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THE INTERIOR DESIGN REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
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Chapter 15: Invisible Systems
The intangible comforts of a room, including temperature, air quality, and humid-
ity, are taken for granted if successfully designed, but become the source of many
complaints if they prove inadequate or off-kilter. In addition, the paraphernalia of
comfort—diffusers, grilles, thermostats, lights, receptacles—can easily obtrude on
a space with their ubiquitous off-the-shelf character. Given these challenges, it is
important for designers to select the best mechanical and electrical engineers and
to begin coordination early in the design process.
Central to a successful interior design project is a full accounting of all the accou-
trements of control for mechanical, electrical, and plumbing systems. Designers
must incorporate light switches, receptacles, and vents in the earliest interior el-
evations. Once accounted for and drawn, it will be far easier to find smart solutions
for making these everyday elements less obtrusive. The mechanical diffuser, for
instance, can provoke an entire ceiling design concept, with linear diffusers hidden
away in the offset between two ceiling planes, and thus define the character of the
space.
THE BASICS OF BUILDING SYSTEMS
Basic building systems include heating, cooling, and ventilation (HVAC); electrical; and plumbing
systems. Other systems like re protection and security are not discussed here, but should
also be considered when designing a room. Engineers are responsible for designing the
building systems, while architects and designers coordinate the integration of the systems.
Consequently, designers need to have a conceptual understanding of the full range of building
systems. For example, the light xtures, supply and return diffusers, life-safety devices, and
such are located on a reected ceiling plan and coordinated with the engineering drawings by
the designer.
Ducted-Air Systems
Various types of
are described below.
Single Zone System
Multizone System
Single-Duct Reheat
System
Variable Air Volume
(VAV) System
Locating Diffusers
Air
design of the space, the ducts can be exposed or concealed above a dropped ceiling. None-
theless, diffusers should be positioned evenly and close to the perimeter wall where either
heat gain or loss is of most concern. Since warm air rises, the supply air is typically mounted
in the ceiling or high on a wall. Return air draws warm and stale air from a room and should be
located away from the supply air. Return-air diffusers, registers, and grilles can be positioned
on ceilings, walls, or oors.
MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
Thermal comfort can be provided by air, water, or electricity, each option having advantages
or disadvantages for a particular situation. Ducted-air systems can provide both heating and
cooling. Hydronic systems are economical for heating, but are not ideal for cooling. Electrical
systems are very expensive to operate, but do not entail a lot of equipment.
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22 5
ity, are taken for granted if successfully designed, but become the source of many
comfort—diffusers, grilles, thermostats, lights, receptacles—can easily obtrude on
important for designers to select the best mechanical and electrical engineers and
evations. Once accounted for and drawn, it will be far easier to find smart solutions
instance, can provoke an entire ceiling design concept, with linear diffusers hidden
away in the offset between two ceiling planes, and thus define the character of the
plumbing
Consequently, designers need to have a conceptual understanding of the full range of building
such are located on a reected ceiling plan and coordinated with the engineering drawings by
Ducted-Air Systems
Various types of
air systems are used to provide heat in buildings, the most common of which
are described below.
Single Zone System This system treats the entire building as a single zone, controlled by
one thermostat and one air-handling unit. It is common in residential
and small buildings. A slightly more complex system includes multiple
subzones that incorporate thermostatic controls inside the ducts that
feed different zones. While the temperature can be controlled within
the various areas, all of the zones have to be on the same mode of
either heating or cooling.
Multizone System This system produces both hot and cold air from a central controller.
The air is then distributed by ducts to different zones that are thermo-
statically controlled. Unlike the single zone systems, this system can
produce hot and cold temperature simultaneously. The disadvantage
of this amount of exibility is that it drives up energy consumption.
Single-Duct Reheat
System
This system forces very cold air into a single duct that feeds the
entire building. Reheat coils at the ends of the duct run adjust the air
to the desired temperature. This system is best used where constant
climate control is preferred. Because it cools the air and then reheats
it at each zone, the system is not energy efcient.
Variable Air Volume
(VAV) System
This system controls the temperature by varying the amount of air
ow in a zone through adjustable dampers in the ductwork. As the
temperature lowers, the dampers close to reduce the amount of air
ow; as the temperature rises, the dampers open to release more air.
This system is very common for medium to large buildings because of
its high energy efciency. The disadvantage is that the system either
heats or cools, and cannot do both at once.
Locating Diffusers
Air systems require diffusers, registers, or grilles at the ends of duct runs. Depending on the
design of the space, the ducts can be exposed or concealed above a dropped ceiling. None-
theless, diffusers should be positioned evenly and close to the perimeter wall where either
heat gain or loss is of most concern. Since warm air rises, the supply air is typically mounted
in the ceiling or high on a wall. Return air draws warm and stale air from a room and should be
located away from the supply air. Return-air diffusers, registers, and grilles can be positioned
on ceilings, walls, or oors.
cooling. Hydronic systems are economical for heating, but are not ideal for cooling. Electrical
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Fin-Tube
Radiators
Fin-tube radiators are made of copper pipes with many copper ns that
radiate heat from the hot water in the pipes. Cold air is drawn from the
bottom of the n tube and then heated. The warm air then rises and
heats the room. Fin-tube radiators typically are located along the base-
board of an exterior wall and are designed to provide heat alone.
Fan-Coil
Units
Fan-coil units provide heating and/or cooling to individual spaces. The
fan-coil is made up of a fan with one or two coils that contain hot or cool
water. The variable settings are controlled by changing the speed of the
fan, adjusting the ow of water, or turning the electric coils on or off. Fan-
coil units are typically located on an exterior wall and are rather bulky;
however, recessed units and low-prole units take up less space.
Radiant
Heating
Systems
Radiant heating systems are a mesh of exible tubes lled with hot water
that radiate heat through the surface. They are typically mounted in the
oor or ceiling and provide warmth and comfort to a space. They are most
commonly used in residential applications such as bathrooms. Various
types of systems are specically made for new construction or renovation
projects.
Steel Panel
Radiators
Steel panel radiators operate similarly to the old cast iron radiator, but
they are sleeker and more space efcient than their former counterparts.
Water circulates in the panel via a water-supply branch and a return
branch, heating the room by radiation and convection.
Hydronic Systems
Hydronic systems adjust the temperature of water to provide heating or cooling in a space.
Boilers heat the water for heating systems, while chillers cool the water for cooling systems.
The systems described below are the most widely used.
Electric Heating Systems
The main advantage of electric heating systems is that they do not require additional equip-
ment. They are also easy to install and relatively small in size. The disadvantage is that they
are very expensive to operate and consume a lot of energy. Perhaps the best use of an elec-
tric heating system is as a supplemental heat source in combination with a forced-air system.
Natural convection units heat cool air as it flows across them. The warm air then rises and
warms the space. Theses units are typically mounted along a baseboard or floor, usually along
an exterior wall.
Electric furnaces do not rely on natural convection to distribute air, but rather, deliver heat by
blowing warm air into a room with a fan. They come in various shapes and sizes, depending on
the required capacity.
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
Electricity is distributed from a local utility company via high-voltage currents to a transformer.
The transformer then steps down the currents to single-phase currents. There currents are
then tied into a meter that records the amount of electricity being used. The currents then
journey to electrical panels, which distribute the separate circuits that serve different rooms.
Insulated wires in rigid metal conduits carry the electricity to its final destination.
With guidance from an electrical engineer, an
switches, receptacles, dimmers, electric panels
a wiring diagram to ensure that the controls for lighting and equipment work with the design
intent. Some of the standard electrical devices are described below.
120
Receptacles
220
Volt Receptacles
277
Circuits
Ground-Fault
Interrupter
Data
Receptacles
Emergency
Lights
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Invisible Systems
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tric heating system is as a supplemental heat source in combination with a forced-air system.
warms the space. Theses units are typically mounted along a baseboard or floor, usually along
Electric furnaces do not rely on natural convection to distribute air, but rather, deliver heat by
blowing warm air into a room with a fan. They come in various shapes and sizes, depending on
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
Electricity is distributed from a local utility company via high-voltage currents to a transformer.
The transformer then steps down the currents to single-phase currents. There currents are
then tied into a meter that records the amount of electricity being used. The currents then
journey to electrical panels, which distribute the separate circuits that serve different rooms.
Insulated wires in rigid metal conduits carry the electricity to its final destination.
With guidance from an electrical engineer, an interior designer may be responsible for locating
switches, receptacles, dimmers, electric panels, and the like. Designers should be able to read
a wiring diagram to ensure that the controls for lighting and equipment work with the design
intent. Some of the standard electrical devices are described below.
120-Volt
Receptacles
Also referred to as convenience outlets, 120-volt outlets are the most com-
mon for everyday needs. Their spacing is regulated by code for different
applications; ADA also provides guidelines for their appropriate mounting
heights.
220- and 240-
Volt Receptacles
Higher voltage outlets such as 220 and 240 are wired separately to serve
specialty equipment such as stoves and refrigerators.
277-Volt
Circuits
Some applications of uorescent lighting may require 277-volt circuits.
Their efciency is increased by reducing the size of copper wires and allow-
ing more xtures on a circuit.
Ground-Fault
Interrupter
Ground-fault interrupters are specied for receptacles that are near or
exposed to water, typically in bathrooms and kitchens. When exposed to
dampness, the device cuts off power to eliminate the possibility of re or
shock.
Data
Receptacles
Data receptacles are low-voltage electrical systems that allow communica-
tion via the telephone or computer. Where data receptacles are difcult to
retrot, wireless systems are becoming increasingly popular.
Emergency
Lights
Emergency lighting is required by code in commercial and larger residen-
tial buildings. During a power outage, the emergency lighting should be
sufcient to allow occupants to exit the building safely. Emergency lights
operate on a separate power source such as battery packs or, for larger
applications, on an emergency generator.
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THE INTERIOR DESIGN REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
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LIGHTING CONTROLS
To complement the careful consideration and planning of the lighting scheme, designers need
to have a basic understanding of all the options for lighting controls. They range from wallbox
dimmers common in most domestic settings to complex lighting management systems
appropriate for large buildings that monitor energy consumption. Lighting controls serve two
basic purposes: to create a mood/setting and to conserve energy
. Finding the appropriate
system that works for a specic function and budget may require consideration of one or a
combination of the following systems.
Wallbox Dimmers Wallbox dimmers are the most common form of light control. They are
wall-mounted dimmers that let occupants control the amount of light in
a room. They come in a variety of designs with slide, rotary, or touch-
plate control.
Preset Dimming
Controls
Preset dimming controls are used to create specific lighting scenarios
for a particular space. A conference room, for example, may have set-
tings for a daytime meeting (adjusts for daylight), an evening meeting
(accounts for no daylight), a projected presentation (enough light for
note-taking), and off-hours/maintenance. The presets are programmed
and adjusted by touching a control panel that is mounted in the wall
like a standard switch plate. These presets can be combined with time-
controlled systems to change the scenes at specific times of the day.
Time-Controlled
Systems
Time-controlled systems use clocks to adjust the lighting systems by
programming a schedule for the presets to change or turn on and off.
The range and scale of options are broad. They can control a single
room with an individual clock or an entire building with an electronic
management system.
Occupancy
Sensors
Occupancy sensors control the light by detecting occupants in a room.
Passive infrared or ultrasound sensors are mounted to walls or ceilings,
depending on the size of the room. Small rooms such as a bathroom will
typically use a wallbox sensor with a combined on/off switch or dimmer.
For large spaces, multiple overhead sensors work best. Most sensors
can be adjusted for sensitivity to accommodate a particular space.
Daylight Sensors Daylight sensors detect the amount of light entering a room and adjust
the artificial lights when there is sufficient natural light. This can be
significant for rooms that face south and receive a consistent amount
of light throughout the day.
Lumen-
Maintenance
Controls
Lumen-maintenance controls maintain the lux level in a space by adjust-
ing the brightness of a new lamp and the dullness of an old lamp and
balancing them against the desired level through photoelectric sensors.
These systems require dimming ballasts in all fixtures and a control
system to adjust the output of lamps. Only recently have lumen-mainte-
nance controls become affordable solutions for general use.
PLUMBING SYSTEMS
Plumbing systems
systems are designed by engineers, but must be understood by designers to know when locat-
ing or moving a fixture is reasonable or not.
Water is supplied by pressure through vertical pipes, called
or wherever water is needed. These pipes are small in diameter and can go unnoticed within
the thickness of a standard stud wall. The riser connects to a horizontal pipe that then con-
nects to a fixture.
The more challenging counterpart is the drain, which uses gravity to mobilize waste down to
the sewer connection. Drainpipes always travel downhill at a slope that is regulated by the
building code for different fixtures. The vertical drain that carries wastewater from sinks and
baths is referred to as the waste stack; its diameter is small enough to fit within a typical stud
wall. The drain that connects to toilets is called a soil stack; it is twice as large in diameter
and does not fit within a standard wall construction. Both the waste and soil stack must rise
vertically through a building to the roof for proper ventilation.
Each plumbing fixture has an S-shaped pipe, called a trap, that prevents the water from drain-
ing or rising. The trap also prevents odors in the drainpipe from entering the room. Since every
drainpipe must travel up and down, it is difficult to change the location of a plumbing fixture
without affecting the spaces below and above.
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