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THE INTERIOR DESIGN REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
TEXTILES
Textiles serve a vast range of interior applications, from wall and ceiling panels to panels for
systems furniture, from carpeting to drapes, from home furnishings to bed linens. Thus it is
essential that the interior designer
understand the structure, properties, performance, finish-
ing, dyeing, and printing techniques associated with different fabrics. A textile or fabric refers
to a material that is made of interlocking fibers that are woven, knitted, or felted. Textiles can
be classified either by their constituent fibers, such as silk, cotton, rayon, or nylon, or by their
weave, such as satin, leno, or twill. Weaves should not be confused with types of fabric; for
example, jacquard is a weave that can be made of various kinds of fibers.
Fibers
Fibers can be categorized as natural, man-made, or chemical. Natural fibers are further
grouped according to whether they come from animal (wool, mohair, cashmere, alpaca, silk,
feathers), plant (cotton, linen, ramie, hemp, jute), or mineral (asbestos, glass fibers, alumi-
num) resources.
Ramie
Jute
Performance Attributes
Abrasion
ric as it endures a repeated number of cycles or rubs; however, the results may not predict its
suitability for a particular application.
Absorbency:
the appropriate cleaning methods must be determined to prevent a fabric from changing prop-
erties afterward. Hydrophilic fibers absorb moisture easily, while hydrophobic fibers do not.
Acoustical
weave fabric is typically less obstructive than a tight-weave fabric.
Fire Resistance:
an important role in its overall performance.
NATURAL FIBERS
Wool Taken from a variety of animal coats that range from coarse to
very soft in texture. Wool fibers are crimped and wavy and, when
woven, create pockets that give depth to the fabric. The unique
scaled texture of the outer surface of the fibers, similar to the
scales of a fish, allows them to stick together and create felt.
Alpaca, mohair, camel, and cashmere are wool specialty fibers.
Silk Taken from the cocoon of a silkworm. A natural protein, a single
silk fiber has more strength than a steel filament of the same
thickness. It absorbs well and can be dyed in many colors. Or-
ganza, silk satin, and charmeuse are woven silk fabrics.
Cotton Made from the seed pod of the cotton plant. Fibers are hollow in
the center and twisted like a ribbon. Cotton can handle high tem-
peratures, absorbs dye well, and stands up to abrasions. Muslin,
sateen, terry cloth, and velveteen are woven cotton fabrics.
Linen Made from the bast that surrounds the stem of the flax plant.
It is the strongest of the plant fibers. The plant’s wax content
imparts a sheen to the fiber, whose natural color ranges from
creamy white to tan. It can also be dyed.
MAN-MADE AND CHEMICAL FIBERS
Rayon
Acetate
Nylon
Polyester
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Material
to a material that is made of interlocking fibers that are woven, knitted, or felted. Textiles can
be classified either by their constituent fibers, such as silk, cotton, rayon, or nylon, or by their
Ramie Made from the bast of a plant in the nettle family. It is often mis-
taken for linen. Like silk, it has a high luster. A very strong fiber,
ramie resists bacteria, mold, and abrasion and is often blended
with other fibers. It is also extremely absorbent.
Jute Made from the stack and stem of the jute plant. This glossy fiber
serves mostly as a backing material for carpet and flooring.
Performance Attributes
Abrasion Resistance: Durability of a fabric. Standard tests measure the performance of a fab-
ric as it endures a repeated number of cycles or rubs; however, the results may not predict its
suitability for a particular application.
Absorbency: Ability of a fabric to absorb moisture. Fibers may alter in strength when wet. Thus
the appropriate cleaning methods must be determined to prevent a fabric from changing prop-
erties afterward. Hydrophilic fibers absorb moisture easily, while hydrophobic fibers do not.
Acoustical Transparency: Measurement of sound transmission through a fabric. An open-
weave fabric is typically less obstructive than a tight-weave fabric.
Fire Resistance: Degree of a fabric’s resistance to heat and flame. The finish on a fabric plays
an important role in its overall performance.
very soft in texture. Wool fibers are crimped and wavy and, when
Made from the seed pod of the cotton plant. Fibers are hollow in
the center and twisted like a ribbon. Cotton can handle high tem
-
peratures, absorbs dye well, and stands up to abrasions. Muslin,
MAN-MADE AND CHEMICAL FIBERS
Rayon Manufactured from wood pulp. Rayon was the first man-made
fiber. Like cotton, it is very absorbent and strong.
Acetate Manufactured from plant cellulose. It can be extruded in fibers
of various diameters that can be woven to look like silk. Unlike
silk, it is a weak fiber and sensitive to heat.
Nylon Produced solely from petrochemicals. It is commonly used for
carpet fibers and is very sensitive to heat.
Polyester Produced from alcohol and carboxyl acid. It is resistant to crease
and nonabsorbent. It is best blended with other fibers like cotton.
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THE INTERIOR DESIGN REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
Common Weaves
Weaves are interlocking fibers that make a textile. Weaves are often confused for types of
fabric. For example, jacquard is a weave and not a type of fabric and can be made of various
types of fibers. The most common types of weaves are outlined below:
Plain Weave: In this most
common weave, one warp
yarn crosses over one weft
yarn in an alternating pattern,
which creates an even sur-
face and texture. It is durable
and inexpensive to produce.
Common fabrics are cotton,
percale, voile, chiffon, or-
ganza, and taffeta; common
uses are draperies, uphol-
stery, and bed linens.
Basket Weave: A variation of
the plain weave, it is typically
woven with two colors of
yarn crossing in an alternat-
ing pattern that resembles
a basket. Common fabrics
are oxford and monk’s cloth;
common uses are bed linens
and pillows.
Twill Weave: A strong weave,
it produces a distinct diago-
nal pattern by slightly shift-
ing the yarns over at each
successive row. This weave
creates a houndstooth, her-
ringbone, or chevron pat-
tern. Common fabrics are
gabardine, tweed, serge, and
denim; common uses are
upholstery and pillows.
Satin Weave: Formed by each
yarn floating over four yarns,
the weave creates a smooth,
lustrous surface. Satin weave
drapes very well but is sub-
ject to snag due to exposed
yarns. When woven in shorter
or staple yarns like cotton,
it is called sateen. Common
fabrics are satin and sateen;
common uses are draperies
and pillows.
Jacquard Weave: Woven on
a special jacquard loom that
controls individual yarns,
the weave allows for more
complex design. It is used to
produce patterned fabrics.
Common fabrics are brocade,
damask, and tapestry; com-
mon uses are upholstery and
wall hangings.
Leno Weave: An open mesh,
it is created by a pair of warp
threads passing over and un-
der the yarn in a figure eight
or hourglass twist. Common
fabrics are gauze and mar-
quisette; common uses are
draperies and blankets.
Fabric Treatments
Fabric Finishing
Water Resistance:
sorption of moisture.
Stain Resistance:
typically sprayed on and can be combined with other fabric finishes.
Flame Resistance:
regulations. There are two types of flame-resistant treatments, polymers and salines, and
their use is determined by fabric type.
Antistatic Treatment:
effective because they coat the fibers, thereby reducing electrostatic conductivity.
Bacteriostatic and Antimicrobial Treatment:
mildew, and rot when exposed to moisture. The finish can be applied to the fabric or to the
fibers during manufacturing.
Dyeing Methods
Fiber Dyeing:
solution. This process ensures colorfastness and excellent color penetration.
Yarn Dyeing:
Piece Dyeing:
to achieve a uniform color.
Polychromatic Dyeing:
directions through jets and rollers, which allows for random patterning. Computer technology
is expanding options for this method of applying color.
Printing Methods
Direct Printing:
assigned for each color, and the background is typically white. There are two types of direct
printing: block printing and flat-bed printing.
Screen Printing:
each color. There are two types of screen printing: flat-bed printing and rotary screen printing.
For larger quantities, a rotary screen process is more efficient.
Discharge Printing:
dye removers. This reverse process is used for simple patterns like stripes and polka dots. It
can be combined with other printing techniques for a more complex pattern.
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Material
A strong weave,
it produces a distinct diago-
gabardine, tweed, serge, and
An open mesh,
it is created by a pair of warp
threads passing over and un
-
der the yarn in a figure eight
or hourglass twist. Common
Fabric Treatments
Fabric Finishing
Water Resistance: Silicone or fluorochemical finish applied to a fabric to help it resist the ab-
sorption of moisture.
Stain Resistance: Finish applied to a fabric to help it resist water- and oil-based stains. It is
typically sprayed on and can be combined with other fabric finishes.
Flame Resistance: Finish applied to a fabric so that it complies with building and fire code
regulations. There are two types of flame-resistant treatments, polymers and salines, and
their use is determined by fabric type.
Antistatic Treatment: Finish applied to a fabric to remove static buildup. Fabric softeners are
effective because they coat the fibers, thereby reducing electrostatic conductivity.
Bacteriostatic and Antimicrobial Treatment: Finish applied to a fabric that is prone to mold,
mildew, and rot when exposed to moisture. The finish can be applied to the fabric or to the
fibers during manufacturing.
Dyeing Methods
Fiber Dyeing: Dye is applied to the natural fibers in their raw state or to the polymer or fiber
solution. This process ensures colorfastness and excellent color penetration.
Yarn Dyeing: Dye is applied to the fibers after they are spun into yarn.
Piece Dyeing: Dye is applied to a woven material. If all the fibers are the same, it is very easy
to achieve a uniform color.
Polychromatic Dyeing: Dyes are applied to a woven material at different speeds and in various
directions through jets and rollers, which allows for random patterning. Computer technology
is expanding options for this method of applying color.
Printing Methods
Direct Printing: Colors are applied to a fabric by a roller or cylinder imprint. A different roller is
assigned for each color, and the background is typically white. There are two types of direct
printing: block printing and flat-bed printing.
Screen Printing: Colors are applied to a fabric through a stencil. A different stencil is used for
each color. There are two types of screen printing: flat-bed printing and rotary screen printing.
For larger quantities, a rotary screen process is more efficient.
Discharge Printing: Color is lifted from a fabric in a controlled pattern with bleach or chemical
dye removers. This reverse process is used for simple patterns like stripes and polka dots. It
can be combined with other printing techniques for a more complex pattern.
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THE INTERIOR DESIGN REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK
CEILINGS
Ceilings are as important as any other surface in a room. Interior designers can use a number
of materials to finish a ceiling, though, in some cases, they may wish to leave it exposed.
Many ceilings are rated according to their acoustic qualities. The main unit of measure for
acoustics is the
noise reduction coefficient (NRC), a number expressed as a percentage of how
much sound is absorbed (an NRC of 0.8 will absorb 80 percent of the sound that is directed at
the material).
Dropped Ceilings
Dropped ceilings are also referred to as
suspended ceilings. Their main function is to
conceal items such as ductwork, piping, and
wiring. The area between the dropped ceiling
and the underside of the construction above
is known as the plenum. Runners and T-
splines are hung from a wire attached to the
underside of the construction. This forms a
basic grid into which tiles of various types
are laid. Grids can be concealed within the
system for a more continuous ceiling plane.
Exposed T Recessed T
Stepped T Concealed T
Hard Ceilings
For many residential and hospitality projects, designers may prefer a hard surface ceiling that
can be painted or finished. These ceilings are installed under a wood or metal framing system
and provide acoustic benefits through insulation in the ceiling plenum. Gypsum panels are the
most commonly used, though it is not uncommon to find a layer of plaster installed over lath
and wire mesh. The most important aspect of a ceiling is the level of finish and smoothness
of the installation. Panels are hung, taped, covered with joint compound, and sanded smooth.
Occasionally, a skim coat of plaster will be applied to create an even surface for the final ap-
plication of paint. The six levels of finish are outlined below:
Level 0:
determined. Joints are not taped and the surface is not sanded.
Level 1:
plenums or fire shafts. All joints are taped with joint compound.
Level 2:
where the board will receive a tile or stone surface finish.
Level 3:
ings. Two coats of joint compound are applied smoothly, and the surface is finished with a
drywall primer.
Level 4:
coats of compound are applied at joints and corners; all fasteners receive an additional layer.
The surface is finished with a drywall primer.
Level 5:
fasteners might be visible. Compound layers are similar to level 4, with a final skim coat ap-
plied over the entire surface. The surface is finished with a drywall primer.
CEILING PANELS
Type Description
Metal Panels Metal-faced panels available in a variety of nishes and perfora-
tions. Absorptive material behind, combined with perforations in
the panels, provides various levels of acoustic dampening.
Acoustic Tiles Mineral ber or berglass panels available in a variety of edge
details and embossed patterns. They provide the maximum
acoustic absorption.
Wood Panels Fire-retardant panels faced with a wood veneer. Their acoustic
qualities are low, but the wood can be perforated to improve
acoustic performance. They add warmth and sophistication to
a space.
Metal Bafe Linear metal strips hung perpendicular to a cross tee. They can
conceal both systems and light xtures. Available in many depths
and colors, they offer a unique appearance.
Fabric Panels Mineral ber panels covered with woven fabric. They have a high
acoustic absorption. Able to conceal both systems and light x-
tures, they add warmth to a room and can coordinate with other
fabrics.
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