety, 534
Operating pressure in reliefs, 382
Operating procedures
case history and lessons learned, 558–559
metrics, 16
Operational readiness
case history and lessons learned, 564–565
Operator errors in process safety, 534–535
OR logic functions
common-cause failures, 501
process failures, 490
Orifices
flow of gases and vapors through pipes, 161
relief sizing, 416
OSFC (out-of-service fuel concentration) in flammability diagram, 295–296
OSHA. See Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
Other recordable cases, definition, 20
Out-of-service fuel concentration (OSFC) in flammability diagram, 295–296
Outreach
case history and lessons learned, 556
Overdesign in source models, 171
Overpressure
definition, 223
reliefs, 382
TNO multi-energy method, 269–270
Oxidizers
characteristics, 342
Oxygen
auto-oxidation, 245
flammability diagrams, 241–243, 294–298
flammability limits in, 232–233
limiting concentration of, 234–236
pressure-vacuum purging, 289–290
sweep-through purging, 292–293
P&IDs. See Piping and Instrument Diagrams (P&IDs)
Packed columns, process diagram symbol, 600
Paracelsus, 55
Parallel structures in process failures, 489–491
Parameters in HAZOP studies, 472–475
Pasquill–Gifford model
dispersion coefficients, 184–188
isopleths, 192
puff dispersion cases, 189–192
release momentum and buoyancy, 193–194
worst-case dispersion conditions, 194–195
Passive flame arrestors, 545
Passive IPLs in LOPA method, 519–520
Passive methods and systems
fire and explosion prevention, 333
inherently safer design, 45
reactive hazard controls, 372–373
Peak overpressure in explosions, 259
PELs (permissible exposure limits)
dispersion toxic effect criteria, 199, 207
toxicology threshold limit values, 76
People, blast damage to, 274–276
Perchloroethylene (PERC), 46
Periods in toxicology studies, 61–62
Permissible exposure limits (PELs)
dispersion toxic effect criteria, 199, 207
toxicology threshold limit values, 76
Permissible noise exposure levels, 95
Peroxide formation
chemical hazards, 342
susceptibility to, 586
Personal protection for exposure prevention, 107–108
Personal safety vs. process safety, 8
Pesticide plant explosion, 567
Petroleum and coal products manufacturing injury statistics, 24
PFDs (process flow diagrams)
PHA (process hazards analysis), 454, 458, 462
Pharmaceutical plant explosion, 553–554
Phenol, Safety Data Sheets for, 87
Phenol–formaldehyde polymerization reactor runaway reactions, 558–559
Phi factor in ARCs, 350
Physical conditions in industrial hygiene data, 81
Pictograms in GHS labels, 88
Pilot-operated reliefs
sizing, 425
Pilot plants hazard identification/evaluation and risk analysis, 459
Pipes
deflagrations, 546
flow of gases and vapors through, 145–162
flow of liquids through, 130–139
reaction incidents in, 339
relief design, 388
runaway reactions, 547
rupture due to asset integrity program, 561
Piping and Instrument Diagrams (P&IDs)
FMEA, 479
relief design, 386
Plants inside buildings, fire and explosion prevention in, 326–329
Plastics manufacturing injury statistics, 24
Plenums for local ventilation, 114
Plume dispersion
characteristic, 179
neutrally buoyant model, 183
Pasquill–Gifford model, 186–187
Pasquill–Gifford model limitations, 195–197
worst-case conditions, 194–195
Poisons. See Toxicology
Poisson distribution for component failure, 488
Polymerizing compounds, 590
Pool evaporation, 168–169, 172
Populations, risk, 13
Positive displacement pumps in relief design, 388
Positive-phase duration in TNO multi-energy method, 269
Positive-pressure ventilation systems, 110
Power unit conversion constants, 574
PRDs (Pressure Relief Devices)
description, 380
IPLs, 523
release guidelines, 170
Pre-start safety review failure fatality case history and lessons learned, 564–565
Precautionary statements in GHS labels, 88
Preignition knock, 246
Preliminary hazard analysis, 455–456, 468
Pressure
energy of chemical explosions, 270–271
energy of mechanical explosions, 272
experimental characterization of dusts, 255
experimental characterization of gases and vapors, 251–254
flammability limit dependence on, 229–230
flashing liquids, 164
flow of gases and vapors through holes, 140–142
flow of gases and vapors through pipes, 148–156, 161
process vessels, 546
relief sizing for liquid service, 415
reliefs. See Reliefs
saturation vapor pressure data, 583
unit conversion constants, 574
vaporization rate of liquids, 100
Pressure cycling for rupture discs, 395
Pressure data for calorimeters, 370–371
Pressure gauges for rupture discs, 395
Pressure gradient in flow of gases and vapors through pipes, 146
Pressure purging
Pressure ratio in flow of gases and vapors through holes, 142
Pressure Relief Devices (PRDs)
description, 380
IPLs, 523
release guidelines, 170
Pressure-time plots for reliefs, 380–381
Pressure-vacuum purging, 289–290
Pressure waves in explosions, 259
Prevention to exposure. See Control techniques to prevent exposures
Preventive maintenance, 35
Preventive safeguards, 34
Primary containers, GHS labels for, 89
Probability theory
common-cause failures, 501
interactions between process units, 489–496
revealed and unrevealed failures, 496–499
Probit equation
blast damage to people, 274–276
toxic effects, 198
Procedural methods
inherently safer design, 45
reactive hazard controls, 373
Procedures
hazard identification/evaluation and risk analysis, 458
process safety, 534
Process diagrams overview, 599–602
Process flow diagrams (PFDs)
Process fluids in thermal expansion, 444–447
Process hazards analysis (PHA), 454, 458, 462
Process knowledge management
case history and lessons learned, 556–557
Process modification and plant expansion, hazard identification/evaluation and risk analysis, 460
Process pipes release guidelines, 170
Process safety
definition, 4
designs for. See Designs for process safety
Process safety competency
case history and lessons learned, 554–555
Process safety culture
case history and lessons learned, 552–553
Process units, interactions between, 489–496
Process vessels
deflagrations, 546
designs for process safety, 546–547
process diagram symbol, 600
release guidelines, 170
runaway reactions, 548
Product names in GHS labels, 88
Profit myths, 7
Propagating brush discharges
electrostatic discharges, 301–302
preventing, 316
Propane tank leak failure, 562–563
Property damage by industry, 25
Property losses from VCE explosions, 276–277
Protection infrastructure for fire and explosion prevention, 333–334
Protection layers
description, 34
LOPA method, 516
Puff dispersion
dense, 198
neutrally buoyant dispersion, 183
Pasquill–Gifford model, 186–188
Pasquill–Gifford model limitations, 197
worst-case conditions, 194–195
Pumps
process diagram symbol, 600
relief design, 388
Purging methods
inerting, 284
siphon purging, 293
sweep-through purging, 292–293
Purple Book, 84
Push–pull hoods for local ventilation, 111
Pyrophoric and spontaneously combustible categories, 585
Pyrophoric chemical hazards, 342
Quantitative calculations for fault trees, 512
Quantitative risk analysis (QRA)
bow-tie diagrams, 513
hazard identification/evaluation and risk analysis, 456–457
Quantity issue in worst-case releases, 170
Questioning/learning environment as safety culture feature, 12
RAGAGEP (Recognized and Generally Acceptable Good Engineering Practices)
codes, 33
fire and explosion prevention, 283, 332
pharmaceutical plant explosion, 554
Ranking in hazard identification/evaluation and risk analysis, 469–471
Rate of change of mass in flow of liquid through holes in tanks, 127
RBPS approach. See Risk-based process safety (RBPS) approach
RCA (root cause analysis), 536–537
Reaction fronts in explosions, 259–261
Reactions
industrial hygiene data, 81
runaway. See Runaway reactions
Reactive chemicals, special types, 585–590
Reactivity
background understanding, 338–340
calorimeters for. See Calorimeters
suggested reading, 374
Realistic and worst-case releases, 169–170
Receiving hoods for local ventilation, 111
Reclosing relief devices, 392
Recognized and Generally Acceptable Good Engineering Practices (RAGAGEP)
codes, 33
fire and explosion prevention, 283, 332
pharmaceutical plant explosion, 554
Recommendations in HAZOP studies, 472
Recommended Practice for the Sizing, Selection, and Installation of Pressure-Relieving Systems in Refineries, 418, 420
Recommended Practice (RP) 521 for relief pressure requirements, 383, 385
Recordable injuries, definition, 20
Redundancy
controls for runaway reactions, 547
Refinery explosions
conduct of operations, 565–566
dusts, 247
incident investigation failures, 568
measurement and metrics, 569–570
pipe rupture, 561
process safety culture, 552–553
Reflected pressure in explosions, 262
Refrigeration systems in inherently safer design, 46
Regulations
definition, 31
international, 33
selected, 32
Relative ranking in hazard identification/evaluation and risk analysis, 455–456, 469–471
Relaxation in static electricity, 317
Release height factor in dispersion, 181–182
Releases
auditing failures, 570
brittle metal fatigue, 557–558
conduct of operations failure, 565–566
discharge rates, 171
energy in explosions, 259
energy in fires vs. explosions, 221
flow of gases and vapors through holes, 140
flow of liquid through holes, 124
momentum and buoyancy, 193–194
prevention and mitigation in dispersion, 210–211
probit correlations, 71
realistic and worst-case, 169–170
smokestack, 193
suggested reading, 212
Reliability
case history and lessons learned, 560–561
independent protection layers, 516
Relief sizing
set pressure and accumulation limits, 413–415
thermal expansion of process fluids, 444–447
vapor and gas service, 422–427
vent area, 411–412, 415–417, 422–423
vents for fires external to processes, 440–444
Relief valves, process diagram symbol, 599
Reliefs
codes and standards, 448
condensers, 406
fire protection, 391
flares, 405
horizontal knockout drums, 405
installation practices, 400–403
scrubbers, 406
Reliefs (continued )
source models, 121
suggested reading, 406
types and characteristics, 391–400
Relieving pressure in reliefs, 383
Research and development in hazard identification/evaluation and risk analysis, 459
Residual volume (RV) in respiratory problems diagnosis, 60–61
Resistance in electrostatic voltage drops, 307
Resource availability factor in hazard identification/evaluation and risk analysis, 461
Respiratory system
problem diagnosis, 60
toxicant route into bodies, 58–59
Responses
magnitude of. See Magnitude of exposures and responses
safety culture features, 12
toxicology studies, 61
Results needed factor in hazard identification/evaluation and risk analysis, 461
Reviews
FMEA, 479
what-if analysis, 482
Reynolds numbers
flow of gases and vapors through holes, 143
flow of gases and vapors through pipes, 147–148, 154–155
flow of liquid through holes, 125
flow of liquid through pipes, 132–134, 136
relief sizing for liquid service, 417, 419
Ribbon blender
LOTO permit problem, 555
safety review failure fatality, 564–565
Richmond, California, refinery explosion, 561
Risk
dispersion release prevention and mitigation, 211
individual, societal, and populations, 13
perception, 27
voluntary and involuntary, 14
Risk analysis and assessment
consequence vs. frequency plots, 526
example, 31
HIRA. See Hazard Identification and Risk Analysis (HIRA)
probability theory. See Probability theory
quantitative risk analysis, 514–515
risk assessment overview, 526–529
suggested reading, 530
Risk-based process safety (RBPS) approach
case histories and lessons learned. See Case histories and lessons learned
incident investigations, 535
overview, 551
Risk Management Plans (RMPs), 199, 207–210
Risk tolerance, definition, 4
RMPs (Risk Management Plans), 199, 207–210
Root cause analysis (RCA), 536–537
Roughness factor in flow of liquid through pipes, 132
Routine operation in hazard identification/evaluation and risk analysis, 460
Rubber product manufacturing injury statistics, 24
Runaway reactions
description, 338
operating procedure training, 558–559
process knowledge management, 556–557
Runes equation in vent design, 436
Rupture discs
process diagram symbol, 600
Sachs-scaled distance in TNO multi-energy method, 267–269
SADT (self-accelerating decomposition temperature) in runaway reactions, 547
Safe operating procedures
problems, 550
suggested reading, 549
Safe work practices
case history and lessons learned, 559–560
hot work, 539
Safeguards
definition, 4
HAZOP studies, 472
inherently safer design, 44
Safety data sheets (SDSs)
Globally Harmonized System, 83–87
HAZOP studies, 472
Safety functions in event trees, 502–504
Safety Instrumented System (SIS), 523
Safety overview
accident and loss statistics, 17–27
Bhopal, India, chemical plant tragedy, 46–49
codes, standards, and regulations, 31–33
failure fatality, case history and lessons learned, 564–565
inherently safer design, 42–46
risk perception, 27
risk tolerance and acceptance, 27–31
summary, 49
Safety reviews
hazard identification/evaluation and risk analysis, 455–456, 466–467
objectives, 484
Safety Severity Level in risk matrix, 28–29
Safety strategies
hierarchy, 533
incident investigations, 535
problems, 550
suggested reading, 549
Saturation vapor pressure data, 583
SCBA (self-contained breathing apparatus), 109
Scenario-based methods in hazard identification/evaluation and risk analysis, 455–456, 471–482
Scenarios, definition, 5
Scrubbers in reliefs, 406
SDSs (safety data sheets)
Globally Harmonized System, 83–87
HAZOP studies, 472
Second-degree burns, 97
Secondary containers, GHS labels for, 89
Secondary explosions from dusts, 247, 548
Security in independent protection layers, 516
Self-accelerating decomposition temperature (SADT) in runaway reactions, 547
Self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA), 109
Self-heat in calorimeters, 348, 359–361, 367
Self-reacting chemicals, 339, 343
Sense of vulnerability as safety culture feature, 11
Series structures in process failures, 490–491
Set pressure
Severity levels in accident pyramid, 15
Shock waves
definition, 223
Short-term exposure limits (TLV-STELs) in dispersion toxic effect criteria, 199, 209
Short-term public emergency guidance levels (SPEGLs) in dispersion toxic effect criteria, 198, 202, 207
Side-on overpressure in explosions, 262
Signal words in GHS labels, 88
Simplification in process safety, 534
Simplify strategy in inherently safer design, 43–44
Siphon purging, 293
Siphoning dig pipes, 320
SIS (Safety Instrumented System), 523
SIT (spontaneous ignition temperature) for vapors, 244
Skin as toxicant route into bodies, 58
Smokestack release in momentum and buoyancy, 193
Societal risk
definition, 5
description, 13
Sodium chloride, Safety Data Sheets for, 87
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
Safety Data Sheets for, 87
scrubber system in Bhopal, India chemical plant tragedy, 47
Solar heat fluxes, boiling, 169
Solenoid valves, process diagram symbol, 599
Solids handling in static electricity, 321–322
Sonic flow of gases and vapors through holes, 142
Sonic pressure ratio in flow of gases and vapors through pipes, 150, 155–156
Sonic velocity
explosions, 259
flow of gases and vapors through pipes, 145–146, 148
Source models
conservative analysis, 169, 171
flow of gases and vapors through holes, 140–145
flow of gases and vapors through pipes, 145–162
flow of liquid through holes, 123–126
flow of liquid through holes in tanks, 126–130
flow of liquid through pipes, 130–139
liquid pool evaporation and boiling, 168–169
quantitative risk analysis, 515
realistic and worst-case releases, 169–170
suggested reading, 172
Space shuttle fatalities incident investigation failures, 568
Spark discharge in electrostatic discharges, 301
Sparks
preventing, 316
static electricity, 315
Special cases in flashing liquids, 164
Special hazards in NFPA diamond, 116
Specific volume in flashing liquids, 166
SPEGLs (short-term public emergency guidance levels) in dispersion toxic effect criteria, 198, 202, 207
Spirometers for respiratory problems diagnosis, 60
Splash filling operations exposure estimates, 104–105
Spontaneous ignition temperature (SIT) for vapors, 244
Sprays in fires and explosions, 248
Spring-operated reliefs, 392–394, 401
St-classes in experimental characterization of dusts, 255–257
Stability classes in Pasquill–Gifford model, 185
Stable atmospheric conditions for dispersion, 181
Stagnation pressure in explosions, 262
Stakeholder outreach
case history and lessons learned, 556
Standard deviation in response to toxicant exposure, 62–67
Standards
definition, 31
international, 33
pharmaceutical plant explosion, 553–554
selected, 32
Static electricity
anti-static additives, 321
bonding and grounding, 317–320
capacitance of bodies, 312–315
charge accumulation, 300
charged capacitor energy, 308–312
dig pipes, 320
electrostatic discharge energy, 303
electrostatic discharge overview, 300–303
electrostatic ignition sources, 304
electrostatic voltage drops, 307–308
overview, 299
relaxation, 317
Statistics for accident and loss, 17–27
Steam flow relief sizing, 424
Stoichiometric concentration in flammability limit estimating, 230–231
Stoichiometric equation for chemical explosions, 270
Stoichiometric line in flammability diagrams, 236, 239, 241–245
Storage
reaction hazards, 339
Streaming current in static electricity, 304–306
Subcritical vapor/gas flow in relief sizing for vapor and gas service, 424
Substitute strategy in inherently safer design, 43–44
Sugar refinery explosion incident investigation failures, 568
Surface area for vents for fires external to processes, 442
Sweep-through purging, 292–293
Swiss cheese safeguards, 34–35
T2 Laboratories explosion, 338
Tags in piping and instrumentation diagrams, 601–602
Tanks, flow of liquid through holes in, 126–130
Target mitigated event frequency (TMEF), 28–29, 526
Targets in toxicology studies, 61
TD (toxic dose) curves
dose vs. response, 68
relative toxicity, 74
Temperature
adiabatic compression, 246
autoignition, 222, 244–245, 578–582
calorimeters. See Calorimeters
experimental characterization of gases and vapors, 251
flammability limit dependence on, 229
flash point, 222, 224–226, 578–582
flashing liquids, 162
flow of gases and vapors through holes, 140–141
flow of gases and vapors through pipes, 146, 148–149, 152, 157
Pasquill–Gifford model, 185
sprinkler systems, 329
thermal expansion of process fluids, 444–447
worst-case releases, 170
Tempered reactors in two-phase relief sizing, 428
Test organisms for toxicology studies, 61
Texas City Refinery explosion
emergency management failure, 566–567
measurement and metrics, 569–570
process safety culture, 552–553
Thermal expansion
Thermal inertia in ARCs, 350
Thermal radiation, exposures to, 96–97, 180
Thermal scan mode in calorimeters, 348
Thermocouples in calorimeters, 356
Thermodynamic availability in energy of mechanical explosions, 273–274
Third-degree burns, 97
Threshold limit values (TLVs)
dispersion toxic effect criteria, 199, 207
exposures to volatile toxicants, 90–91
Threshold quantities (TQ) in risk matrix, 28–30
Throttling releases in flow of gases and vapors through holes, 140
Time dependence in puff dispersion, 189
Time-weighted average (TWA) concentration in exposures to volatile toxicants, 90–92
TLVs. See Threshold limit values (TLVs)
TMEF (target mitigated event frequency), 28–29, 526
TNO multi-energy method, 266–270
TNT
equivalent energy of, 262, 264–265
Top events
bow-tie diagrams, 513
Topography issue in worst-case releases, 170
Total energy balance in flow of gases and vapors through pipes, 147, 153
Total heat input in vents for fires external to processes, 441–442
Total integrated dose in puff dispersion, 189–191
Total mass flow rate in evaporating pools, 168
Toxic dose (TD) curves
dose vs. response, 68
relative toxicity, 74
Toxic effect criteria in dispersion, 198–210
Toxic hazard, definition, 55
Toxic release
conduct of operations, 565–566
probit correlations, 71
Toxic vapors, exposures to, 97–100
Toxicity, definition, 55
Toxicology
dose and response using probit equation, 68–74
online resources, 77
suggested reading, 77
toxicant effect on bodies, 60–61
toxicant elimination from bodies, 59–60
toxicant routes into bodies, 56–59
TQ (threshold quantities) in risk matrix, 28–30
Training
metrics, 16
pharmaceutical plant explosion, 553–554
runaway reactions, 547, 558–559
Training and performance assurance
case history and lessons learned, 562–563
Transport charging in static electricity, 300
Trees
Trust as safety culture feature, 12
Tunnel fire from contractor management failure, 561–562
Turbulence in neutrally buoyant dispersion models, 183–184
Turbulent augmentation factor in deflagration venting, 436
Turbulent flow of liquid through pipes, 132
TWA (time-weighted average) concentration in exposures to volatile toxicants, 90–92
2-K method for flow of liquid through pipes, 134–139
Two-phase flow
fire relief, 441
flashing liquids, 164
pressure–time plots, 381
UELs (upper explosion limits), description, 222
UFLs. See Upper flammable limits (UFLs)
Unallowed events in fault trees, 507
Uncertainties in source models, 169, 171
Unconfined explosions, definition, 222
Underlying causes in root cause analysis, 536–537
Underpressure in explosions, 262
Union Carbide, Bhopal India chemical plant tragedy, 46–49
Unit conversion constants, 573–575
Unstable atmospheric conditions in dispersion, 181
UOLs (upper oxygen limits) in flammability limit estimating, 232–233
Upper explosion limits (UELs), description, 222
Upper flammable limits (UFLs)
description, 222
flammability diagrams, 241, 294
flammability limit dependence on pressure, 229–230
flammability limit dependence on temperature, 229
flammability limit estimating, 230–233
gases and vapors mixtures, 227–228
Upper oxygen limits (UOLs) in flammability limit estimating, 232–233
Upper respiratory system as toxicant route into bodies, 58–59
Vacuum purging
Vacuums
process vessel requirements, 546
Valves
emergency isolation, 541
loss coefficients, 135
pilot-operated reliefs, 397
process diagram symbol, 599
spring-operated reliefs, 392–394
Vapor cloud explosions (VCEs)
TNT equivalency, 266
Vaporization rate of liquids, 100–103
Vapors
autoignition temperature, 244–245
deflagration venting for, 434–440
experimental characterization of explosions, 251–254, 258
mass flow two-phase relief sizing, 433
VCEs (vapor cloud explosions)
TNT equivalency, 266
Velocity
explosions, 259
flow of gases and vapors through holes, 141–142
flow of gases and vapors through pipes, 145, 152, 154, 157
flow of liquid through holes, 125
flow of liquid through holes in tanks, 127
flow of liquid through pipes, 131
neutrally buoyant dispersion models, 183–184
smokestack releases, 193
Vent area
relief sizing for vapor and gas service, 422–423
two-phase relief sizing, 433
vents for dusts and hybrid mixtures, 439
Vent Sizing Package (VSP), 431
Vent Sizing Package (VSP2), 348–351
Ventilation and venting
dust and vapor explosions, 434–440
exposure prevention, 106
fire and explosion prevention, 325–329
fires external to processes, 440–444
Vessel entry in safe work practices, 540–541
Vessels
deflagrations, 546
designs for process safety, 546–547
filling operations, exposures during, 103–105
process diagram symbol, 600
release guidelines, 170
runaway reactions, 548
Victoria, Australia, gas plant chemical release and fire, 557–558
Viscosities in relief sizing for liquid service, 416–417, 419–420
Volatile/tempered reactions in calorimeters pressure data, 371
Volatile toxicants, exposures to, 90–93
Volatile vapors, exposures to, 97–100
Voltage drops, electrostatic, 307–308
Volume unit conversion constants, 573
Volumetric expansion rate in thermal expansion of process fluids, 445–447
Volumetric flow
relief sizing for liquid service, 415
sweep-through purging, 292
Voluntary risk, 14
VSP (Vent Sizing Package), 431
VSP2 (Vent Sizing Package), 348–351
Water contamination in Bhopal, India chemical plant tragedy, 47
Water for sprinkler systems, 329
Water-reactive chemicals, 342, 588–589
Water reactivity, susceptibility to, 587
Weld corrosion losses, 546
Wet methods in exposure prevention, 106
Wet pipe sprinkler systems, 330
What-if/checklist analysis, 483–484
Wide-aperture releases in source models, 121
Wind
neutrally buoyant dispersion models, 183
Pasquill–Gifford model, 185
worst-case releases, 170
Work unit conversion constants, 574
Worker-based fatal injury rate calculations, 18–19
Workforce involvement
case history and lessons learned, 555
Worst-case dispersion conditions in Pasquill–Gifford model, 194–195