Index
ABS See acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene
acetal albatross, 263–4
acetal cracking, 451–2
and polybutylene pipes failures, 259–68
acetal albatross, 263–4
degradation mechanism, 264–5
fracture, 259–60
pipe failures, 266–7
recent developments, 267–8
failure modes, 266
fractured, showing contamination from water supply, 262
section of hot water supply which failed and caused flood, 261
acetal/polybutylene problems, 452
acid storage tanks, 171–2
acrylic, 283
acrylic polymers, 303
acrylonitrile, 282
dark grey ABS pipe at Immingham storage facility, 254
fractured pipe from compressed air explosion, 256
handle, 328–31
etch pits in lower wing, 331
fracture surface map of handle break, 330
fracture surface of handle with striations, 329
intact and failed handle, 329
scanning electron microscopy, 331
scratches and peeling of chrome coating, 330
joints failure on bike carriers, 425–30
brittle fracture of ABS clam shell, 428
clam shell connector on upper frame, 426
damaged shells, 427–9
one shell still attached to frame showing serrations, 427
origin of fracture from root of tooth, 428
steel-framed carriers fitted to car after accident, 426
stress analysis, 429
pipes and fittings, 250–3
blanking plate showing contamination at centre, 251
contamination of PP pipe from another HCl facility, 251
hydrochloric acid storage facility, 250
Immingham Docks, 250–3
UV spectra from commercial acid and ferric chloride solution, 252
activated carbon, 292
Afridev, 235
aircraft batteries, 182
alcohols, 131
aldehyde, 287
alumina-silicates, 423
aluminium, 287
aluminium alloy, 338
Amazon, 454
amber, 17
American Society for Testing and Materials, 38
and balloon catheters, 112–14
balloon catheter and guide wire, 112
angle grinder, 316–24
another handle failure, 320
British standard for tools, 320
fracture, 320–3
DSC thermogram of material used in handle, 323
matching parts of fracture surfaces, 321
origin at edge of voids in plastic, 322
origin with void at interface with bolt, 323
upper fracture surface showing shrunken interior and large weld line, 322
fracture surface, 317–20
fatigue striations from sharp outer corner of handle guard, 319
grinder handles vs failed handle, 318
handle guard fracture side showing contaminated polymer, 318
handle screw side showing impact damage, 319
fractured handle, 321
handle socket, 317
aniline, 276
ANTEC conference, 102
anti-oxidants, 306
molecular structure, 17
aromatic ring, 15
Arrhenius equation, 265
ASML line, 288
ATR See attenuated total reflectance
ATR spectroscopy, 382
baby cot latches, HDPE failure, 430–4
analysis, 433–4
broken latch, 431–2
failed baby cot with fractured latch at upper right, 430
fracture surface showing main crack origin, 432
intact left-hand latch and broken right-hand latch, 431
intact vs broken latches, 431
melt fracture line on failed latch, 433
Bakelite casing, 223
and angioplasty, 112–14
and guide wire for angioplasty, 112
bathing alcohol, 107
battery containers failure, 177–84
degraded by UV attack along weld, 152
failed battery cases, 152–3
failed truck battery cases, 195–8
miner lamp battery casings failure, 198–219
Beer-Lambert law, 76–7
Bell telephone test, 267
bending, 21
benzene, 276
benzene ring, 15
brittle fracture of ABS clam shell, 428
clam shell connector on upper frame, 426
damaged shells, 427–9
one shell still attached to frame showing serrations, 427
origin of fracture from root of tooth, 428
steel-framed, fitted to car after accident, 426
stress analysis, 429
girder section showing stress raiser at upper corner, 54
polycarbonate set square showing gate at P and weld line at WW, 54
blanking plate, 250–1
blue cone, 223
BMW, 254
Boltzmann’s constant, 19
bonding, 2–11
covalent bonds, 3–6
carbon structures, 8
co-polymer repeat units, 4
natural rubber cross-linking, 5
repeat units and size in polymers, 4
tetrahedron carbon atom, 7
electrostatic bonds, 6–7
hydrogen bonds, 7–9
polymer structure and melting points, 10
van der Waals bonds, 9–11
rotational isomerism, 10
bone glue, 79
Boston molasses disaster, 134–7
causes of failure, 136–7
plan of Boston north harbour showing damage to buildings, 135
scene of devastation after tank collapse, 135
cracks at interface, 117
origin, 117
conclusion, 119–20
failure of tissue expander, 114–18
fracture surface map, 118
fractured breast tissue expander, 115
loading pattern, 118–19
fracture in ESEM, 116
fracture showing cusp, 116
origin of main fracture, 117
other cases, 120–1
record of fills, 118
device failure, 124–30
colour variation in set of mouldings, 129
development of sight tube, 124–6
faulty tubes, 126–9
flash marks caused by wet polymer granules, 128
flow lines in moulding shown by shadow, 127
inclusions in moulding, 128
lessons, 130
original PMMA sight tube, 125
polysulphone melt viscosity as function of shear rate, 127
prototype moulded sight tube in polysulphone, 126
section of assembly showing float, 125
trial, 129–30
Britannica, 453
British Oxygen Company, 155
British Standard, 334
British Standards Institution, 38
and screw thread, 181
and weld lines in base moulding, 400
discoloration, 49
growth in plug cover, 410
in ultrasonic weld, 401
induced by positive plate expansion, 216
on tank near external buttress, 52
penetration of base from screw hole, 409
within surface loom, 401
brittle fracture, 65
ABS clam shell, 428
chair with leg reassembled, 332
drive belts double tooth, 362
proximal end of failed catheter, 96
surface on drive belts, 362–3
bromobutyl, 365
brown calcite, 265
Brunel’s seals, 272
BS 1753:1987, 435
buckets failure, 184–7
close-up of broken lug, 185
LDPE bucket with fractured lug, 184
lug fracture surface, 185
recessed lug for failsafe, 187
weld line formation, 186–7
builder’s putty, 301
butadiene monomers, 282
butyl rubber, 305
calcium, 287
calcium stearate, 123
Canberra, 182
Canon line, 288
carbon fibre composite wing, 281
carbon tetrachloride, 186
carbonyl group, 447
carboxylic acid, 287
Catgut, 121
balloon catheter and guide wire for angioplasty operation, 112
brittle fracture in proximal end of failed catheter, 96
catheter manufacture flow sequence, 100
compact and expanded stents, 113
connector end showing extensive cracking, 108
another catheter, 95
broken, fracture surface map, 97
fractured, showing bleed hole, 95
DSC curves of new and failed catheters, 97
expanded stents in artery acting against fatty deposits, 113
failed catheter, 90–102
accident at childbirth, 92–4
degradation theory, 99–101
ESEM of failed end, 94–6
material and mechanical testing, 96–9
thermoplastic elastomers, 91–2
FTIR microscopy for good and failed catheter, 99
gate showing contamination, 108
polycarbonate connectors, 103
inner crack in connector, 109
polycarbonate connectors, 102–14
balloon catheters and angioplasty, 112–14
connector failures, 102–3
connectors premature cracking, 103–6
disclosure, 106
discussion, 111–12
ESC/SCC hypothesis, 110–11
injection moulding, 110
joint expert examination, 107–9
literature, 106–7
section through connector to show internal structure, 104
tip of thermoplastic nylon catheter showing bleed holes, 93
Tuohy needle used for epidural anaesthetic, 93
cellulose, 18
chain splitting, 446
chain-growth polymers, 5
chairs, manufactured from P P, 331–6
accident chair showing crack growth directions, 335
another failure, 334–5
brittle fracture with leg reassembled, 332
crack growth directions, 333
fractured plastic chairs, 334
litigation, 335–6
material analysis, 333–4
voids from which cracks grew, 333
voids near centre of leg corner, 335
chalk, 301
effect of internal pressure on joint, 280
leak of flame from booster rocket, 279
O-ring recovery with time and temperature, 281
section field joint on booster rocket, 279
Channel Tunnel, 389
chemical milling, 207
chlorobutyl, 365
chopped strand mat, 153–4
chromatography, 70–2
GPC column, 71
methods for analysis of polymer structure, 73
molecular weight analysis, 72
chromium, 442
CHS See central heating systems
CNC machine, 429
cold slug, 62
collagen, 18
Columbia, 280
compressed gas explosion, 253–9
controversy, 258–9
craze nucleation from diagonal contamination, 257
inner bore showing sub-critical cracks and main fracture, 256
main fracture surface, 257
fractured ABS pipe, 256
mechanics, 257–8
pneumatic system at glass works, 255
section showing storage tank and main pipe with bends, 255
compression, 21
Concorde, 371–2
condensation polymers See step-growth polymers
configuration, 10
conformation, 10
end showing extensive cracking, 108
inner crack, 109
internal structure, 104
balloon catheters and angioplasty, 112–14
cracked joint, 104
disclosure, 106
discussion, 111–12
ESC/SCC hypothesis, 110–11
failures, 102–3
fitted in Hickman IV line, 103
injection moulding, 110
joint expert examination, 107–9
literature, 106–7
premature cracking, 103–6
Consumer Laboratories, 236
copper reservoir, 294
corrosion, 444
cotton, 17
covalent bonds, 3–6
carbon structures, 8
co-polymer repeat units, 4
natural rubber cross-linking, 5
repeat units and size in polymers, 4
tetrahedron carbon atom, 7
crazing, 21
creep deformation, 65
creep modulus, 234
critical fatigue crack, 371
cross-linked polyethylene, 267–8
cross-linked rubbers, 306
Davy safety lamp, 414
degradation theory, 99–101
flow sequence of catheter manufacture, 100
depth gauge, 379
detergents, 131
Devils coach horse, 425
differential scanning calorimetry, 82–3, 251, 257, 263, 302, 304, 322, 325, 361, 402, 404, 409, 414, 419, 432
digital microscope, 59–60
DMF See dimethyl formamide
domains, 91
Dow Corning, 120
drive belts, 359–65
belt remains, 360–2
brittle fracture on double tooth, 362
brittle fracture surface, 362–3
critical tooth pair comparison, 363
stripped double teeth, 361
stripped single teeth, 361
fragment of rubber left after crack growth, 364
horizontal fatigue striations, 363
other composite belts, 365
sequence of events, 363–5
stripped belt drive vs new belt, 360
drop ball test, 217
ductile fracture, 65
Dyneema, 15
E-glass fibre, 173
ebonite, 177
EDX See energy dispersive X-ray Analysis
elastic modulus, 50
elastin, 18
elastomer, 365
failure in brakes, 273–8
accident explanation, 277–8
brake piston with fractured rubber seal, 273
cuts in outer lower edge of seal, 275
elastomer analysis, 276–7
fatigue striations, 274
fracture surface, 274–6
one side of fracture surface, 275
scratches in outer land of piston next to seal recess, 276
failure in semi-conductor factory, 281–93
air bearing with critical diaphragm seal, 282
air chemical analysis, 289
brittle crack in diaphragm seal, 284
chasing the problem, 290–2
compressor and air filters on pneumatic line, 291
crisis development, 289
damage to NBR diaphragm seal surface, 283
diaphragm seal fracture surface, 284
failed diaphragm seal, 282–3
fractured O-ring seal, 284
fractures in diaphragm seal, 285
independent analyses, 287–9
more failed seals, 283–7
new design of compressor, 292
ozone sources, 289–90
ozonolysis, 287
plan of fabrication lines, 288
recess of new seal, 282
sub-critical crack next to steel post, 285
X-ray emission spectra from normal and ozonised fracture surface, 286
properties, 18–19
tensile strength, 120
thermoplastic See thermoplastic elastomers
electrocution, 411
electron microscopy, 207
electrostatic bonds, 6–7
Elf Atochem, 92
elongation ratio, 19
Enron Inc, 247
advantage, 286–7
of failed end, 94–6
environmental stress cracking, 30–2, 203, 221, 224, 226, 244, 258, 269, 402, 405, 408, 409, 444, 448–9
hypothesis, 110–11
leaking polycarbonate battery case, 31
ESC See environmental stress cracking
Espace, 37
ethanol, 402
ethanol extraction method, 402
Ethicon, 123
ethylene and chlortrifluoroethylene copolymer, 154
extra corporeal membrane oxygenation, 107
extrusion, 47–8
spider lines in poorly mixed pipe, 47
Failure Analysis Group, 107
Faraday cage, 292
behaviour, 131
fatigue cracks, 258–9
ferric chloride, 252
Fiat cars, 447
Fiat Motor Company, 382–3
forensic investigation of failed storage tanks, 153–66
catastrophic failure on Teesside, 154–5
chopped strand mat, 154
composite thermal properties, 164–6
failed parts reassembly, 160–2
fracture locus, 162–3
plant damage, 155–7
usage history, 163–4
wall and base sections, 157–60
aramid molecular structure, 17
mechanical properties, 17
fingerprint region, 303
fingerprint spectroscopy, 76
fingerprinting, 79
finite element analysis, 442
fittings, polyamide failure in ladders, 338–46
abrasion marks on bearing surfaces, 342
another accident, 343–4
broken composite plate, 346
broken stubs on stepladder, 344
combination of stepladder with blue feet, tips and connectors, 340
connectors showing locking mechanism, 340
failed stepladders, 339–42
fracture corner showing matrix depletion, 345
fracture near corner showing weld line smooth areas, 343
moulded composite connector riveted together, 341
product design, quality and testing, 345–6
skid mark where loss of rubber fitting caused slip, 339
stubs fracture surface, 341
flame safety lamps, 223
flax, 17
fluorinated rubber, 272
Ford Pinto, 393
forensic macroscopy, 56
access to information, 449–54
old problems, 451–2
published literature, 450–1
the Internet, 452–3
Wikipedia, 453–4
causes of product failure, 438–54
poor choice of materials, 443–4
poor design, 441–3
stress concentrations, 442–3
components in transport applications, 349–94
drive belts failure, 359–65
failed Rilsan nylon fuel pipes, 374–90
SCC of nylon connectors, 390–3
tailpack failure in motorbike accident, 350–9
tyres failure, 365–74
consumer products, 396–437
ABS joints failure on bike carriers, 425–30
failure of fittings on luggage carriers, 416–25
HDPE baby cot latches failure, 430–4
kettle switches failure, 414–16
Noryl busbar plugs failure, 408–10
Noryl plugs failure, 397–408
RCDs, 411–14
environmental stresses, 444–9
data compilations, 449
ESC, 448–9
oxidation and ozonolysis, 446–8
SCC, 445–6
examination and analysis of failed polymer components, 42–88
ensuring results integrity, 85–6
forensic microscopy techniques, 58–63
mechanical testing, 50–5
molecular analysis of polymer properties, 69–85
processing methods and defects, 42–50
techniques for recording product failures, 55–8
types of product defect, 63–9
failure modes, 19–32
chemical attack, 26–9
environmental stress cracking, 30–2
mechanical failure, 20–6
stress corrosion cracking, 29–30
polymer properties, 11–19
elastomers, 18–19
natural materials, 17–18
polymer storage tanks, 134–75
Boston molasses disaster, 134–7
dealing with the aftermath, 170–3
fibreglass storage tanks, 153–66
PP and HDPE storage tanks, 137–53
reconstructing the events leading to failure, 166–70
setting new standards, 173–5
polymeric medical devices, 89–132
breast tissue expander, 114–21
breathing tubes, 124–30
catheter, 90–102
polycarbonate connectors, 102–14
sutures, 121–4
polymeric pipes and fittings, 226–70
ABS pipes and fittings failure, 250–3
compressed gas explosion, 253–9
gas pipelines failures, 243–9
polybutylene pipes and acetal resin fittings failures, 259–68
PVC water piping fracture, 227–35
PVC water pumps failure, 235–43
polymeric seals, 272–308
Challenger disaster, 278–81
elastomeric seals failure in brakes, 273–8
failed elastomeric seals in semi-conductor factory, 281–93
silicone mastics failures, 301–6
TPE radiator washers failure, 293–300
poor manufacturing method, 438–41
assembly problem, 439–40
faulty moulding, 439
medical devices, 440–1
product failure, 1–11
bonding, 2–11
non-metallic elements, 2
product failure investigating methods, 32–5
public information sources, 35–40
small polymeric containers, 176–224
battery containers failure, 177–84
buckets failure, 184–7
design improvement to prevent failure, 219–24
exploding batteries, 187–95
failed truck battery cases, 195–8
miner lamp battery casings failure, 198–219
tools and ladders, 310–48
ABS handle failure, 328–31
failed polyamide fittings in ladders, 338–46
failure of chairs manufactured from polypropylene, 331–6
failure of handles in angle grinders, 316–24
failure of security caps for gas cylinders, 324–8
polypropylene hobby knives failure, 311–13
polystyrene components failure in hobby knives, 313–16
swimming pool steps failure, 336–8
Forensic Science Service, 391
Formula I racing cars, 15
fossil tree resin, 17
Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy, 73, 85, 190, 196, 234, 237, 251, 257, 263, 267, 298, 302, 304, 315, 322, 325, 333, 338, 361, 382, 402, 404, 409, 419, 427, 432, 447
fracture, 20
friction, 67–8
frozen-in stress, 212
fuse, 411
galling, 67
gas ionisation process, 63
gas pipelines, 243–9
caused by steel pipe, 247
pipe from San Juan disaster of 1996, 246
creep rupture curves for MDPE gas lines, 245
butt fusion weld rupture, 248
debris of house, 247
thermal weld fracture surface, 249
fracture surface, 248–9
Humberto Vidal store after propane gas explosion, 246
fractured MDPE pipe close-up, 244
steel main and plastic service pipe junction, 244
gel coat, 158
spectra of inner and outer surfaces of mancab, 151
General Accident, 227
General Electric Plastics, 212
German standard DVS 2205, 38
German Welding Institute, 142
glass fibre reinforced nylon, 414
gold coating, 61–2
Goodyear, 272
Google, 452
gossamer, 18
GPC See gel permeation chromatography
grouts, 273
Guardian Royal Exchange, 385
hackles, 231
handle, ABS failure, 328–31
etch pits in lower wing, 331
fracture surface map of handle break, 330
fracture surface of handle with striations, 329
intact and failed handle, 329
scanning electron microscopy, 331
scratches and peeling of chrome coating, 330
hard rubber, battery containers failure, 177–84
HDPE See high-density polyethylene
heating coil, 414
Hertzian stress profile, 368
Hevea brasiliensis, 17
IV line fitted with polycarbonate connectors, 103
baby cot latches failure, 430–4
analysis, 433–4
broken latch, 431–2
failed baby cot with fractured latch at upper right, 430
fracture surface showing main crack origin, 432
intact left-hand latch and broken right-hand latch, 431
intact vs broken latches, 431
melt fracture line on failed latch, 433
forensic investigation of failed storage tanks, 137–53
Hindenburg airship, 193–5
airship outer fabric, 195
photo of 1937 disaster, 194
failure of polypropylene-based components, 311–13
accident reconstruction, 311–13
blade rotation, 312
component parts design, 312
power grip and precision grip of knife, 313
small hobby knives various designs, 311
failure of polystyrene components, 313–16
blade fixing, damage and blood stains, 315
damage near tip of knife, 316
damaged plastic top close-up, 315
failed knife vs Stanley knife, 314
knife inspection, 314–16
Hoechst, 264
Hookean solids, 19
hot plate method, 248
Humberside Fire Brigade, 188
hydraulic tensometer, 312
hydrazine, 210
hydrocarbon oil, 444
hydrocarbons, 250
hydrofluoric acid, 174
alleged explosion, 220–1
explosions, 190–1
experiments, 190
hydrogen bonds, 7–9
nylon 66 sheet structure, 9
polymer structure and melting points, 10
hydrostatic pressure, 140
hydrostatic stress, 277
hydroxyl ions, 210
hypochlorous acid, 451
hysteresis, 365
Hytrel, 445
Hytrel polyester elastomer, 307
Immingham Docks, 250–3
acid storage facility, 172
reinforced lower walls of composite storage tanks, 172
impact, 22
Inamed Corporation, 120
India Mark II, 235
correlation table, 74
electromagnetic spectrum and interactions with matter, 74
LDPE showing oxidation, 76
MDPE showing oxidation, 75
using ATR, 276
conditions, 405–7
in China, 406
critical entanglement molecular weight, 46
moulding cycle, 44
process flow, 43
variation in melt viscosity with shear rate, 45
iron oxides, 260
ISO 9000, 34
kettle switches, 414–16
defects in unlicensed switch from electric kettle, 416
Chinese switch, 415
switch material, 415
Kevlar, 15
Laporte Chemicals, 195
latch See baby cot latches
latent defects, 64
LDPE See low-density polyethylene
light scattering, 72
lignin, 18
little scratcher, 208
Loss Prevention Bulletin, 37
low-density polyethylene, 184–5
bucket with fractured lug, 184
buckets failure, 184–7
luers, 103
Luftwaffe, 194
luggage carriers fittings, 416–25
first accident, 417
abrasion damage, gate and weld lines, 418
failure sequence, 419–20
folded luggage trolley showing fractured plastic part, 417
fracture and other surfaces, 417–19
fractured subsurfaces and smooth areas, 418
weld line next to fracture surface, 419
second accident, 420–1
contamination, 424–5
debris from connector, 424
EDX spectrum from particle, 424
foreign particles seen in SEM, 423
fracture surface, 421–3
fracture surface showing various origins, 422
origins showing contaminants, 422
second failed trolley, 421
macrophotography, 105
magnesium, 287
mancabs, 446
brittle crack in mancab, 148
cracked mancab, 148
GPC spectra of inner and outer surfaces of mancab, 151
IR spectra of HDPE mancab materials, 150
severe cracking on roof of mancab, 149
MDPE See medium-density polyethylene
mechanical failure, 20–6
axial crazing, 21
load paths, 22–3
hairline cracks, 23
loading patterns, 21–2
schematic craze profile, 22
stress concentration, 23–6
failed hobby knife, 26
fractured wedding knife, 26
internal corners in accelerator pedal, 24
mechanical testing, 50–5
composite materials, 52–3
photoelastic strain analysis, 53–5
tensile testing, 50–2
medical devices See polymeric medical devices
Medical Devices Agency, 106
Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory, 90
cast film, 74–5
MEDWATCH, 37
melting points, 443
Mentor Corporation, 120
metadata, 452
metal technology, 450
methanol, 207
Michelin, 366
microtome, 70
colliery experience, 217–19
increase in battery life, 219
polycarbonate lamp lifetime before design changes, 218
cracks at inner corners in leaking miner’s lamp, 215
destructive examination, 211
in strained PC, 207
in TEM, 210
after design changes, 219
from two Lancashire collieries, 218
first failures, 200–1
failed mining lamp cases histograms, 201
leaks in polycarbonate case from ESC, 202
moulding conditions, 211–13
and residual strain in cases, 212
new design in polycarbonate, 200
polishing, 207–10
as function of caustic concentration, 209
interferometer traces of scratch polishing, 208
tensile stress-strain curve for sheet polycarbonate, 206
as function of crack size, 209
mechanism, 210
practical applications, 215–17
brittle crack induced by positive plate expansion, 216
crack at belt loop corner, 216
residual strain at belt loop corners, 217
property checks, 206–7
residual strain from gate to end, 211
strain birefringence, 203–5
brittle cracks around windows, 204
overall pattern, 205
patterns around windows before and after welding, 205
stress concentrations, 213–15
at box inner corner, 214
various designs, 202
Mirafiori See Fiat Mirafiori
modified butyl elastomer, 365–6
Beer-Lambert law, 76–7
chromatography, 70–2
finger print spectroscopy, 76
infra-red spectroscopy, 72–6
NMR spectroscopy, 79–80
other methods, 80–1
sampling, 69–70
thermal analysis, 81–5
UV spectroscopy, 77–9
monodisperse polymers, 6
alternative theory, 355–7
bungee cords, 354–5
critical speed, 357
deeper analysis, 352–4
seized wheel, 350–2
skid mark analysis, 358
tailpack design, 358–9
tailpack failure, 350–9
natural gas, 245
NBR See nitrile butadiene rubber
NBR diaphragm seal, 307
NBR fuel pipes, 447
Neonatal Network, 107
Neoprene, 272
nitrogen, 290
nitrogen dioxide, 292
nitrogen gas, 301
nitrogen gas blanket, 306
nitrogen oxides, 290
NMR spectroscopy, 79–80
DMF extract spectrum, 81
polyacrylic acid spectrum, 80
non-metallic elements, 2
Noryl busbar plugs, 408–10
base unit linked to busbar system, 408
brittle crack growth in plug cover, 410
brittle crack penetration of base from screw hole, 409
quality control, 410
rated at 32 amp, 409
Noryl casings, 85
base and casing welded joint, 399
and weld lines in base moulding, 400
in ultrasonic weld, 401
within surface loom, 401
analysed of various raw materials, 405
spectrum of various raw materials, 405
fingerprints of sample No 5, 405
fingerprints of different Noryl sources, 403
spectra of plug No. 25, 404
spectrum of suspect product Noryl, 403
injection moulding conditions, 405–7
in China, 406
material analysis, 402–5
microscopy, 398–402
thermograms of different granules, 404
transformer plug showing innards, 398
associated with surface blooming, 400
next to earth pin, 400
notch sensitivity, 441
Nujol, 70
nylon 66 connector, 445
failure sequence schematic diagram, 392
final cusp showing intermittent crack growth, 392
fracture surface, 391
fractured nylon connector vs intact return tube, 391
recovery vehicle responsible for diesel leak, 390
SCC, 390–3
osmometry, 72
overload, 20
Oxfam, 235
Oxford Products Ltd, 359
Oxford Trading Standards, 359
oxidation cracks, 369
oxidative cracking, 336
oxygen cracking, 361
sources, 289–90
PAA See polyacrylic acid
Paris equation, 238
Pasminco mine, 220
patent defects, 64
PBT See polybutylene terephthalate
pendulum impact test, 196
PET See polyethylene terephthalate
petroleum ether, 276
PEX See cross-linked polyethylene
phase-separated polystyrene, 403
phenolic resin, 410
phenolics, 253
photo-tendering, 153
pipes and fittings, 250–3
forensic polymer engineering, 226–70
ABS pipes and fittings failure, 250–3
compressed gas explosion, 253–9
gas pipelines failures, 243–9
polybutylene pipes and acetal resin fittings failures, 259–68
PVC water piping fracture, 227–35
PVC water pumps failure, 235–43
Planck’s constant, 72
plasticisation, 304
PMMA See polymethyl methacrylate
pneumatic system, 289
polyacrylic acid, 79
polyacrylonitrile, 283
failed fittings in ladders, 338–46
polyamide 12 See nylon 12
polyamide 6, 322
polybut-1-ene, 259
polybutadiene, 315
polybutene oil, 305
and acetal resin fittings failures, 259–68
acetal albatross, 263–4
degradation mechanism, 264–5
fracture, 259–60
pipe failures, 266–7
recent developments, 267–8
failure modes, 266
polybutylene terephthalate, 45
cracked joint, 104
fitted in Hickman IV line, 103
polishing as function of crack size, 209
polishing mechanism, 210
polychloroprene, 272
polydisperse polymers, 6
polyethersulphone, 45
polyglactide, 121–4
polyglactin 910 See Vicryl
polyimide, 210
polyisobutylene, 305
collapsed storage tank on Teesside, 156
composite storage tank before accident, 156
dealing with the aftermath, 170–3
acid storage facility at Immingham Docks, 172
acid storage tanks, 171–2
glass fibre attack, 173
other failures, 172–3
reinforced lower walls of composite storage tanks, 172
standards, 170–1
fibreglass storage tanks, 153–66
base corner showing metal foil still left in joint, 161
base fragments showing junction of base and wall, 159
close-up of side of tank, 156
DSC curves of PP liner, 165
DSC traces of GPR materials, 165
failed section reconstruction with visible bulging in tank wall, 161
history of tank conditions, 164
parts of side wall resembled with crack growth along seams, 163
pipe hole in side wall with gap from delamination, 163
plan of tank, 159
side wall at pipe junction showing delamination around hole, 162
side wall with inner liner at top, 160
tank base showing inner lining and composite bottom, 160
tank remnant, 157
tank section, 158
forensic investigation, 134–75
Boston molasses disaster, 134–7
setting new standards, 173–5
plan of submerged thermoplastic storage tank, 146
PP and HDPE storage tanks, 137–53
close-up of centre panel of tank, 139
crack origin showing four phases of growth, 140
discrepancy between DVS 2205 and tank structure, 143
faulty paint tank, 144
schematic of failed tank, 139
submerged sewage tank, 145
tank design schematic with different walls, 142
reconstructing the events leading to failure, 166–70
failure sequence, 168–9
hoop stress, 167
material strength, 167–8
reactions in tank, 168
the bund, 169–70
thermal expansion, 166–7
tank wall inward deformation, 146
complete collapse of walls, 147
ready for testing, 146
start of wall deformation, 147
polymeric medical devices, 89–132
block copolyester microstructure, 92
breast tissue expander, 114–21
breathing tubes, 124–30
catheter, 90–102
connectors, 102–14
sutures, 121–4
polymers, 447
on tank near external buttress, 52
elastomer properties, 18–19
ensuring results integrity, 85–6
evidence shifting, 32–6
records, 33–4
surviving remains, 34–5
witness evidence, 33
failed components examination and analysis, 42–88
ABS mill bobbins replacing wooden version, 69
butt weld showing brittle crack discoloration, 49
failed bridge bearing caused by abrasion of steel pin by debris on nylon sleeves, 68
failed car radiator tank showing gross distortion, 51
failed rope coil vs new rope, 57
fatigue striations in ABS vacuum cleaner part, 66
girder section showing stress raiser at upper corner, 54
pipe failure at chemical plant on Teesside, 49
polycarbonate set square showing residual moulding stresses, 54
poorly mixed pipe showing spider lines, 47
forensic microscopy techniques, 58–63
ESEM, 62–3
optical microscopy, 59–60
SEM, 61–2
optical micrograph showing weld line and cold slugs, 62
SEM micrograph, 62
high performance polymer fibres, 15
mechanical properties, 17
molecular structure of aramid fibre, 17
materials mechanical testing, 50–5
composite materials, 52–3
creep and stress relaxation, 51–2
photoelastic strain analysis, 53–5
tensile testing, 50
molecular analysis, 69–85
Beer-Lambert law, 76–7
chromatography, 70–2
fingerprint spectroscopy, 76
infra-red spectroscopy, 72–6
NMR spectroscopy, 79–80
other methods, 80–1
sampling, 69–70
thermal analysis, 81–5
UV spectroscopy, 77–9
natural materials, 17–18
diesel fuel pipe for CHS boiler, 60
from outer corners in numerals, 60
pipes and fittings, 226–70
processing methods and potential faults in materials, 42–50
extrusion, 47–8
injection moulding, 43–7
other moulding methods, 48
other shaping routes, 48–50
properties, 11–19
mechanical properties, 16
melting vs glass transition point, 13
thermal properties, 14
viscoelastic master curve, 12
public information sources, 35–40
disasters, 38–40
event reporting, 36–7
materials and product standards, 37–8
public domain, 37
textbooks, 36
seals, 272–308
Challenger disaster, 278–81
elastomeric seals failure in brakes, 273–8
failed elastomeric seals in semiconductor factory, 281–93
silicone mastics failures, 301–6
TPE radiator washers failure, 293–300
techniques for recording product failures, 55–8
forensic macroscopy, 56
radiography, 56–8
visual observation, 55
types of product defect, 63–9
environmental failure, 68–9
fatigue, 66–7
friction and wear, 67–8
mechanical defects, 64–6 specific polymer
axial crazes in beaker, 21
polyolefin, 92
polyphenylene oxide, 396
polypropylene, 10, 28, 151, 179, 182, 190, 193, 195, 196, 197, 199, 250, 251, 259, 268, 310, 333, 347, 375, 396, 397, 414, 418, 436, 439, 444, 446
battery case degraded by UV attack along weld, 152
chalk filled, 332
copolymer with ethylene, 312
exploding batteries, 187–95
failure in chairs, 331–6
failure in hobby knives, 311–13
forensic investigation of failed storage tanks, 137–53
catastrophic failure, 138
causes of failure, 141–2
failed battery cases, 152–3
investigation, 138–40
other problems, 143
paint accident, 143–4
rotational moulded tanks, 144–8
stress concentration, 140–1
UV degradation, 148–52
GPC spectra of inner vs outer surfaces of PP cases, 153
talc-filled, 325
truck battery cases, 195–8
failure in hobby knives, 313–16
for breathing tubes, 124
melt viscosity as function of shear rate, 127
prototype moulded sight tube, 126
polytetramethylene glycol, 98
polyurethanes, 204
polyvinyl butyral, 349
water piping fracture, 227–35
water pumps failure, 235–43
polyvinylidene fluoride, 154
potassium hydroxide, 207
power law, 46
power-precision grip, 313
Powerbreaker, 413
PP See polypropylene
prepreg mat, 153
pressurised air systems, 226
Prolene, 122
propane, 253
propane gas, 245
Protector, 413
PTFE tape, 294
PVC See polyvinyl chloride
R101 disaster, 195
radiography, 56–8
contact radiographs of fibre orientation in composite polymer, 58
contact radiography, 58
ramie, 17
rate law, 44
RCD See residual current devices
recycling, 402
reflected light microscopy, 59
repeat unit, 3
fitted into 13 amp plug, 411
mechanical switch, 412
patent action, 413–14
primed mechanism and balance of forces in equilibrium state, 412
residual strain, 203
Rilsan, 392
Rilsan diesel fuel line, 390
Rilsan nylon fuel pipes, 374–90
car fire in Ireland, 383–5
Fiat car remains, 384
Rilsan feed and return fuel pipes inside passenger compartment, 385
Fiat fuel lines, 379–83
fuel pipes of Mirafiori saloon car, 380
histogram of ozone cracks in smooth rubber fuel pipe, 381
ozone cracks formation under tensile stress, 381
ozone cracks in NBR rubber fuel hose, 380
Rilsan fuel pipe abrasion, 380
fires in tunnels, 389–90
first encounters, 374–6
fire-damaged Ford Cortina, 375
fuel hose showing split at extreme right and mark in bore at top, 376
remains of fuel pump inlet hose, 375
global markets, 388–9
Murphy infants-v-Fiat spa, 385–6
other Mirafiori fires, 387–8
Sir John Gielgud, 377–8
fire damage to Fiat Mirafiori saloon car, 378
U-clip holding the fuel pipes, 379
spider lines, 376–7
road cones, 446
RoSPA, 435
rotational moulding, 48
rubber seals, 306–7
rubber toughened polymers, 25
rubber washers, 294
rust, 236
SAN See styrene-acrylonitrile
SBR See styrene butadiene rubber
SBS copolymers See styrene-butadiene copolymers
SCC See stress corrosion cracking
scission, 446
screw test, 410
security caps, for gas cylinders, 324–8
before fitment showing hinges and gates, 326
maximum torque in hand grip of cylinder of various diameters, 328
safety guard for oxygen cylinder, 325
storage failures, 325–7
torque test development, 327–8
weld lines in thin polymer hinges of cap guard, 327
selenium crystal, 276
SEM See scanning electron microscopy
semi-conductor factory, failed elastomeric seals, 281–93
shear, 21
shellac, 17
silicon, 423
silicone, 302
silicone mastics, 301–6
calorimetry, 303
beige sealant single boiling point, 304
brown sealant showing multiple endotherms, 305
paraffin oil thermogram, 304
fire station training building, 301–2
sealant analysis, 302–3
sealant drip from a joint, 302
sealant extensive deterioration, 303
for breast tissue expander, 114–21
silk, 18
Silver Bridge, 444
sintering, 48
small polymeric containers, 176–224
battery containers failure, 177–84
aircraft batteries, 182
failures, 178–9
hard rubber tank storage battery, 178
investigation, 179–80
material analysis, 180–1
military batteries, 177–8
patent action, 182–4
plan and section of handle, 180
screw thread and brittle crack, 181
single handle held by single screw to case, 179
stripped thread on aircraft storage battery, 182
thin walled battery container Polycase UK, 183
buckets failure, 184–7
weld line formation, 186–7
design improvement to prevent failure, 219–24
alleged hydrogen explosion, 220–1
damaged case from Pasminco mine, 220
further developments, 223–4
possible crack path map, 221
South African lamps, 221–3
exploding batteries, 187–95
bulging ends of battery case, 192
crack origins from inner corners, 190
critical crack in battery top, 189
exploded car battery, 192
fire brigade incident, 188–9
Hindenburg disaster, 1937, 193–5
hydrogen explosions, 190–1
internal explosion in large lead-acid battery case, 189
material quality, 190
personal injury, 191–3
failed truck battery cases, 195–8
cracked prototype truck battery lids, 196
first failures, 196–8
sharp inner corners on truck cases, 197
miner lamp battery casings failure, 198–219
colliery experience, 217–19
first failures, 200–1
moulding conditions, 211–13
new design in polycarbonate, 200
polishing, 207–10
practical applications, 215–17
property checks, 206–7
strain birefringence, 203–5
stress concentrations, 213–15
in cases of British batteries, 222
in cases of South African batteries, 222
SMC, 293
Society of Plastics Engineers, 107
soda-lime-silica glass, 7
sodium carbonate, 445
sodium hypochlorite, 331
sodium hypochlorite solution, 265
solid polybutadiene rubber, 365
Spectra, 15
Staphylinidae, 425
steel-rubber bond, 373
broken stubs, 344
combination with blue feet, tips and connectors, 340
failed, 339–42
stereomicroscopy, 59
storage tanks See polymer storage tanks
strain analysis, 53
stress concentration factor, 319
hypothesis, 111–12
nylon connectors, 390–3
failure sequence schematic diagram, 392
final cusp showing intermittent crack growth, 392
fracture surface, 391
fractured nylon connector vs intact return tube, 391
recovery vehicle responsible for diesel leak, 390
stained fracture in acetal fitting, 30
striking-out motion, 386
styrene-butadiene copolymers, 91–2
microstructure, 92
sulphation ghost, 188
sulphur dioxide, 27
forensic investigation of failure, 121–4
fractured test end of Vicryl suture, 123
new suture analysis, 122–3
outcome, 124
possible causes of failure, 123–4
wound opening, 121–2
swimming pool steps, 336–8
broken step, 337
fatigue striations at upper right near origin, 338
ladder with top step replaced after failure, 337
part of fracture origin, 337
switches See kettle switches
T type batteries, 217
tailpack, in motorbike accident, 350–9
alternative theory, 355–7
bungee cords, 354–5
critical speed, 357
damaged bike lock, 354
damaged tailpack, 353
deeper analysis, 352–4
design, 358–9
lead motorbike after accident, 351
reconstruction of tailpack perched on bike rear seat, 352
schematic diagram of bag stability showing forces acting on the bag, 356
seized wheel, 350–2
rear wheel puncture after wheel seizure, 351
skid mark from rear wheel of lead motorbike, 351
sideways slippage, 353
skid mark analysis, 358
teak oils, 301
tensile modulus, 50
tensile strain, 234
tensile strength half-life, 299
tensile stress relaxation, 51–2
tensile testing, 50
tension, 21
tetrahydrofuran, 71
tetramethyl silane, 85
thermal analysis, 81–5
analysis methods, 82
crystallisation properties of polyethylenes, 85
melting behaviour of various polyethylenes, 84
schematic DSC thermogram, 83
thermal transitions, 82
thermogram of PET from soft drink bottle, 84
thermal expansion, 166–7
thermal failure, 67–8
thermocouple, 33
direct examination, 298
DSC thermograms of new and failed washers, 298
fatigue striations on fracture surface, 299
hydrolysis, 299–300
leaks in CHS systems, 294–5
cracked seals fitted to steel plugs, 296
failed washer as received, 296
radiator with cracked washer, 295
new washers, 294
radiator washers failures, 293–300
simulation experiments, 296–8
extrusion and paint on seal surface of cracked washer, 297
Hytrel washers exposure experiments, 297
polymer extrusion on failed washer, 297
thermal stability to hydrolysis, 300
thermoplastic transformer plugs See Noryl plugs
torsion, 22
Total Parental Nutrition, 448
TPE See thermoplastic elastomers
Transco, 243
tri-butylphosphate, 401
triboelectrification, 292
tricresyl phosphate, 402
tung, 301
Tuohy needle, 93
Twaron, 15
tyres, 365–74
damage to crown of tyre, 368
failed truck tyre from fatal accident, 367
fraying of tyre cords, 370
modern tyre technology, 371–4
Concorde tyre fragment, 373
Concorde with fuel tanks above landing gear and wheels, 372
failed bearing from Renault Espace, 373
helicopter rotor bearing with multiple rubber layers, 374
piece of titanium strapping which initiated the Paris disaster, 372
oblique view of damaged tyre, 367
oxygen and ozone cracking, 369–70
depth of cracking in sidewall, 369
outer section of sidewall, 369
sequence of events, 370–1
truck tyre failure, 366–8
truck remains from fatal motorway accident, 367
ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene, 15
fractured and whitened battery top, 29
unplasticised polyvinyl chloride, 154
Unsafe at any Speed, 393
uPVC See unplasticised polyvinyl chloride
US Industrial Alcohol, 136–7
UV absorbent, 35
phenolic UV stabiliser structure, 78
spectrum of extracts showing effect of added stabiliser, 78
van der Waals bonds, 9–11
rotational isomerism, 10
Vickers hardness, 298
Vicryl suture, 121–4
fractured test end, 123
village level operation and maintenance, 236
viscoelastic master curve, 11–12
viscometry, 72
visual observation, 55
lip seals, 306
VOC See volatile organic components
volatile organic components, 290
vulcanisation, 272
vulcanised rubber, 374
failure, 145
washers, 293
water piping fracture, 227–35
fracture at solvent welded joint, 231
fracture close-up, 231
fractured collar of rising main on sprinkler system, 230
void between pipe and collar at joint fracture, 232
causes of failure, 235
factory crisis, 227–8
adjuster after the incident, 228
accident, 229
new air valve fitted to sprinkler system, 229
sprinkler system plan, 230
reconstruction, 232–3
fracture reconstruction to show twist and separation, 233
original photo of fracture, 232
pipe stresses from hydrostatic pressure, 234
stresses on pipe, 233–4
water pumps failure, 235–43
fatigue tests, 238–40
bonded area and unbonded joint tracing, 239
failure by joint pull-out, 239
fatigue crack at corner of solvent welded joint, 239
hand pump, 237
machined PVC problem, 240–2
bag wrapping machine using grey PVC components, 241
long arm showing large gap in joint, 241
outer joint showing gaps, 242
mediation, 242–3
methylene chloride test for PVC water pipes, 238
long arm showing large gap in joint, 241
outer joint showing gaps, 242
rising mains, 236–8
weakest link principle, 87
wear process, 67
welding, 48–50
Welding Institute, 155
whitening, 28
wind tunnel tests, 358
Woolwich Arsenal, 217
wound opening, 121–2
wrapping machine, 240
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