Contents
Preface
Foreword
Light and Photometry
The Nature of Light
Light Waves
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
The Visible Spectrum
Spectral Power Distributions
Solid-Object Sources and the Heat-Light Relationship
Vapor Sources and the Effect of Electrical Discharge
Luminescence/Fluorescence/ Phosphorescence
The Use of Color Temperature
The Mired Scale
Color-Rendering Index
The Polarization of Light
Practical Sources of Light and their Properties
Lasers
The Language of Light
The Measurement of Intensity
The Measurement of Flux
The Measurement of Illuminance
The Measurement of Luminance
Camera and Printing Exposure
Camera Exposure Versus Photographic Exposure
F-Numbers
Whole Stops
Maximum Diaphragm Openings
Intermediate F-Numbers
Limitations of the F-Number System
Lens Transmittance
Exposure Time
Lens Shutters
Effective Exposure Time
Focal-Plane Shutters
Electronic Shutters
Shutter Testing
Camera Exposure Latitude
Alternatives to Exposure Meters
Exposure Meters
Reflected-Light/ Incident-Light Exposure Meters
Meter Scales
Light Ratios
Meter Accuracy and Testing
Methods of Using Refl ected-Light Exposure Meters
Incident-Light Readings
Effective Film Speed and Degree of Development
Flash Guide Numbers
Flash Meters
Color-Temperature Meters
3 Strictly Digital
Digital Camera
Digital Image Processing
Digital Printing
4 Photographic Optics
Image Formation with a Pinhole
Image Formation with a Lens
Graphical D rawings
Depth of Field
Permissible Circle of Confusion
Depth-of-Field Controls
Depth of Field and F-Number
Depth of Field and Object Distance
Depth of Field and Focal Length
Depth of Focus
View-Camera Movements
Perpendicular Movements
Back Movements and Image Shape
Back Movements and Image Sharpness
Lens Movements and Image Sharpness
Lens Types
Reversed Telephoto Wide-Angle Lenses
Supplementary Lenses
Soft-Focus Lenses
Lens Shortcomings
Diffraction
Lens Testing
Testing Flare
5 Sensitometry
Introduction
Exposure
Digital Camera Sensitometry
Film Sensitometry
Transmittance, Density, Opacity
Density Measurement
Characteristic Curves
Exposure—Characteristic Curve Relationships
Log Exposure Range
Exposure Latitude
Effects of Development Time
Gamma
Average Gradient
Contrast Index
ISO Film Speed
Analysis of Negative Curves
Paper Sensitometry
Analysis of Photographic Paper Curves
Paper Contrast
Condenser and Diffusion Enlargers
The Effects of Enlarger Flare and Scattered Light
Testing Enlargers for Flare Light
Paper Speeds
Analysis of Positive Film Curves
Analysis of Reversal Film Curves
Introduction to Photographic Effects
6 Tone Reproduction
Purposes of Tone Reproduction
Objective and Subjective Tone Reproduction
Objective Tone Reproduction/ Preferred Photographs
Objective Tone Reproduction Analysis
Optical Flare
The Making of the Negative
The Making of the Positive
Generation of the Tone-Reproduction Curve
Tone Reproduction and the Zone System
7 Micro-Image Evaluation
Image Characteristics
Graininess/Granularity
Measuring Graininess
Grain Size and Image Color
Granularity
Minimizing Graininess
Graininess of Color Films
Sharpness/Acutance
Acutance
Resolving Power
Resolving-Power Variables
Resolving-Power Categories
Resolving Power And Graininess
Resolving Power And Acutance
Modulation Transfer Function (MTF)
Photographic Definition
Pixels
Digital Resolution
T-Grain Emulsions
8 Filters
How Do Filters Work?
Color Filters
Ultraviolet and Infrared Filters
Filters for Color Photography
Spectrophotometric Absorption Curves
Neutral-Density Filters
Graduated Neutral Density Filters
Interference Filters
Polarizing Filters
9 Color
Introduction
Spectrophotometers
Spectrophotometric Curves
Color Densitometers
Color Densities
Physical, Psychophysical, and Psychological Measurements
Color Chain
Color Mode
Primary Colors
Color Attributes
Neutrals
Color-Vision Theory
Color Specification Systems
Munsell System of Color Specification
Pantone® System of Color Specification
CIE System of Color Specification
CIE Chromaticity Map
10 Color Management
What Is CM?
What Is Color Management?
Using an ICC profi le
11 Color Reproduction
Objectives of Color Reproduction
Additive and Subtractive Color Formation
The Recording of Color (Analysis Stage)
The Production of Color (Synthesis Stage)
Spectral Sensi tivity
Dye Characteristics
Color Densities
Sensitometry of Color Photographic Materials
Reversal Color Films
Negative Color Films
Photographic Color Paper
12 Visual Perception
Post-Stimulus Perception
Perception of Stimulus Attributes
Perspective
Linear Perspective
Object Distance and Image Size
Focal Length and Image Size
Changing Object Distance and Focal Length
Viewing Distance
The Wide-Angle Effect
13 Chemistry for Photographers
Edited by Paul A. Schwartz
Introduction
Image Capture
Image Display
Basic Chemistry
Chemical Reactions
Oxidation/Reduction
Acid/Base
Ionization
pH
Complexes
Solutions
Specific Gravity
14 Photographic Emulsions, Films, and Papers
Photographic Emulsions
Safety Base Films
Polyester Film Bases
Film Structure
Paper Bases
Brighteners
Paper Weight and Thickness
The Gelatin Colloid
Properties of Gelatin
Chemical Nature of Gelatin
Physical Properties of Gelatin
Emulsion Making
Emulsion Characteristics
Grain Size, Sensitivity, and Contrast
Grain Composition
Spectral Sensitivity
Crystal Structure
Emulsion Precipitation
Effects of Development on Developers
Dye Sensitization
Formation of the Latent Image
Photographic Effects
Latent Image Stability
Some Alternative Systems
Calotype Process
Daguerreotype
Cyanotype
Wet Collodion
Gum Bichromate
Electrophotography
Thermography
Diazo
Electronic Image Display
Charge-Coupled Devices
Dye Transfer
Diffusion Transfer
15 Black-and-White Photographic Development
Negative Development
Direct-Positive Images
Reversal Processing
Mechanism of Development
Constitution of Typical Developers
Developing Agents
Hydroquinone
Metol
MQ Developers
Accelerators
Preservatives
Restrainers
Anti-Foggants
Other Development Accelerators
Concentration of Developer
Development Time
Developer Temperature
Developer Agitation
Replenishment
Paper Processing
Analysis of Developers
Specific Black-and-White Processes
Practical Applications
16 Archiving Photographic Images
Introduction
Digital Images
Silver Image Archiving
Preparation for Drying
Drying Films
Drying Prints
Preservation of Photographs
17 Variability and Quality Control in Photography
Introduction to the Concept of Variability
Sources of Variation
Patterns of Variation
The Normal Distribution
Populations vs. Samples
Description of the Normal Distribution
Measurement Methods and Subjective Evaluations
Ordinal Scale
Paired Comparisons
Test Conditions
Quality Control
Appendixes
A: Conversion Units and Scales
B: Exposures, Depth of Field, Zone System, and Film Speed Information
C: Calculations and Basic Logarithms
D: Tristimulus Value and Chromaticity Coordinate Calculations
Answers to Review Questions
Bibliography
Index
