Index
A
Absolute Threshold, 180–181
Access control, 95
adaptation_field_control, 124, 125
adaptation_field_extension_length, 137
adaptation_field_length, 136
additional_copy_info, 129
additional_copy_info_flag, 128
Addressing capability, 95
Adelman, Leonard, 107
Adjacent channel interference, caused by rain, 249–254
Advanced Audio Coding (AAC), 237
Advanced Communications Corporation (ACC), 23
allocation, 176
Altitude control, 10
Amplifiers, 30
power curve for, 31
traveling wave tube (TWT-A), 50
Analog modulation, 255
Analysis Filterbank, 177
algorithm for, 177–178
Angle modulation, 255
ANSI (American National Standards Institute), 115
Antenna
design of, 44
shaped reflector, 43–44, 45, 46
Antitaping control, 95
aspect_ratio_information, 145
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) packets, 122
AT&T, 9
ATS 1, 15
Attenuation
caused by rain, 243–248
coefficients for, 244
slant range reduction factor for, 246
issues in, 171
MPEG 4 coding of, 237–238
components of, 174–176
audio_stream_descriptor, 134
Automatic gain control (AGC), 256
AVOs (audio/video objects)
composition of, 234–235
interaction with, 235
multiplexing and synchronization of, 235
representation of, 233
B
B pictures, 158–159
decoding of, 165
Backoff, 30
backward_f_code, 148
Balewa, Abubakar, 13
BCH (Bose Chaudhuri Hoequemhem) block codes, 59, 69
decoding of, 266–269
generator polynomial of, 265–266
Bent pipe, defined, 28
Berlekamp’s algorithm, 269–271
bidirectional_predictive_coded, 148
Binary n-tuple, defined, 265
bit_rate_value, 145
bitrate_index, of Audio Frame, 174
Block codes, 55–57
decoding of, 57–58
DES as, 101
geometric interpretation of, 58
types of, 59
Blocks, 151
recovery of, 159
Blue Bird, 15
Body stabilization, 16
bound, in Audio Frame, 175, 191
BPSK (binary phase shift keying), 46–47, 256, 257
Broadcast media, standards for, 117
broken_link, 148
BSB, 15
Buffer, 29
C
C-Band communications, 18–19
CA_descriptor, 134
CA_PID, 134
Carrier, modulation of, 255
CBP (Coded Block Pattern), 159
CCIR 601-1 standard, 142
channel, 176
Charyk, Joseph, 14
Checksum, defined, 273
Chiariglione, Leonardo, 114, 118, 232
Chroma subsampling, 142–143
chroma_format, 146
Chrominance, 141, 142–143, 150
clock_accuracy_exponent, 135
clock_accuracy_integer, 134, 135
closed_gop, 148
Code Excited Linear Predictive (CELP) coding tools, 237
Code rate, 55
Codebook, 154–155
Codebreakers, The, 96
Coded audio bitstream, 173
Codes. See also names of individual codes and algorithms
block, 55–59
convolutional, 59–62, 75–79, 84–89
cyclic, 66–69
decoding of, 57–58
interleaving of, 62–63
performance of, 64–66, 87–89, 91–92
punctured, 89–92
Color, coding of, 141
colour_description, 146
colour_primaries, 146
Communications, history of, 3–6
Communism, defeat of, 12
Compact disk (CD), 171
Compression
audio, 171–195. See also Audio compression
raster vs. symbolic, 229–232
video, 140–169. See also Video compression
Compression layer, 127
Compression ratio, 33
Compressor/multiplexer, 201–203
COMSAT (Communication Satellite Corporation), 14
COMSTAR, 15
Concatenated codes, 63
performance of, 91–92
Conditional access (CA)
decoding, 111
generic system for, 109–110
in MPEG 2 systems, 125
objectives for, 95
Conditional Access Table, 121, 131, 135
conditional_access_section, 130
Conjugate, defined, 263
constrained_parameters_flag, 145
Constraint length, 60
Continental (Loral), DBS channels of, 24
continuity_counter, 125
Convolutional codes, 59–62
encoders for, 75–79
performance of, 84–89
Copy control, 95
copyright, in Audio Frame, 175
copyright_descriptor, 135
Copyright flag, 128
copyright_identifier, 135
CRC. See Cyclical redundancy code
CRC_32 field, 131
crc_check, in Audio Frame, 175
current_next_indicator, 130
Cyclic codes
binary, 66–69
defined, 67
encoding for, 68
division to generate, 273–275
sample polynomials to generate, 277
shift register implementation of, 275–276
D
data_alignment_indicator, 128
Data Encryption Standard (DES), 101
algorithm of, 102–106
history of, 101
DAVIC (Digital Audio Video Council), 109
DBSC of Delaware, DBS channels of, 24
DBS satellites, 16, 17, 18. See also Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) communication system
DBS-3, 17
dc_dct_pred[cc], 160
DCT. See Discrete Cosine Transform
dct_dc_size, 160
Decimation, 184
of blocks, 159
inverse DCT, 163
inverse quantization, 161–163
inverse scan, 160–161
in IRD, 209
Layer II, 191–195
motion compensation, 163–164
skipped macroblocks, 164–165
of subband samples, 192–194
variable length, 160
decoding_time_stamp, 128
decoding_time_stamp_next_access_unit, 137
Decompression engines, 29
Degree, of polynomial, defined, 261
Delta rockets, 11
DBS, 260
Demultiplexer, 29
Depolarization, caused by rain, 252–254
DES. See Data Encryption Standard
descriptor_length, 133
descriptor_tag, 133
Digital modulation, 255
Digital Satellite System (DSS™), 29
Digital signatures, 101, 108–109
Digital video, 140–143
chroma subsampling in, 142–143
color in, 141
interlace in, 141–142
standards for, 117
Digital Video Broadcast (DVB) standard, 122
Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) communication system, 5, 6, 19, 28
audio parameters of, 173
conditional access (CA) for, 95–111
energy dispersal and, 39
link analysis of, 34–38
military use of, 228
modulation and demodulation in, 256, 259–260
multiple access and multiplexing in, 29–30, 33
piracy of, 96
Region 2 frequency plan for, 22
synergy with MPEG, 114
technical overview of, 27–29
throughput of, 31–33
transponder power and configuration for, 31
uplink facilities of, 199–205
weather and, 38
DIRECTV™, 5, 6, 23, 32, 44, 114
discontinuity_counter, 125
discontinuity_indicator, 136
Discrete Cosine Transform, 151, 152
coefficients in, 160
inverse, 163
display_horizontal_size, 146
display_vertical_size, 146
Document Engineering Co. (DECO), 118
Dominion, DBS channels of, 24
drop_frame_flag, 148
DSM_trick_mode_flag, 128
DTS_next_au, 137
Dual LNB power-supply injector, 217
Dual prime mode, 164
E
Early Bird, 15
Echo satellite, 9
Echostar, DBS channels of, 23, 24
ECM generation, 110
Effects, audio, 238
EIRP (effective isotropic radiated power), 22
Electronic Program Guide (EPG), 211
Elementary Stream Clock Reference (ESCR), 126, 127
Elementary Stream decoders, 125
Elementary Stream Descriptors, 133
elementary_stream_clock_reference, 128
elementary_stream_priority_indicator, 136
elementary_stream_rate, 128
Elementary symmetric functions, 269
Elias codes, 55
emphasis, in Audio Frame, 175
Encoder
bit allocation in, 184–190
encoding of subband samples in, 189–190
Filterbanks in, 177–178
packet formatting by, 190
Psychoacoustic Model 1 and, 179–184
Encryption
algorithms for, 101–109
key for, 96
mathematics of, 97–100
Energy dispersal, 39
Entitlement Control Messages (ECM), 127
Entitlement Management Messages (EMM), 110, 127
codes for, 55–71
interleavers for, 71–84
performance of, 84–92
in Audio Frame, 175
Error-location numbers, 271
ESCR_base, 128
ESCR_ext, 128
ESCR_flag, 128
ES_info_length, 133
ES_rate_flag, 128
Euclidean Algorithm, 98
extension of, 99–100
extension_start_code, 144
extension_start_code_identifier, 145
external_clock_reference_indicator, 135
extra_bit_picture, 148
extra_bit_slice, 150
F
Fax, standards setting for, 115
FEC (forward error correction), 53. See also Error correction
Federal Communications Commission
licensing authority of, 21, 22–23
transponder allocation by, 23–24
Feige, Uriel, 109
FFT analysis, 179
layer II parameter of, 180
Fiat, Amos, 109
field_id, 129
field_motion_type, 165
field_rep_cntrl, 129
Filterbanks, 177
Filtering, in DBS modulation, 259
Forward error correction decoder, 29
forward_f_code, 148
frame_motion_type, 165
Frame prediction, 165, 166–167
frame_rate_code, 145
frame_rate_extension_d, 146
frame_rate_extension_n, 146
frame_rate_value, 146
Frequency
band allocations, 21–22
band designations, 18–19
Frequency division multiplexing (FDM), 30
frequency_truncation, 129
full_pel_backward_vector, 148
full_pel_forward_vector, 148
G
Galois fields, 66
construction of, 261–262
properties of, 262–263
Generator matrix, 57
Geostationary satellites, 4, 6, 7–8, 13–15
Geosynchronous satellites, 5, 7–8, 11–13
Global Broadcast Service (GBS), 228
Global Spaceway, 224–227
GOP (group of pictures), 144, 146–148
Group of Pictures header, 144
grouping, 176
H
Hamming distance, 59
Hann window, 179
Hash functions, one-way, 108
HDTV (high-definition television), standards for, 117, 118
horizontal_size_extension, 146
horizontal_size_value, 144
HS 702, 15
Hudspeth, Thomas, 5
Hughes Aircraft Co., 5, 14, 16
Spaceway satellite of, 221–227
Hybrid coder, 147
Hyland, Lawrence, 5
I
I pictures, 151–155
decoding of, 164–165
IBM, and DES encryption, 101
ID, of Audio Frame, 174
IEC (International Electrotechnology Commission), 116
Input high-pass filter, 177
INTELSAT (International Satellite Consortium), 14
intensity_stereo, in Audio Frame, 175
Interference, caused by rain, 249–254
Interlace, 141–142
Interleaving
of codes, 62–63
Ramsay, 71–75
Intra Blocks, DC component of, 160
intra_coded, 148
intra_dc_precision, 160
intra_quantizer_matrix[64], 145
intra_slice, 150
intra_slice_flag, 149
intra_slice_refresh, 129
Inverse DCT, 163
Inverse quantization, 161–163
Inverse scan, 160–161
Ionosphere, 3
IRD (integrated receiver decoder), 28
architecture of, 209–211
electronic program guide of, 211
menu selection in, 211–217
multiple TV set use of, 215, 217–218
report-back feature in, 221
retail price of, 207
ISO (International Standards Organization), 6, 115
address of, 118
organization of, 116
ISO_639_language_descriptor, 134
ISO-9000, 115
ITU (International Telecommunications Union), 115
ITU-R, 115
ITU-T, 115
J
Joint Technical Committee 1 (JTC 1), 116, 117
K
Kahn, David, 96
Kennedy, John F., 13
Kepler, Johannes, 6
Kepler’s laws, 6–7
Key, encryption, 96
Kingsport, U.S.S., 12
Ka-Band communications, 19
Ku-Band communications, 19
L
L-Band communications, 19
last_section_number, 131
legal_time_window_flag, 137
legal_time_window_offset, 137
legal_time_window_valid_flag, 137
Level, defined, 140
LNB (low-noise block), 28, 48–50, 208
load_intra_quantizer_matrix, 145
Local oscillator (LO), 209
Low bit rate encoding, 232
low_delay, 146
Low earth orbit (LEO) satellites, 4, 9
ltw_flag, 137
ltw_offset, 137
ltw_valid_flag, 137
M
MAC (message authentication codes), 101
macroblock_address_increment, 150
macroblock_escape, 150
macroblock_motion_backward, 167, 168
macroblock_motion_forward, 167, 168
defined, 129
skipped, 164–165
Mask-to-noise ratio (MNR), 188
Masking, tonal and nontonal, 184
Masking Threshold, 180
determination of, 181–182
Global, 182–184
matrix_coefficients, 146
Maximum bitrate descriptor, 135
MD4 hash function, 108
MD5 hash function, 108
Message authentication, 108
Message digest, 108
Minimal polynomial, defined, 263
Mismatch control, 162
mode, of Audio Frame, 174
mode_extension, in Audio Frame, 175
Modulation, 46–49
defined, 255
Modulator, of DBS uplink facility, 203–205
Modulo arithmetic, 97–98
Moore, Gordon, 19
Moore’s law, 19
Morse code, 154
Motion compensation, 156–157, 158
in decoding, 163–164
Motion vectors, coding of, 167–169
motion_vertical_field_select, 169
MPEG (Moving Pictures Experts Group), 6, 114
background of, 118
history of, 116–118
MPEG 1 audio compression. See Audio compression
MPEG 1 systems, packet length in, 122
MPEG 2 standard, 19, 32, 114, 117–118
MPEG 2 systems
backward compatibility of, 202–203
demultiplexing in, 126
multiplex-wide operations in, 125–126
packet length in, 122–123
program specific information in, 130–136
stream-specific operations in, 126–129
synchronization in, 126–127
timing model in, 125
transport streams in, 120–121
MPEG 2 video compression
decoding of, 159–165
details of, 151–159
prediction modes in, 165–169
structure of, 144–151
MPEG 3 standard, 117
MPEG 4
audio, 237–238
history and background of, 232–233
technical details of, 235–240
treatment of AVOs by, 233–235
video standards of, 238–240
MPEG systems, roles of, 119–120
MPEGl_MPEG2_identifier, 129
MPSK (M-ary Phase Shift Keying), 256, 258
Multimedia
enabling technology for, 232–233
MPEG 4 and, 232
Multiple access, 29
Multiplexing (MUX), 29
techniques of, 30
Multiswitch, 218
N
NBS (National Bureau of Standards), 101
Network Information Table, 121, 135
Newton’s identities, 269
NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology), 101
NSA (National Security Agency), 101
NTSC (National Television Systems Committee), 115
NVOD (near video on demand), 33
O
One-way hash functions, 108
OPCR_flag, 136
OPTUS-B, 15–16
Orbital positioning, 10
Orbital slots, maximizing, 33
original/copy, in Audio Frame, 175
original_or_copy, 128
original_program_clock_reference_base, 137
original_program_clock_reference_extension, 137
original_stuff_length, 129
P
P pictures, 155–158
decoding of, 165
packet_field_length, 129
packet_header_field, 129
packet_header_field_flag, 129
packet_start_code_prefix, 127, 129
packet_unit_start_indicator, 124
Packetized Elementary Stream (PES) packets, 27, 121
in multimedia objects, 235
structure of, 127–129
padding_bit, of Audio Frame, 174
padding_byte, 129
PALAPA-B, 15
Parental lockout, 95
payload_unit_start_indicator, 124
PCR_flag, 136
PCR_PID, 133
Pearl Harbor, 4
pel_pred_backward[y][x], 164
pel_pred_forward[y][x], 164
pel_pred_opposite_parity, 164
pel_pred_same_parity, 164
PES See Packetized Elementary Stream packets
PES_CRC_flag, 128
PES_extension_field_length, 129
PES_extension_flag, 128
PES_extension_flag_2, 129
PES_header_data_length, 128
PES_packet_data_bytes, 129
PES_packet_length, 128
PES_priority, 128
PES_private_data, 129
PES_private_data_flag, 129
PES_scrambling_control, 128
picture_header, 148
Pictures. See also Video entries
coding of, 148
decoding of, 159–165
motion compensation in, 156–157, 158
quantization of, 152–153
residual image coding in, 157–158, 159
spatial compression of, 151
spatial transform of, 151–152
subdivisions of, 148–151
piecewise_rate, 137
piecewise_rate_flag, 137
Piracy, 96
pointer_field, 124
Point-to-multipoint, defined, 221
Polynomials, characteristics of, 67–68
Power-sum symmetric functions, 268
PRBS (pseudorandom binary sequence), 39
special modes of, 166
of vectors, 167–169
predictive_coded, 148
presentation_time_stamp, 128
previous_PES_packet_CRC, 129
priority_breakpoint, 149
Private section, of PSI table, 131, 136
private_bit, of Audio Frame, 174
private_data_byte, 137
private_data_length, 137
private_section, 131, 135, 136
profile_and-level_indication, 146
Profile, defined, 140
Program Association Table, 121, 131–132
Program Clock Reference (PCR), 126
Program definition, 133
Program Map Table, 121, 131, 132–135
Program Specific Information (PSI), 119, 121, 130–136
table parameters for, 131
program_association_section, 130
program_clock_reference_base, 137
program_clock_reference_extension, 137
program_info_length, 133
program_map_PID, 132
program_map_section, 132
program_packet_sequence_counter_flag, 129
program_packet_sequence_counter, 129
Program_Stream_Map, 127
Progressive display, 142
progressive_sequence, 146
protection_bit, of Audio Frame, 174
PSI. See Program Specific Information
P-STD_buffer_flag, 129
P-STD_buffer_scale, 129
Psychoacoustic algorithm, 177
Psychoacoustic Model
in audio encoding, 172
result of, 179
SPL calculation in, 179–180
PTS_DTS_flags, 128
Public key encryption, 101, 106–107
Punctured codes, 89–91
performance of, 91–92
Q
q_scale_type, 162
QPSK (Quaternary Phase Shift Keying), 27, 31, 47–48, 256, 257
PSD for, 259
Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM), 256
Quantization, 152–153
inverse, 161–163
Quantizer scale factors, 162
quantizer_scale_code, 150, 162
R
Radio frequency subsystem, elements of, 43–51
Radio, standards for, 115
Rain
adjacent channel interference and depolarization caused by, 249–254
attenuation by, 243–248
effects of, 254
rate distributions of, 248
region 2 model, 247
required margins for, 46
shaped reflectors and, 43
signal degradation by, 38
and system noise temperature, 249
Ramsay interleavers, 71–73
random_access_indicator, 136
Raster video compression, 229–232
Rate 1/2 codes, 59–62
performance of, 87–89
Reed-Solomon block codes, 27, 59, 69–70
decoding of, 71
Reference picture, 155
Regional Administrative Radio Council (RARC), 21–22
Regional blackout, 95
Registration descriptor, 134
reliability of, 4
Residual image coding, 157–158, 159
S
S-Band communications, 19
sample, 176
samplecode, 176
sampling_frequency, of Audio Frame, 174
Satellite channel, characteristics of, 256
Satellite communications
birth of, 4
Direct Broadcast. See Direct Broadcast Satellite communication system
early history of, 8–10
evolution of, 15–16
hardware elements of, 43–51
Satellites
communications bands of, 18–19
geostationary, 4–5, 7–8, 13–15
stabilization of, 16
Saturation function, 162
sb_bound, in Audio Frame, 175
sblimit, in Audio Frame, 175, 191
SC 29 (Subcommittee 29), 116
Scalable coding, in MPEG 4, 239
scalefactor, 176
Scalefactor
calculation of, 185
coding of, 185–187
Scene description, in MPEG 4, 239–240
Schneier, Bruce, 108
Scientific Atlanta, 109
SCR. See System Clock Reference
seamless_splice_flag, 137
section_length, 130
section_number, 131
section_syntax_indicator, 130
Secure Hash Standard, 108
sequence_end_code, 144
sequence_error_code, 144
sequence_extension, 145
sequence_header_code, 144
Shannon, Claude, 64
Shaped reflector antenna, 43–44, 45, 46
benefits of, 44
Signal-to-mask ratio (SMR), 188
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), 188
Skipped macroblocks, 164–165
Sky Cable, 114
Slant range reduction factor, 246
slice_header, 149
slice_start_code, 144
slice_start_code, 149
slice_vertical_position, 149
slice_vertical_position_extension, 149
Slices, 149–150
Sound. See Audio entries
Sound pressure level (SPL), calculation of, 179–180
Spaceway
communications system of, 223
global reach of, 224–227
history of, 221
overview of, 222–223
Spatial compression, 151
Spatial frequency, 152
Speech, raster compression of, 230–232
Speech synthesis, 237–238
splice_countdown, 137
splice_type, 137
splicing_point_flag, 136
Sputnik, 8
Stabilization, satellite, 10
Standards, establishment of and need for, 115
Statistical multiplexing (stat MUX), 33, 204
Stream Descriptors, 133
stream_id, 127
stream_type, 133
subband, 176
sync_byte, 124
Synchronization, 126–127
SYNCOM satellites, 5, 6, 12, 15
communication by, 11–14
launch of, 11
positioning of, 10
powering of, 11
stabilization of, 10
SYNCOM 1, 11
syncword, of Audio Frame, 174
defined, 57
Synthesis Filterbank, 177
algorithm for, 194–195
System clock descriptor, 134
System Clock Reference (SCR), 126
System noise temperature, rain and, 249
system_clock_frequency, 136
T
table_id, 130
target_background_grid_descriptor, 133, 134
TCI/Tempo, DBS channels of, 24
TDM. See Time division multiplexing
Telecommunications, standards for, 115
Telstar, 9
temporal_reference, 148
Time division multiplexing (TDM), 30
time_code, 148
time_code_minutes, 148
time_code_pictures, 148
time_code_seconds, 148
Tokyo Olympics, broadcast of, 13–14
transfer_characteristics, 146
Transponders, 27–29
bandwidth of, 31–32
power and configuration for, 31
throughput of, 32–33
Transport Stream System Target Decoder (T-STD), 126
Transport Streams, 120–121, 122
packet header of, 123–125
rate of, 123
transport_error_indicator, 124
transport_priority, 125
transport_private_data_flag, 124, 136
transport_scrambling_control, 125
transport_stream_id, 132
Traveling wave tube amplifier (TWT-A), 50
trick_mode_control, 129
TS_program_map_section, 132
2001: A Space Odyssey, 7
U
Unscramblers, 73
Uplink facilities, 199
constituents of, 201
subsystems of, 201–205
User control, 95
user_data_start_code, 144
USSB (United States Satellite Broadcasting), 23
DBS channels of, 24
V
Variable length code (VLC), 151, 154
Variable length decoding, 160
vbv_buffer_size_extension, 145
vbv_buffer_size_value, 145
vbv_delay, 148
version_number, 130
vertical_size_extension, 146
vertical_size_value, 144
concepts in, 140–143
MPEG 2, 144–169
MPEG 4, 238–240
need for, 139
raster, 229–232
standards of, 140
Video objects (VO)
characteristics of, 238–239
interrelationship among, 239–240
scalable coding of, 239
Video sequence, 144
video_format, 146
video_stream_descriptor, 133, 134
video_window_descriptor, 133, 134
Viterbi, Andrew, 79
Viterbi decoding, 62, 63, 79–80
algorithm for, 80–84
in IRD, 209
von Braun, Werner, 8–9
WXYZ
Weighting matrices, 162
Williams patents, 10
World Administrative Radio Council (WARC), 21
X-Band communications, 19