Chapter Three

Clean and Sustainable Energy Technologies

M. Arshad     University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan

Abstract

The demand of energy, a prerequisite of industrialization and economic development, is predicted to rise in future. Presently, worldwide major and core energy source is fossil. Its use is deteriorating the environment leading to serious problems for human health. Energy generated from clean, easily accessible means would add in sustainability, at a reasonable cost without any adverse effects. Such clean and sustainable sources include biomass, solar, wind, and hydro resources. As of 2016, the clean energy supply is 14% of the total world energy demand, and its share is expected to increase significantly (30–80%) in 2100. Usable form of energy can be generated from mechanical energy from water and winds. Biomass can provide energy invested in it through photosynthesis. Any kind of energy extracted from solar activity is clean and sustainable. In this chapter these clean energy technologies are discussed with their worldwide potential.

Keywords

Biomass energy; Environment friendly; Hydroelectricity; Socially responsible technologies; Solar power; Sustainable energy systems; Wind energy

3.1. Introduction

Consistent and secure energy resources are mandatory for our mobility, prosperity, and daily comfort in modern way of life. Current energy means have been divided into three broad classes: the first is derived from fossil fuels, the second is all the renewable resources, and the third one is energy taken from nuclear resource [1]. The world's energy future is anticipating renewable energy (RE) resources for the reason that optimum implications of such resources curtail environmental impacts and generate lesser wastes [2]. The energy sources that may be used as RE sources are solar, wind, biomass, and hydro energy sources [3]. Around the globe, renewable resources are frequently available naturally. As of mid-2016, about 14% of world's energy requirement is being met from these resources [4].
The RE resources presented in Table 3.1 emit fewer pollutants as compared to fossil fuels obeying the principles of sustainability.
The various RE policies, lessening the cost of numerous RE technologies, fluctuation in the fossil fuel prices, and rising energy demands have fortified the ongoing intensification in the use of RE (Table 3.2).
Generation of power through hydropower stations, various modern biomass opportunities, photovoltaic (PV) system, and wind turbines will upsurge in future and will increase the share of these technologies in hybrid systems that combine multiple technologies.

Table 3.1

Key Renewable Energy Resources and Their Usage Forms [5]

Energy SourceEnergy Conversion and Usage Options
HydropowerPower generation
Modern biomassHeat and power generation, pyrolysis, gasification, digestion
SolarSolar home system, solar dryers, solar cookers, direct solar photovoltaics, thermal power generation, water heaters
WindPower generation, wind generators, windmills, water pumps

Table 3.2

Current and Projected Global Renewable Energy Usage by Category [6]

201020202035
Bioenergy033106961487
Hydro343145135677
Wind034212722681
Solar PV003203320846
Concentrating solar power250278
Share of total production10%12%14%

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3.2. Biomass

This chapter evaluates biomass as a substitute source of fossil fuels for energy supply. Since human's dawn, biomass has fulfilled the world's energy needs and has provided fuel [7]. The industrialization had taken off as the consumption of fossil fuels started [8], and now their utilization has reached quickly at the top.
The term biomass is applied to biological materials originated from plant life together with algae derived through photosynthesis. Carbohydrates are produced as initial building blocks from the photosynthetic process occurring among CO2, water, and solar rays [9]. Usually biomass is reaped to use it as feed, food, fiber, and as structural materials [10]. The remaining is left in the growth zones for natural decay and later on may be well used as fossil fuels. On the other hand, with the help of novel techniques, biomass and other wastes may be transformed into useful synthetic fuels [11].

3.2.1. Classification of Biomass Materials

European Commission categorized a number of biomass resources into products and byproducts with remnants from crop growing (agriculture), forestry, and linked industries, in addition to the decomposable portions of agricultural industries and urbanite waste [11].
Uses and purposes of the biomass resources are usually basics of their classification [12]. Table 3.3 gives a thorough classification of biomass resources and examples of each kind.
According to different varieties, biomass is grouped into four main types [13]:
• woody plants,
• herbaceous plants and grasses,
• aquatic plants,
• manures.

3.2.2. Processing of Biomass

Based on the processing techniques, biomass can be more categorized into those having high-moisture ratios and the ones with low-moisture content. Most of the commercial research achievements have focused the lesser moisture–containing plants, such as woody plants and herbaceous species.

Table 3.3

Sorting of Biomass Resources Presenting Their Commencement

Mode of LifePlant/Animal SourceClass of BiomaterialsMajor Representative
TerrestrialPlantsCarbohydrateSugar cane, corn, sweet sorghum
StarchMaize, cassava, sweet potato
Cellulosic materialsTropical grasses, poplar, sycamore
Forestry
HydrocarbonEucalyptus, green coral
LipidsOil palm rapeseed sunflower
CelluloseWheat bran, straw
Vegetable residues, processing residues
Farm residues
Secondary forest
Woodland remnants
Crippled material in plants
Fisheries/animal husbandryProteinaceousJettisoned and dead fish
Organic matterAnimal manure
ProteinaceousAnimal slaughtering waste
HumansOrganic matterMunicipal and pulp sludge
Organic matterFamily garbage, feces
AquaticFresh waterCelluloseWater hyacinth
OceanCelluloseLarge kelp
MicroorganismCellulose, lipids, carbohydratesGreen algae, photosynthetic bacteria

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Wet processing techniques based on biochemical processes, such as fermentation, are much appropriate for aquatic materials and manures that naturally have elevated levels of moisture. Techniques such as gasification, pyrolysis, or combustion are more economically right to dry biomass such as wood chips. Wet handling techniques are employed where moisture contents of the materials are so high that the energy required for drying would be extremely high as compared to the energy content of the product formed. Other than moisture contents, ash, alkali, and trace component contents are considerable factors in consideration of suitable processing technique (Table 3.4).
Lot of work has been performed to understand the methane fermentation process to explore the biochemistry and microbiology of the organisms involved. Now the biomass conversion into fuels has been advanced. Complex biomolecules of the biomass are decomposed to lower molecular weight molecules, which are further transformed into methane and CO2. If the fermentable biomass is frequently available, the anaerobic digestion process can be operated on a large scale for a long period just keeping the important fermentation parameters within acceptable range. Other than lignin and keratins that have low biodegradability, nearly all types of biomass can be processed.

Table 3.4

Major Pathways of Biomass Processing Showing Key Issues and Advantages With Current Advances [14–42]

Processing PathwaysKey IssuesMajor Advantages With Current Improvements
GasificationProduction of tar is problematic [14].According to Ref. [15], adsorption as well as catalytic transformation engagement with char-based adsorbents/catalysts can eliminate tar successfully.
The ignition engine has been designed that can be driven on impure syngas and can tolerate tar issues [16].
Integrated gasification with gas cleaning and conditioning was proposed as a better option [17].
PyrolysisHigh content of O2 and H2O being there lowers the quality [18].
Rapid pyrolysis at high temperatures 300–500°C in the presence of catalyst can result into fuels, which have the oxygen removed [21].
Biomass torrefaction was upgraded to reduce functional groups having oxygen [22].
Oil obtained is below par for direct blending with fossil fuels [19].
Chemistry of the product is yet to be explored [20].
Hydrothermal liquefactionIn effect, solvents with suitable catalysts to reduce the number of products is still to be searched.About 80% energy from biomass is recovered to fuel through hydrothermal liquefaction, which is excellent as compared to other biomass-processing pathways [25].
Biomass-processing cost through liquefaction is very high [23].The product almost resembles petroleum crude other than high nitrogen and oxygen ratios.
As water is the processing medium, large amount of water is required [24].Homogenous alkaline catalysts in solution form can reduce the nitrogen and oxygen ratios in the final product [26–28].
Enzymatic hydrolysisEnzymes required for pretreatment are very costly [29].Biomass hydrolysis is performed at pH 4.8 and 45–50°C temperature, then the applicable enzymes cost can be reduced [30].
Applications of genetically reconstructed microbes that can produce ethanol from xylose and other pentose directly.
Optimization of enzyme application can significantly improve ethanol production efficiency reducing the production cost [31].
Table Continued

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Processing PathwaysKey IssuesMajor Advantages With Current Improvements
Dilute acid hydrolysis (DAH)Retrieval of sugar is low.Decreasing the feedstock size can improve the recovery of sugar and pretreatment cost [33].
Production of furfural and related compounds inhibits the fermentation of sugars to ethanol [32].
Concentrated acid hydrolysis (CAH)Recycling of acid is a difficult task [34].Major benefits of concentrated acid hydrolysis are better sugar recovery, minimum concentration of inhibitors [32].
Corrosion problems.
Ca[OH]2 is added to counteract the acid, so
calcium sulfate originates [35]. Its disposal is an additional task.
Ionic liquids (ILs)To recover the ionic liquids is a difficult task as both sugars and ionic liquids have comparable solubility [36].
Most of the ionic liquids are environment friendly [38].
Having H+ and hydrogen sulfate [HSO4]− anion are comparable in effectiveness and process cost with other pretreatment methods.
Further, ionic liquids inhibit the fermentation process also [37].
Another issue with ionic liquids is their high cost [38].
Mechanical extractionExtra heating with high temperature ends in a low nutritional value cake and lower quality oil.Simple process.
High-skilled supervisors are not required.
Provides high protein cake [39].
Chemical extractionThe operative design must be improved considering the mass transfer kinetics [40].The process is environment and human friendly.
Properties of CO2 may be adjusted to improve selectivity [41].
Transesterification of vegetable oilsHigh viscosity issues.It is decomposable, recyclable, and nontoxic.
Low heating values.
Commercialization can be done, but cost is very high [42].

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3.2.3. Conclusion

Energy generation from biomass is the global move to reduce the environmental impact of fossil fuel. Energy produced from nonfood feed sources can practically substitute the power generated from fossil fuels. The use of indigenous sources can also increase energy security with the mitigation of global warming. During 2000s, the energy generation from biomass has demonstrated a fast growth, as many countries look after it well.
Energy yielded through biochemical and thermochemical routes is suitable to fulfill the current needs. The thermochemical processes transform biomass into useable energy within less time as compared to biochemical methods that proceed up to many hours for transformation. Now research has been focused on modeling transformational pathway for their optimization to increase the performance and decrease the production cost. Eventually, an approach considering all issues is expected for better generation of bioenergy utilizing the indigenous biomass.

3.3. Solar Power

There have been continuous efforts to explore alternative ways to replace the fossil fuel and to meet the globally cumulated need for energy due to rapidly increasing population and intensifying demand from developing countries. The challenge has to be replied with a low-cost solution employing raw materials available in abundance. Clearly the sun is the ultimate focal point for unpolluted and inexpensive energy, exploited by nature to support virtually whole life on earth; it can offer a fully developed solution for the energy crisis [43]. Therefore, solar cells can be taken as a major RE resource once their production cost is reduced to a reasonable level, similar to other available energy resources. Accordingly, fixing the energy from the solar system with PV equipment seems to be a sensible huge scales response to the current energy issue [44].
Various methods are available to harness the energy of solar radiation from the sun. Active solar heating, passive solar heating, and solar engines for electricity generation are included. For small-scale heating, such as at the domestic level, active solar energy system is utilized that can reduce electrical consumption [45].
Passive efficiency of housing and other buildings can be improved through passive solar heating systems. In this technique, the equipment that can consume the energy of solar radiation to heat a building is employed. It may take in conservatory, Trombe wall, and direct gain–type applications [46].
Solar heat engines are meant for electricity generation. By and large, reflective glasses are fixed to direct the solar radiations over a water source or some other fluid, steam is generated through evaporation. The steam is employed to run a turbine for power generation [47].

3.3.1. Application and Advantages of Solar Energy

Production of electricity using solar energy to replace fossil fuels has been increased globally as it is clearly environment friendly as compared to all the other energy sources. The natural resources are not used up; neither CO2 nor other gaseous and solid waste products are released [48].
Following are the major advantages:
• zero greenhouse gases (GHGs; CO2, NOx) discharge;
• no release of toxic gases (SO2, particulates);
• reparation of barren land;
• reduced cost of transmission lines from electricity grids;
• security of energy supply and diversification with national energy independence;
• speeding up of rural electrification.
Due to increased global climate change, pressure of intensifying energy consumption rate, and international arrangements to diminish the GHGs release, it is being thought that how to access solar energy. For this, governments worldwide are launching their national objectives for the provision of electricity from RE and are hence trying to set up the various solar energy policies in different countries [49].
Moreover, solar energy–based electricity generation is getting pace in every corner of the world. Solar electricity is normally generated from two methods: first is PV and the other is concentrated solar power (CSP).

3.3.2. Solar Photovoltaics

Solar PV units are solid-state semiconductor equipment combined of many elements, such as cells; mechanical; and electrical mountings, having the ability to transform solar energy into electricity [50].
When photons of the solar light smash the cells surface, these are absorbed and pair of electrons and holes is generated. The generated electrons and holes rush toward the n-type side and p-type side. As the two sides of the PV cell are attached through its load, an electric current is produced and it flows as long as solar system is available to hit the cell. PV power generation systems are built on batteries, inverters, chargers, discharge controllers, and solar tracking control systems, other than solar cells. Constituents of PV sheets are monocrystalline silicon, polycrystalline silicon, microcrystalline silicon, copper indium selenide, and cadmium telluride [51]. The C–Si technology is globally getting almost 87% of the total PV sales in the year 2010 [52]. Leading producer in PV cell is China, whereas European countries are leaders by the installation capacities of PV power outputs of 39 GW by the end of 2011 [53]. Although CSP plants keep high capacity to add for future energy needs, in the year 2012, about 98% of solar plants installed were based on PV systems [54]. It is the world's rapid-growing energy technology, as PV production has doubled every 2 years, since 2002 [55].
Up-to-date solar PV systems possess abilities to generate 10–60 MW and can now be functional up to 10 years at 90% and for up to 25 years at 80% of its rated power capacity [56]. The leading PV manufacturers include First Solar, Suntech Power, Sharp, Q-Cells, Yingly Green Energy, JA Solar, Kyosera, Trina Solar, Sunpower, and Gintech [57].

3.3.3. Solar Thermal Application

Thermal solar energy is the most commonly available source that can be utilized for cooking, water heating, crop drying, and so on [58]. Solar cooking is the utmost direct and useful application of energy from the sun [59,60,61].
Benefits and disadvantages of solar ovens were compared with traditional firewood and electric stoves [62]. The payback period of a common hot box–type solar oven, even if used 6–8 months a year, is around 12–14 months, about 16.8 million tons of firewood can be saved and the emission of 38.4 million tons of CO2 per year can also be prevented.
According to Ref. [63], solar water heating system of 100 L/day volume installed at home can alleviate around 1237 kg of CO2 emissions in a year. Solar-drying technology offers an alternative, which can process the vegetables and fruits in clean, hygienic, and sanitary conditions with zero energy costs. It saves energy and time, occupies less area, and improves the product quality of heliostat field collectors [64].

3.3.4. Concentrated Solar Power

In CSP, solar radiations are concentrated to generate steam to drive a conventional turbine or engine for the production of electricity. The major difference from solar PV is that the heat may be kept, commonly through using molten salts or oil as the liquid medium in the solar receiver, and electricity can be generated outside of solar light hours [65]. Furthermore, solar thermal technology offers the ability to match increased supply during periods of intense summer radiations with peak demand associated with space cooling requirements.
Solar thermal technology is commonly used for hot water systems. Solar thermal electricity, also known as concentrating solar power, is typically designed for large-scale power generation. Solar thermal technologies can also operate in hybrid systems with fossil fuel power plants, and, with appropriate storage, have the potential to provide base load electricity generation. Solar thermal technologies can also potentially provide electricity to remote townships and mining centers where the cost of alternative electricity sources is high [66,67].

3.3.5. Conclusion

As fossil fuel supplies are expected to be less available, more expensive, and of increasing environmental concern in the coming century, increasing dependence on energy conservation and alternative energy sources is expected. The most obvious alternative energy source is the sun.
The solar-based energy-generating system is rapidly growing worldwide. To keep its growth up, fresh improvements in material utilization, alternate designs, and consistency of production technologies are highly needed. Key attraction for international funding to sponsor PV energy systems is its competence to keep up a clean energy source. It can also help to improve basic living standard. Slowly but surely, solar energy system is being employed in programs that develop education, water supply, and healthcare.

3.4. Wind Power

Wind power is the second largest, developed, and commercially utilized RE technology applied for electricity generation, which is achieved on an average annual growth of 28% during the period 2001–11 [68,69], and its average installed capacity has doubled every 3 years.
Wind energy can be transformed into convenient forms: through wind turbines to generate electricity, by wind mills for mechanical power and wind pumps can pump water or drainage, or sails to propel ships [70]. Humans have been using wind power since almost 3000 years ago, but up to the early 20th century, it was just used to provide mechanical power to pump water or to grind grain. Fossil fuels replaced wind energy at the start of the industrialization era [71]. Electricity is produced from the wind through utilization of the kinetic energy that the air possesses. The kinetic energy of the air is firstly transformed to mechanical energy and then to electrical energy. The challenge for the modern industry is to design cost effective wind turbines and power plants to do these energy-form transformations. Available kinetic energy in the wind can be extracted up to 40–50% only. Therefore design of the wind turbines must be improved to maximize the energy captured. Since mid-1960s different onshore wind turbine configurations with horizontal and vertical axes have been investigated. The horizontal axis design came to dominate with time, even though configurations varied, especially the number of blades and blades' orientation. Wind power plants, sometimes named as wind farms (5–300 MW in size), are created by installing together the many wind turbines [72,73].
In 2007, wind-generated electricity fulfilled above 1% of the global demand [74]. As the growth continued in 2008, a further 27 GW of capacity was commissioned [75]. It has been predicted that installed capacity will increase fivefold over the next 10-year period [76].
Now the wind energy technology is mature enough and marketable as the price of wind power is generally reasonable compared to other types of power generation. Emission avoided by this technology ranges from 391 to 828 g of CO2/kWh [77].
It is worth mentioning that almost 80% of the worldwide wind capacity is installed in Germany, USA, Denmark, India, and Spain. Hence, most of the knowledge and experience of wind energy recline in these five countries only.

3.4.1. World Wind Energy Scenario

Potential of onshore wind power is very high, that is, 20,000 × 109 to 50,000 × 109 kWh per annum as compared to current total world electricity consumption of 15,000 × 109 kWh. The economic potential depends upon factors such as average wind speed, statistical wind speed distribution, turbulence intensities, and the cost of wind turbine systems. The aggregate global wind energy size has been grown to 46,048 MW.
The five major countries with the highest total installed wind power capacity are Germany; 16,500 MW, Spain; 8000 MW, the United States; 6800 MW, Denmark; 3121 MW, and India; 2800 MW, nearly 80% of total wind energy installed worldwide. Other countries, such as Italy, the Netherlands, Japan, and the United Kingdom, are above or near the 1000 MW mark.

3.4.2. Problems Associated With Wind Turbines

Wind turbine components are subjected to various problems. Some methods used for reducing failure of wind turbine components has been reviewed in this chapter.
ReferencesSuggestions
[78]Discussed the fatigue issue and their remedy.
[79]Stated that the fatigue-specific failure mechanism depends on material or structural defect.
[80]Designed a new analytical model against corrosion fatigue.
[81]Studied the structural dynamic characteristics of rotor blades to avoid sympathetic vibration problem.
[82]Proposed a model to avoid ice deposits on wind turbines.
[83]Discussed the environmental impact of wind power system.
[84]Applied multilayered metallic coating against fatigue cracks.
[85]Used asbestos-free friction-lining material.
[86]Discussed the problems faced at wind farms and how to tackle these.
[87]Given details about downwind turbine noise issues.
[88]Presented a solution for the uncertainties in the system load.

3.4.3. Conclusion

Advancement in technology has made outstanding developments in designs of wind turbines. Different factors, for instance, choice of site; elevation level; selection of wind generators; speed of wind; and wind power potential, have been well-thought-out for development of model wind turbines. Vibration issue of wind turbines with lifetime prediction of wind turbine blades has been well studied. Now, after this improved technology, wind turbine has been designed for optimum power production at lesser cost, and the wind turbine technology has a bright future globally.

3.5. Hydropower

Hydropower is the energy resulting from tidal energy possessed by flowing water due to height difference and flow speed. Energy possessed by moving water can generate electricity through turbines [89]. It is prophesied that the electricity generation from renewable sources will be shared majorly by hydropower. Hydropower sources provide 90% of RE and above 16% of total electricity globally [90], without emitting GHGs.
First, at the world summit on sustainable development in Johannesburg [91], and for a second time at the third world water forum in Kyoto (2003), the delegates of over 170 nations declared hydropower a RE source unanimously [92].
Hydro-based electricity is now being generated in over 150 countries. Present worldwide hydroelectricity installed capacity is about 970 GW [93]. Global hydropower production remained about 3500 TWh in the year 2011. Nearly 50% of global hydropower is produced in just three countries, United States, China, and Canada, collectively [94].
Hydropower projects can be designed at wide range and in several types to outfit specific requirements of particular site conditions. Hydropower neither consumes nor pollutes the water, to produce electricity, but it lets go this vital source to be accessible for other usages. The incomes made by sales of power can fund other arrangements crucial for humans, such as drinking water supply systems, irrigation structures for agriculture, navigation organization, and tourism. Every form of life on earth needs water. Unluckily, its distribution is uneven; some portions of the world are susceptible to drought, while in others parts, floods are the major cause of loss of lives and property [95].
Water has been always collected and stored in dams and reservoirs, through the history, to meet human needs [96].

3.5.1. Main Attributes of Hydropower As Renewable Energy Source

A major source of renewable energy:
Kinetic energy of moving water is utilized to get hydroelectricity, with no depletion of sources; so all kinds of hydropower ventures, minor or major, run-of-river or storage, fulfill the definition of RE.
Backbone of other renewables energy resources:
Hydropower projects with storage facilities provide an extraordinary operational flexibility that these can better bear out immediate changes in electricity demand. This ability makes hydro energy very capable and cost-effective technology to support the placement of intermittent RE sources, such as wind and solar power [97].
Energy security and price constancy:
The river water is a local resource, so it is free from world market instabilities [98].
Storage of fresh water:
Lakes for hydroelectricity generation gather the water of rain fall, also serve as a source of drinking and irrigation. Further, aquifers cannot be depleted.
Electric grid stability:
The management of electric grids depends on fast, flexible generation sources to meet peak power demands, maintaining system voltage level, and quickly restoring the service after a blackout [99].
Helpful in climate change scenario:
As the life cycle of hydropower releases minimum GHGs, it can help to slow global warming. Currently, hydroelectricity evades burning of 4.4 million barrels of oil equivalent daily [100].
Improvement of air quality:
No air pollutants are generated and substitute fossil-fired generation, thus decreasing acid rain and smog chances.
Contribution to development:
Hydropower facilities bring electricity, roads, industry, and commerce to communities, thereby developing the economy, improving access to health and education, and enhancing the quality of life.
Clean and affordable energy for present and future:
Easy to upgrade and fit in the latest innovations. Minimum operational and maintenance costs.
A tool for sustainable development:
Hydroelectricity projects are economically viable, environment friendly and socially responsible, and with the ability to serve future generations.

3.5.2. Conclusion

Although the hydropower is a site-specific technology, it is a more concentrated energy resource than others. The energy available is readily predictable and continuously available on demand with no environmental impact. Moreover, it is highly cost-effective, reliable, and environmentally sound means of providing power. Globally, there are many hilly areas of the world where grid electricity will perhaps not reach, but those regions have enough hydropower resources to fulfill local needs. To unfold the potential, it requires significant efforts and resources to be allocated for technology transfer.

3.6. Future Prospects and Challenges for Renewable Energy Technologies

RE systems are rapidly growing worldwide. To keep the growth rate up, they need novel improvements in the materials used, better designs, and highly reliable and productive technologies.
Presently, RE production systems market is being run by subsidies and tax exceptions. The key attraction is the competence of RE technologies to favor cleaner energy production sources. Following are the key areas to be addressed for promotion of these clean technologies.
The initial installation cost of RE systems are very much high, so the major challenge faced by such technologies is their costs. To apply RE system at a massive scale, technology must be cost-effective as compared to fossil fuel.
Improvement in manufacturing technologies and reduction of waste products (e.g., in biomass treatment) are required.
Power generation from RE sources (other than hydro) generates power in an intermittent way, so such technologies are not a good choice for a continuous load requirement. Therefore, these must be operated in conjunction with the utility grid or some kind of energy storage in order to achieve the required continuity in power supply.
These energy technologies produce no air or water pollution and do not emit any GHGs, but do have some indirect impacts on the environment.

Acknowledgment

The author is highly thankful to Ms. Sidra Jamil, Lecturer, English (Jhang-Campus) University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore Pakistan.

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