Contents
1-2 Myths about Process Safety
Myth 1: Process safety costs a lot of money and has a negative impact on the company’s bottom line.
Myth 2: Process safety is the same as personal or even laboratory safety.
Myth 3: Process safety is no more than following rules and regulations.
Myth 5: Process safety applies only to the petrochemical industry.
Myth 7: Process safety does not include product safety.
1-4 Individual Risk, Societal Risk, and Risk Populations
1-5 Voluntary and Involuntary Risk
1-7 Accident and Loss Statistics
1-9 Risk Tolerance/Acceptance and Risk Matrix
1-10 Codes, Standards, and Regulations
1-12 The CCPS 20 Elements of Risk-Based Process Safety
1-14 The Worst Chemical Plant Tragedy: Bhopal, India, 1984
1-15 Overview of Chemical Process Safety
2-1 How Toxicants Enter the Body
2-2 How Toxicants Are Eliminated from the Body
2-3 Effects of Toxicants on the Body
2-6 Dose and Response Using Probit Equation
3-1 Anticipating and Identifying Hazardous Workplace Exposures
3-2 Globally Harmonized System
Globally Harmonized System for Safety Data Sheets
Globally Harmonized System for Labeling
3-3 Evaluate the Magnitude of Exposures and Responses
Evaluating Exposures to Volatile Toxicants by Monitoring
Evaluating Worker Exposures to Dusts
Evaluating Worker Exposures to Noise
Evaluating Worker Exposures to Thermal Radiation
Estimating Worker Exposures to Toxic Vapors
Estimating the Vaporization Rate of a Liquid
Estimating Worker Exposures during Vessel Filling Operations
3-4 Develop and Evaluate Control Techniques to Prevent Exposures
3-5 National Fire Protection Association Diamond
4-1 Introduction to Source Models
4-2 Flow of Liquid through a Hole
4-3 Flow of Liquid through a Hole in a Tank
4-4 Flow of Liquids through Pipes
4-5 Flow of Gases or Vapors through Holes
4-6 Flow of Gases or Vapors through Pipes
4-8 Liquid Pool Evaporation or Boiling
4-9 Realistic and Worst-Case Releases
5 Hazardous Material Dispersion
5-1 Parameters Affecting Dispersion
5-2 Neutrally Buoyant Dispersion Models
Effect of Release Momentum and Buoyancy
Worst-Case Dispersion Conditions
Limitations to Pasquill–Gifford Dispersion Modeling
Emergency Response Planning Guidelines
Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health
Emergency Exposure Guidance Levels and Short-Term Public Emergency Guidance Levels
Acute Exposure Guideline Levels
5-6 Release Prevention and Mitigation
6-2 Distinction between Fires and Explosions
6-4 Flammability Characteristics of Liquids and Vapors
Flammability Limit Dependence on Temperature
Flammability Limit Dependence on Pressure
Estimating Flammability Limits
Limiting Oxygen Concentration (LOC) and Inerting
6-5 Flammability Characteristics of Dusts
6-9 Experimental Characterization of Gas/Vapor and Dust Explosions
Application of Flammability Data of Gases/Vapors and Dusts
Blast Damage Resulting from Overpressure
Energy of Mechanical Explosions
Boiling-Liquid Expanding-Vapor Explosions
7 Concepts to Prevent Fires and Explosions
Combined Pressure–Vacuum Purging
Vacuum and Pressure Purging with Impure Nitrogen
Using the Flammability Diagram to Avoid Flammable Atmospheres
Energy from Electrostatic Discharges
Energy of Electrostatic Ignition Sources
7-3 Controlling Static Electricity
General Design Methods to Prevent Electrostatic Ignitions
Increasing Conductivity with Additives
Handling Solids without Flammable Vapors
Handling Solids with Flammable Vapors
7-4 Explosion-Proof Equipment and Instruments
Area and Material Classification
7-7 Industry’s Fire and Explosion Protection Strategy
Plant Fire Protection Infrastructure
Documentation of Fire and Explosion Protection Strategy
8-2 Commitment, Awareness, and Identification of Reactive Chemical Hazards
8-3 Characterization of Reactive Chemical Hazards Using Calorimeters
Introduction to Reactive Hazards Calorimetry
Theoretical Analysis of Calorimeter Data
Estimation of Parameters from Calorimeter Data
Adjusting the Data for the Heat Capacity of the Sample Vessel
Heat of Reaction Data from Calorimeter Data
Using Pressure Data from the Calorimeter
Application of Calorimeter Data
8-4 Controlling Reactive Hazards
9-5 Relief Types and Characteristics
Buckling or Rupture Pin Reliefs
Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Reliefs
9-6 Relief Installation Practices
10-1 Set Pressure and Accumulation Limits for Reliefs
10-2 Relief Sizing for Liquid Service
10-3 Relief Sizing for Vapor and Gas Service
10-4 Two-Phase Flow during Runaway Reaction Relief
10-5 Deflagration Venting for Dust and Vapor Explosions
Vents for Gases/Vapors and Mists
Vents for Dusts and Hybrid Mixtures
10-6 Venting for Fires External to the Process
10-7 Reliefs for Thermal Expansion of Process Fluids
11 Hazards Identification and Evaluation
11-1 Introduction to Hazard Identification/Evaluation and Risk Analysis
11-2 Non-Scenario-Based Hazard Identification/Evaluation Methods
11-3 Scenario-Based Hazard Identification/Evaluation Methods
Hazard and Operability Studies
Failure Modes and Effects Analysis
11-4 Documentation and Actions Required for Hazard Identification and Evaluation
12 Risk Analysis and Assessment
12-1 Review of Probability Theory
Interactions between Process Units
Revealed and Unrevealed Failures
Determining the Minimal Cut Sets
Quantitative Calculations Using the Fault Tree
Advantages and Disadvantages of Fault Trees
12-5 Quantitative Risk Analysis
12-6 Layer of Protection Analysis
Estimating the LOPA Consequence
Consequence versus Frequency Plot
Individual Risk: Risk Contours
13 Safety Strategies, Procedures, and Designs
13-1 Process Safety Strategies
13-2 Safe Operating Procedures
Energy Isolation (Lock-Out/Tag-Out—LOTO; Lock, Tag, Try)
Confined-Space Entry (Vessel Entry)
13-4 Designs for Process Safety
Controls: Emergency Isolation Valves
Controls: Double Block and Bleed
Controls: Safeguards and Redundancy
Controls: Explosion Suppression
Miscellaneous Designs for Preventing Fires and Explosions
13-5 Designs for Runaway Reactions
13-6 Designs and Practices for the Safe Handling of Dusts
14 Case Histories and Lessons Learned
Case History: Explosions at a Refinery Due to Inadequate Process Safety Culture
14-2 Compliance with Standards
14-3 Process Safety Competency
Case History: An Explosion of a Blender Due to Inadequate Knowledge of Chemical Process Safety
Case History: A Fatality in a Ribbon Blender Due to an Inadequate Lock-Out/Tag-Out Permit System
Case History: Increased Consequences in an Adjacent Community Due to Inadequate Outreach
14-6 Process Knowledge Management
Case History: A Runaway Reaction and Explosion Due to Inadequate Process Knowledge Management
14-7 Hazard Identification and Risk Analysis
Case History: A Chemical Release and Fire Due to Inadequate Identification of Brittle Metal Failure
Case History: A Fatality from a Runaway Reaction Due to Inadequate Training on the Use of Procedures
Case History: Runaway Reaction and Explosion Due to Inadequate Procedures
Case History: An Explosion Due to a Missing Hot-Work-Permit System
14-10 Asset Integrity and Reliability
Case History: A Catastrophic Pipe Rupture Due to an Inadequate Asset Integrity Program
Case History: Fire and Fatalities in a Tunnel Due to Poor Management of Contractors
14-12 Training and Performance Assurance
Case History: An LPG Leak and BLEVE Due to Inadequate Training
Case History: An Explosion Due to Missing Management of Change Procedure
Case History: A Fatality in a Ribbon Blender Due to an Inadequate Pre-Startup Safety Review
Case History: Explosions in a Refinery Due to Inadequate Conduct of Operations
Case History: A Toxic Release Due to Inadequate Conduct of Operations
Case History: An Ammonium Nitrate Explosion Due to Inadequate Emergency Management
Case History: An Explosion in a Pesticide Plant Due to Inadequate Emergency Management
Case History: Space Shuttle Fatalities Caused by Inadequate Incident Investigations
Case History: Explosions in a Sugar Refinery Due to Inadequate Incident Investigations
Case History: Flight Failure of Mars Orbiter Due to Inadequate Analysis of Flight Path Deviations
Case History: Explosions in an Oil Refinery Due to Inadequate Focus on Process Safety Metrics
Case History: Explosion in a Gas Plant Due to an Inadequate Audit of Asset Integrity and Reliability
14-20 Management Review and Continuous Improvement
Case History: An Explosion Due to the Failure of Many RBPS Elements
B Flammability Data for Selected Hydrocarbons
C Saturation Vapor Pressure Data
D Special Types of Reactive Chemicals
E Hazardous Chemicals Data for a Variety of Chemical Substances