Index

Note: Page numbers followed by “f”, “t” and “b” refers to figures, tables and boxes respectively.

A

Absolute viscosity, 7
Accuracy, 7, 36–37, 73–74, 161
Acoustical twining, 7
AGA (American Gas Association), 46–48
Algorithm, 7
Ambient conditions, 7
Ambient pressure, 7
American Gas Association, See AGA (American Gas Association)
American Petroleum Institute, See API (American Petroleum Institute)
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, See ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers)
Anemometers, 214
ANSI (American National Standards Institute), 46–48, 123
API (American Petroleum Institute), 49–59, 237, 244
Applications (practical)
accuracy, 73–74, 82
calibration data, 80
compressibility, 84
data, recording and calculating, 85
density, 81–82
description, 1, 69, 70, 86–87
design limitations, 74–84
differential pressure, 82
flow profiles, 79
fluid characteristics data, 72–87
gauge lines, 77
installations, 70–71
piping requirements vs. flow profiles, 76
pulsating flow, 76
rangeability, 79
Reynolds number, 76
single-phase flow, 80–81
specific gravity, 82–83
supercompressibility, 83–84
swirling, 76f
technical limitations, 74–84
temperature, 82
uncertainty calculation, 72–73
See also Uncertainty calculation
ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers), 27, 37, 60, 123, 173, 177
Asymmetrical vs. symmetrical flow patterns, 115
Audits and auditing
analysis equipment, 265
benefits, 272
chart auditing, 8
custody transfer, 263–264, 263
See also Custody transfer
definitions, 263
definitive testing, 267–268
description, 1, 263, 264
evidence, 266–267
gas measurement systems, 271
information sources, 269
liquid measurement, 272
meters, 264
objectives, 266
principles, 265–266
procedures, 266
reviews, 269
Averaging Pitot tubes, 185

B

Balance studies, 16, 245, 250
Ball hones, 147
Base conditions, 7
Bernoulli theorem, 19–20
Beta ratio, 8
Bidirectional provers, 233
Billing, 36
Boyle’s Law, 11, 23–24
British Standards Institute, 45

C

Calibration, 8, 80, 139, 140
Calorimeters and calorimetry, 8, 100–101, 228–229
Carbon dioxide, 99
Central test facilities, 239
Certification and recertification, 8, 139
Charles’ Law, 11, 24
Check meters, 8
Chilled meter test, 8
Chromatographs, 139
Clean vs. dirty pipelines, 116
Cleaning procedures, 146–148
Clock rotation, 8
Commercial vs. pure products, 94
Compact provers, 234
Compressibility, 8, 83–84
Condensation, 8, 13
Condensing point, 8
Conservation of energy (law), 19–20
Conservation of mass (law), 19
Contaminants, 8
Continuous flow, 107
Contracts, 33–36, 269
Control signals, 8, 43
Coriolis meters, 104–105, 106, 154, 162t, 188–190, 197
Corrected volume, 251–261
differential pressure, 252–256
flowing temperature, 257–259
flow time, 259–261
fluid analysis, 259
Critical flow provers, 8, 237–238
Critical point, 8
Critical pressure, 8
Critical temperature, 8
Crude oil, 6, 52, 102, 103, 156, 225–226
Custody transfer
accuracy, 36–37
audits and auditing, 273
See also Audits and auditing
billing, 36
contract requirements, 33–36
definition, 8, 32–42
delivery points, 34
description, 32–42, 41–42
equipment maintenance, 38
See also Maintenance, meters and meter equipment
operational considerations, 41, 120, 122
See also Operational considerations
Seraphim cans, 39
See also Seraphim cans
uncertainty calculation, 37–38
See also Uncertainty calculation

D

Dampening, 8
Definitive testing and audits, 267–268
See also Audits and auditing
Dehydrated fluids, 10
Delivery points, 34
Density, 8–9, 81–82
Deposits, 145, 146, 149–153
Design limitations, 74–84
Dew points, 11, 17
Diameter ratio, 9
Differential (head) meters
characteristics and comparisons, 162t
definition, 167
description, 1, 159–160, 167, 169
elbow meters, 162t, 186
equations, 175–178
See also Laws and equations
flow nozzle meters, 162t, 180–182
gas meters, 125
orifice meters, 162t, 169, 174
Pitot tubes (standard and averaging), 185
standards vs. design changes, 169–174
testers, 139
Venturi meters, 160–165, 169, 183–184
Differential head meter, 258f
Differential Pressure, 9, 82, 120, 121, 141, 222–223, 252–256
Direct path ultrasonic meters, 193f
Dirty (grass) crude oil, 103
Dirty vs. clean pipelines, 116
Discharge coefficient, 9
Distortion, 115
Doppler meters, 162t, 187, 191
Dusts, 145, 149–153
Dynamic vs. static metering, 244, 245

E

Eddies (recirculation regions), 14
EFMs (electronic flow meters), 9, 151–153
Elbow meters, 162t, 186
Electromagnetic meters, 187, 190–191
Electronic flow meters, See EFMs (electronic flow meters)
Electronics, secondary systems, 217–219
See also Secondary systems
Elements (primary and secondary), 9
Empirical Tests, 9
Energy, 9
Equation of State, 9
Equations, See Laws and equations
Ethane, 97
Ethylene, 98, 104
Evidence, 266–267
See also Audits and auditing
Expansion of liquids (law), 26
Extension tubes (pigtails), 9

F

Ferric oxide, 145
Flange taps, 9
Flashing liquids, 9, 93
Floating piston cylinders, 9
Flow characteristics
characteristics and patterns
clean vs. dirty pipelines, 116
continuous flow, 107–109
description, 107–109, 111–116
distortion, 115
fluctuating flow, 108
frequency (pulsation vs. fluctuation), 108
full-conduit flow, 109
ideal flow, 9
laminar flow, 11
layered flow, 9
non-fluctuating flow, 9, 107–109
non-pulsating flow, 107–109
non-swirling flow, 9
pulsating flow, 10, 76
Reynolds number, 22–23, 93, 111–116
slug flow, 10
start/stop flow rates, 107
swirling flow, 115
symmetrical vs. asymmetrical flow patterns, 115
tanker loading examples, 107
totalized flow, 10
turbulent flow, 17
definitions, 2, 9, 10, 107
description, 1, 107
flow equations, 20–21, 27–28
flow phases
single-phase, 80–81, 91–93
two-phase, 91, 106
flow profiles, 76, 77
measurement, 1, 31, 110
measurement fluids, 89
See also Fluid characteristics
piping requirements vs. flow profiles, 76
reference standards, 116
See also Reference standards
Flow computers vs. chart integration, 141–149
Flow nozzle meters, 162t, 180–182
Flow time, 259–261
Flowing temperature, 257–259
Fluctuating flow, 108
Fluid analysis, 259
Fluid characteristics
data, 72–87
data sources, 93–95
definition, 2, 89–95
dehydrated fluids, 10
description, 1, 89–95
flow measurement fluids
low risk vs. high risk, 89, 90–91
PVT (pressure/volume/temperature) relationships, 89, 93, 97, 105–106
types, 31
flow phases
single-phase, 91–93
two-phase, 91, 106
gasses
calorimeter tests, 100–101
carbon dioxide, 99
characteristics, 95–102
description, 95
ethane, 97
ethylene, 98
mixtures, 97
natural, 95–96
propane, 98
propylene, 99
steam, 100
liquids
characteristics, 102–106
crude oil, 102
description, 102
flashing, 93
refined products, 14, 103–104
LUAF (loss and unaccounted for) fluids, 241
measurement types, 31
pure vs. commercial products, 94
reference standards listings, 106
requirements, 91–93
Reynolds number, 22–23, 93, 111–116
Folded bidirectional provers, 233, 234
Force majeure, 11
Fouling, 153–154
Frequency (pulsation vs. fluctuation), 108
Full-conduit flow, 109
Fundamental flow equation, 27–28

G

Gas laws
Boyle’s Law, 11, 23–24
Charles’ Law, 11, 24
description, 11
Ideal Gas Law, 11, 24
Real Gas Law, 14, 24
Gas meters, 125, 141–149
Gas Processors Association, See GPA (Gas Processors Association)
Gasoline, 104
Gasses
calorimeter tests, 100–101
carbon dioxide, 99
characteristics, 95–102
compressibility, 84
description, 95
ethane, 97
ethylene, 98
lift, 11
vs. liquids, See Fluid characteristics
LUAF (loss and unaccounted for) fluids, 246–250
mixtures, 97
natural, 96
propylene, 99
sampling, 226–228
steam, 100
supercompressibility, 83f
Gauge lines, 77
Gauging, tank, 130, 137–138
GPA (Gas Processors Association), 62–63
Grass (dirty) crude oil, 103

H

Heavy crude oil, 103
Heavy hydrocarbons, 104
Historical perspectives, 4–7
Hot loop, 15
Hot-wire anemometer, 214
Hydrates, 11
Hydrocarbons, 11, 104
Hysteresis, 165

I

Ideal flow equation, 20–21
Ideal Gas Law, 11, 23–24, 25f
Inspections, 146–148
Installations (ideal and non-ideal), 70–71, 71–72
Instrument Society of America, See ISA (Instrument Society of America)
Integration, 11
Internal controls, 11
International Organization of Legal Metrology, 65
International Standards Organization, See ISO (International Standards Organization)
Intrusive meters
multiphase, 162t, 163t, 196–197
nuclear, 197
PD (positive displacement), 162t, 163t, 199–202
turbine (gas and liquid), 162t, 163t, 202–208
Venturi, 162t, 163t, 197
vortex shedding, 162t, 163t, 208–210
Investment protection considerations, 138
ISA (Instrument Society of America), 63–67
ISO (International Standards Organization), 27

L

Lag time, 11
Laminar flow, 11
Laser Doppler meters, 187, 212
Laws and equations
Bernoulli theorem, 19–20
conservation of energy, 19–20
description, 1, 20
expansion of liquids
description, 26
temperature-effect correction, 26
Fluid Friction Law, 20
fundamental flow equation, 27–28
gas laws
Boyle’s Law, 11, 23–24, 23f
Charles’ Law, 11, 24
Ideal Gas Law, 24, 24
Real Gas Law, 14, 24
ideal flow equation, 20–21
Law of Continuity (conservation of mass), 19
mass rate, 19
mixtures laws, 12
reference standards, 23–25
See also Reference standards
Reynolds number, 22–23, 31, 76, 76, 93, 93, 111
total energy, 19–20
uncertainty calculation, 37–38, 123–131
See also Uncertainty calculation
volume flow rate, 28
Layered flow, 9
Level management, 11
Light crude oil, 102–103
Linear meters
characteristics and comparisons, 162t, 163t
description, 1, 187
intrusive
multiphase, 162t, 196–197
nuclear, 197
PD (positive displacement), 162t, 199–202
turbine (gas and liquid), 162t, 202–208
Venturi, 162t, 197
vortex shedding, 162t, 208–210
non-intrusive
advantages vs. disadvantages, 189–190, 190, 196
Coriolis, 162t, 187, 188–190, 197
description, 188
direct path ultrasonic, 193f
Doppler, 162t, 163t, 191
magnetic and electromagnetic, 187, 190–191
transit time, 162t, 191
ultrasonic, 162t, 187, 191–196
reference standards, 219–225
Linearity, 164–165
Liquid meters, 104, 154–155
Liquid provers
benefits, 237
bidirectional, 233
description, 231–232
folded bidirectional, 233
piston displacer, 235–236
pulse interpretation and, 234
small-volume (compact), 234
straight shaped, 233, 236f
unidirectional, 235
U-shaped bidirectional, 233
Liquids
characteristics, 102–106
compressibility, 83–84, 83f
crude oil, 102, 225–226
description, 1, 102–106
flashing, 93
LUAF (loss and unaccounted for) fluids, 244, 244, 245
Newtonian liquids, 12
refined products, 103–104
Loading examples, tanker, 107
Loss and unaccounted for (LUAF) fluids, See LUAF (loss and unaccounted for) fluids
LUAF (loss and unaccounted for) fluids
definition, 241
description, 241
fluid characteristics, See Fluid characteristics
gasses
balance studies, 250
characteristics, 249–250
description, 246–250
See also Gasses
metering data, 248
liquids
balance studies, 245
description, 243–245
See also Liquids
dynamic metering, 244
dynamic vs. static metering, 245
static metering, 244–245

M

Magnetic and electromagnetic meters, 187, 190–191
Maintenance, meters and meter equipment
ball hones, 145f
calibration, 139
certification and recertification, 139
chart integration vs. flow computers, 141f
chromatographs, 139
cleaning procedures, 146–148
Coriolis meters, 105f, 154
custody transfer meters, 139
deposits, 140, 144–145, 149, 149, 150
description, 1, 139, 139
differential meters and testers, 139
EFMs (electronic flow meters), 151–153
fouling, 153
gas meters, 141–149
inspections, 146–148
liquid meters, 154–155
master meters, 140
multi-path meters, 154
orifice meters, 141, 149–153
orifice plates, 141, 148f
Seraphim cans, 39
See also Seraphim cans
smart differential-pressure transmitters, 141
system balance tracking, 155
test devices, 139
thermometers, 139
ultrasonic meters, 153, 153, 153, 154, 154, 154, 154
visual inspections, 139–140
Mass
conservation (law), 19
definition, 12
rate (equation), 19
Master meters, 140
Measurement data analysis, 251
corrected volume, 251–261
differential pressure, 252–256
flowing temperature, 257–259
flow time, 259–261
fluid analysis, 259
Measurement types, fluid flow
custody transfer
accuracy, 36–37
audits and auditing, 41–42
See also Audits and auditing
billing, 36
contract requirements, 33–36
definition, 32
description, 32–42, 41–42
maintenance of meter equipment, 38
See also Maintenance, meters and meter equipment
material properties, 34–35
material quality, 34, 36
measurement station design, 34–35
measurement types, 35
operation considerations, 41
See also Operational considerations
point of delivery, 34
Seraphim cans, 39
See also Seraphim cans
uncertainty calculation, 37–38
See also Uncertainty calculation
definition, 2, 31
description, 1, 31, 43
non-custody transfer, 43
PVT (pressure/volume/temperature) relationships, 31
reference standards, 40
See also Reference standards
Reynolds number, 31
See also Reynolds number
Medium crude oil, 103
Meter factor, See MF (meter factor)
Meter type distribution, 254f, 254f
Meters and meter equipment
characteristics and comparisons, 159–160
check meters, 8
chilled meter test, 8
Coriolis meters, 162t, 187, 188–190, 197
description, 1, 159–160
design limitations, 74–84
differential (head) meters, 118–123, 160, 167
See also Differential (head) meters
direct path ultrasonic meters, 193f
Doppler meters, 162t, 187, 191
EFMs (electronic flow meters), 9, 151–153
elbow meters, 162t, 186
flow nozzle meters, 162t, 180–182
gas meters, 125
installation requirements, 110–111
intrusive meters, 162t, 196–210
linear meters, 162t, 187
See also Linear meters
liquid meters, 104
LUAF (loss and unaccounted for) fluids, 241, 241–242, 242, 242
magnetic and electromagnetic meters, 187, 190–191
measurement types, 31
meter parameters, 135
multiphase meters, 162t, 196–198
NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) meters, 187, 213
non-intrusive meters, 162t, 188–196
nuclear meters, 197
orifice meters, 125, 125, 126t, 127f, 127f, 162t, 169
PD (positive displacement) meters, 162t, 199–202
Pitot tubes (standard and averaging), 185–186
secondary systems, 41, 217
See also Secondary systems
special purpose meters, 1, 187, 210–215
testers, 139
transit-time meters, 162t, 191
turbine (gas and liquid) meters, 162t, 202–208
ultrasonic meters, 162t, 187, 191–196
Venturi meters, 162t, 167, 183–184, 197
vortex shedding meters, 162t, 208–210
MF (meter factor), 12, 161, 231–232
Mixtures, 12, 97, 97, 97–98, 98, 104, 105, 105–106
Multi-path meters, 154, 195
Multiphase meters, 162t, 196–198

N

Natural gas, 89, 89, 104, 106, 226–228
Newtonian liquids, 12
NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) meters, 187, 213
Non-custody transfer, 43
Non-fluctuating flow, 9, 107
Non-intrusive meters
advantages vs. disadvantages, 189–190, 190, 196–197
comparisons, 162t, 163t
Coriolis, 162t, 163t, 188–196, 197
description, 188
direct path ultrasonic, 193f
Doppler, 187, 191
magnetic and electromagnetic, 187, 190–191
transit-time, 162t, 163t, 191–193
ultrasonic, 162t, 163t, 187, 191–196
Non-pulsating flow, 107
Non-swirling flow, 9
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) meters, See NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) meters

O

Operational considerations
custody transfer, 32–42, 119t
See also Custody transfer
description, 1, 117–118, 137
differential meter flow, 118–123
differential pressure, influences, 117–118
gas measurement, influences, 117–118
investment protection considerations, 138
meter parameters, 135
output signal, 137
pressure drop, 137
rangeability, 136
relative density (specific gravity), influences, 122f
repeatability, 136
secondary equipment, 117–118
static pressure, 119t, 120, 121f
tank gauging, 130, 137–138
tank strappings, 138
temperature, influences, 122f
uncertainty calculation, 122, 123, 123–131
See also Uncertainty calculation
Orifice meters
description, 162t, 163t, 169, 169–174
maintenance, 141–149, 149–153
operational considerations, 125
plates, 13, 141, 142f, 148f
Output signal, 137

P

PD (positive displacement) meters, 162t, 163t, 199–202
Physical evidence, audits, 267
Physical laws, See Laws and equations
Pigtails (extension tubes), 9
Pipe provers, 237–238
Piping requirements vs. flow profiles, 76
Piston displacer provers, 235–236
Pitot tubes (standard and averaging), 185, 185f
Plates, orifice, 13, 141, 142f, 148f
Point of delivery, 34
Positive displacement meters, See PD (positive displacement) meters
Practical applications of reference standards, See Reference standards, applications (practical)
Pressure
critical pressure, 8
definition, 13–14
differential, 82, 120, 121f
pressure drop, 137
PVT (pressure/volume/temperature) relationships, See PVT (pressure/volume/temperature) relationships
static, 120, 121f
Primary elements, 14
Profiles, flow, 76, 79
Propylene, 99, 104
Provers and proving systems
API (American Petroleum Institute) standards, 237
benefits, 231, 237–238, 239
central test facilities and, 239
critical flow provers, 8, 238–239
custody transfer, 39
See also Custody transfer
definition, 8, 12, 14
description, 1, 231, 232–233
gas provers, 237–238
liquid provers
benefits, 237
bidirectional, 233, 233–234, 235f
description, 233–237
folded bidirectional, 233
piston displacer, 235–236
pulse interpretation and, 234
small-volume (compact), 234
straight shaped, 233, 237f
unidirectional, 235
U-shaped bidirectional, 233–234
maintenance, 141–149
meter factor equation, 231–232
secondary systems, 217
See also Secondary systems
Seraphim cans, 233
transfer, 140
Pulsating flow, 9, 76
Pulse interpretation, 235f
Pure vs. commercial products, 94
PVT (pressure/volume/temperature) relationships, 31, 89, 93, 97, 105–106

Q

Quality (wet) steam, 100

R

Rangeability, 79, 136, 164
Readouts, See Secondary systems
Reagent grade, 94
Real Gas Law, 14, 24
Recertification, 140
Recirculation regions (eddies), 14
Reference standards
AGA (American Gas Association), 46–48
ANSI (American National Standards Institute), 123
API (American Petroleum Institute), 45, 49–59, 237
applications (practical) and, See Applications (practical)
ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers), 60, 123
ASTM (American Society of Testing Materials), 61
British Standards Institute, 65
GPA (Gas Processors Association), 62–63
International Organization of Legal Metrology, 65
ISA (Instrument Society of America), 63–67
types and definitions, 15–16, 16
web resources, 65–67
Refined products, 15, 103–104
Related devices, See Secondary systems
Relative density, 8, 122f
Repeatability, 136, 165
Retrograde condensation, 14
Retrograde vaporization, 15
Reynolds number, 15, 31, 76, 93, 111
Rusts, 145

S

Sampling, 12, 15, 15, 225–226
Saturated steam, 101
Saturation, 15
Seal pot, 15
Secondary systems
calorimetry, 228–229
definition, 9, 15, 217
description, 41, 217
electronics, 217–219
reference standards, 228–229
sampling, 11, 12, 15, 225–226
Seraphim cans, 39, 140, 233
Shrinkage, 15
Single-phase flow, 80–81, 90–91
Slip stream, 15
Small-volume (compact) provers, 234
Smart differential-pressure transmitters, 141
Sonic nozzles, 213
Sour crude oil, 103
Special purpose meters
description, 1, 187, 189
hot-wire anemometers, 214
insertion, 187, 210–211
laser Doppler, 187, 212f
NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance), 187, 213
sonic nozzles, 213
swirl, 187, 211
thermal, 187, 213–214
thermistors, 214
tracer, 187, 214–215
Specific gravity, 15, 82–83, 122f
Specific weight, 15
Speed loop, 15
Stabilized crude, 156
Standard calibration data, 80
Standard Pitot tubes, 185
Standards (reference), See Reference standards
Start/stop flow rates, 107
Static metering, 244–245
Static pressure, 119t, 120, 121f
Static vs. dynamic metering, 245
Station design, 34–35
Steam, 16, 100, 100, 101
Stop/start flow rates, 108f
Straight shaped provers, 233, 237f
Strappings, tank, 138
Sunburst chart, 16
Supercompressibility, gas, 47–48
Superheated steam, 16, 101
Sweet crude oil, 16, 102
Swirl, 16, 76f, 115, 187, 211
Symmetrical vs. asymmetrical flow patterns, 115
System balance, 1–2, 16, 155

T

Tank gauging, 16, 130, 137–138
Tank strappings, 138
Tanker loading examples, 107, 108f
Tap hole, 16
Temperature, 8–9, 10, 82, 122f
Temperature-effect-correction, 26
Testimonial evidence, audits, 267
See also Audits and auditing
Thermistors, 214
Thermometers, 139
Total energy (equation), 19–20
Totalized flow, 10
Transducers, 15
Transfer
custody, See Custody transfer
non-custody, See Non-custody transfer
Transit-time meters, 162t, 163t, 191–193
Transmitters, smart differential-pressure, 141
Turbine meters (gas and liquid), 162t, 163t, 202–208
Turbulent flow, 17
Two-phase flow, 91, 106

U

Ultrasonic meters, 153, 154, 162t, 163t, 187, 191–196
Uncertainty calculation
definition, 17
description, 37–38, 121, 123, 123–131
equations, 123–131
examples, 125, 125–130
limitations, 72–73
liquids, influences, 130–131
reference standards, 123
Unidirectional provers, 235, 236f
U-shaped bidirectional provers, 233–234

V

Vapor phase, 17
Vaporization, 13, 15
Velocity, 17
Venturi meters, 17, 162t, 163t, 167, 183–184
Viscosity, 7, 17
Visual inspections, 139–140
Volume flow rate, 28
Vortex shedding meters, 162t, 163t, 208–210

W

Water dew point, 17
Waxy crude, 156
Weight, 17
Wet (quality) steam, 16, 100, 100–101
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