CHAPTER 1
THE EVOLUTION OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT¹

1.1 INTRODUCTION

In the early 1970s it was stated in the project management community that “project management is the accidental profession.” This statement has been quoted many times since, with all the implications that a discovery had been made and a new profession had been defined in the late twentieth century. Recognition of project management as a discipline and the use of this management approach have varied over several thousands of years.

The treatment of the subject of projects and project management in this chapter encompasses several thousands of years where evidence exists to demonstrate that projects were used to change and advance societies and that some form of project management was needed to ensure favorable conversion of resources to the benefit of these societies. The selection of examples of projects reported in this chapter is made based on available artifacts, literature, and other evidence reflecting a high degree of understanding and sophistication in effecting change through planned actions.

For centuries, project management has been used in some rudimentary form to create change or deal with change in societies. Change in a positive sense is caused by the application of management action that results in the consumption of resources to create a desired product, service, or organizational process. Change also may be meeting uncertain situations to identify and implement actions to obtain the most favorable outcome. Project management, in whatever form, has been used for centuries to plan for, implement, and meet change.

The general management discipline, although practiced in some form in antiquity, emerged as an explicit discipline in the twentieth century. It was during this period that concepts, philosophies, principles, processes, tools, and techniques began to appear in literature that reflects the intellectual framework found in the management of contemporary organizations. Yet a form of general management existed in antiquity to deal with the need to lead and organize various elements of society.

Project management, often described in the context of leadership, was ubiquitous in the past, being the medium by which changes in societies were accomplished. The great leaders of history were “managers,” managing political organizations, countries, explorations, wars, technological and social change, and so forth. The principal challenge to these managers was the need to create change for the better or to deal with the change that affected their societies.

This chapter is a step toward acknowledgment and a fuller appreciation of the role that project managers and project teams have played throughout history in the evolution of society. A study of projects of the past would include an assessment of the effectiveness in management of the projects—as well as development of an informal “lessons to be learned” profile in the conceptualization and completion of the projects. As an inventory of these profiles is developed, our knowledge of what to do in managing contemporary projects, as well as what to avoid, adds to our understanding of how project management should be carried out in both the present and the future.

An early form of project management was used to plan for and use the resources needed to deal with change. Only through studying the past can we fully perceive how the world has been changed by projects. A study of these projects helps us to understand how institutions have emerged and survived using a form of project management. Having a knowledge and appreciation of past projects binds us to the present and the future. If we do not learn from the past, we are condemned to make the same mistakes and pay for those mistakes again.

1.2 TYPES OF EVIDENCE FOR HISTORICAL PROJECTS

A review of the results of projects in antiquity reveals evidence about how several historical projects originated and developed. The evidence takes three primary forms:

1. Artifacts—something produced by human workmanship, such as a tool, weapon, structure, or substance of archeological or historical interest. Examples include the Great Pyramids and the printing press.

2. Cultural strategies—such as found in the arts, beliefs, institutions, and other products of work and thought typical of a society at a particular time. Examples include the English Magna Carta, the U.S. Emancipation Proclamation, and the U.S. Social Security Program.

3. Literature and documents—publications and project-related documents that describe project management and how it was used. Examples include books, articles, and editorials that describe projects and the use of project management.

Figure 1.1 shows the potential for overlapping fields of evidence of projects that provide a framework for assessing the historical events that led to the application of resources to work to create change. This graphic representation also shows the sources of evidence of projects and project management.

FIGURE 1.1 Evidence of Historical Projects.

It was the 1950s when project management was formally recognized as a distinct contribution arising from the management discipline as depicted in Fig. 1.2. Prior uses of project management had a focus on cost, schedule, and technical performance but lacked the formal definition and embracing of the management concepts and processes in an integrated manner. Since the early 1950s, names and labels have been given to the elements of the project management discipline, helping to facilitate its further development as a profession.

FIGURE 1.2 Progression from general management to project management.

The vocabulary associated with project management has grown from some original definitions The single term project has an origin that dates back several hundreds of years. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word project was first used in the sixteenth century. The following list presents some samples from the second edition of the Oxford English Dictionary listed in chronological order from the year 1600 through 1916:

From earliest recorded times, people have worked together toward designing and creating projects. Although the term project management did not come into wide use until the 1950s, its history is much longer that the term itself.

From the period circa 1950 to the present time, there is a growing abundance of articles, books, papers, and miscellaneous documentation that can be used to build a contemporary model of project management. For the period prior to 1950 back through antiquity, there is very limited documentation and literature. To understand how project management emerged requires examination of the artifacts and the social, military, technological, political, industrial, and governmental strategies that existed. From study of these areas, we may reach a judgment concerning the role of supporting projects. Then we can draw conclusions about how the projects were managed and in the process identify any “seeds” of the project management concepts and processes that existed.

1.3 PROJECT CHARTER

A project charter describes at a high level what is to be accomplished in a project and delegates authority to the project manager to implement actions required for project completion. It typically grants the project manager or project leader the authority to conduct selected actions while planning, implementing, and completing the project. It may contain details on what is to be done and what may not be done. Statements of mission, objectives, or policies also may be included and accompanied by a budget.

An examination of historical documents that recognized the need for new artifacts or strategies can provide initial insight into how and why the artifacts or strategies evolved. These historical documents usually provide the “strategic need” for the action being considered and in most cases provide for a document similar to a “project charter” to guide the design and execution of the initiative. For example:

• The Spanish Book of Privileges and Prerogatives granted to Christopher Columbus, April 20, 1492. This document sets forth the compensation promised to Columbus by Queen Isabel and King Fernando, if Columbus discovered land on his first voyage to the New World.

• The English Charter to Sir Walter Raleigh, March 25, 1584. This document, executed by Queen Elizabeth I, granted Sir Walter Raleigh authority to explore and claim lands for England. It also defined the compensation that Raleigh would receive.

• The United States Congress Act authorizing Lewis and Clark Expedition, February 28, 1803. This act authorized exploration of the Northwest Territory of the United States to find a land passage to the Pacific Ocean.

• The United States Homestead Act, May 20, 1862. This document granted an individual, free of charge, 160 acres of public land if within five years a house was built on the land, a well was dug, 10 acres were plowed, a specific amount of land was fenced, and the individual actually lived there. An individual could claim an additional 160 acres of land if 10 acres were planted and cultivated successfully with trees.

• The United States Tennessee Valley Act, May 18, 1933. This law established the Tennessee Valley Authority for the purpose of reforestation, marginal land improvement, flood control, and agricultural and industrial development of an area covering seven states.

• The English Instructions authorizing the voyages of discovery of Captain James Cook, August 1768, July 1772, and July 1776. Captain Cook was chartered by the United Kingdom Royal Society to conduct three voyages in search of scientific information and various lands; each voyage was about three years in duration. Cook was one of the world’s greatest explorers. In his three voyages from 1768-1779 he charted almost all of the North and South Pacific, ranging from the Antarctica to the Bering Strait. He put Hawaii on the map and was the founding father of Australia and New Zealand. He was a pioneer of globalization when people around the world were just beginning to sense how vast the globe was and beginning to think about the morality of a world driven by commerce.

1.4 EARLY LITERATURE ON PROJECTS

In all too many cases it will be impossible to find the original documents that established the need for the artifact or strategy. For example, the Great Pyramids of Egypt, the Great Wall of China, the Grand Canal of China, Roman roads, and Roman aqueducts are without written documentation, but the artifacts remain today in some state. In these cases, descriptions provided in the anthropologic, archeologic, and other historical literature can supply some insight into how and why these projects were accomplished. Table 1.1 summarizes some early authors of project management literature.

TABLE 1.1 Authors of Landmark Early Project Management Literature

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• Daniel Defoe, 1697

• Mary Parker Follett, 1920

• Paul Gaddis, 1959

• Gerald Fish, 1961

• John Mee, 1954

• David I. Cleland, 1968

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Perhaps the earliest publication on the management of projects appeared in 1697, entitled An Essay Upon Projects, authored by Daniel Defoe, who had an interesting comment on the building of the Ark:

The building of the Ark by Noah, so far as you will allow it human work, was the first project I read of; and no question seem’d for it, and had he not been set on work by a very peculiar Direction from Heaven, the Good old Man would certainly have been laugh’d out of it, as a most senseless ridiculous project.²

Some additional comments Defoe made regarding projects include

• “Every new Voyage the Merchant contrives is a Project”³

• “After the Fire on London, the contrivance of an Engine to Quench Fires, was a Project the Author was said to get well by, and we have found to be very useful”⁴

• “The project of the Penny-Post, so well known, and still prais’d . . .”⁵

• “And to Dedicate a Book of Projects to a Person who had never concern’d himself to think that way, would be like Music to one that has no Ear”⁶

Defoe identifies in 1697 the dilemma still facing contemporary managers: how to design and implement project management concepts and philosophies.

Mary Parker Follett, writing in 1920, extolled the benefits of teams and participative management and said that leadership comes from ability rather than hierarchy. She advocated empowerment, drawing on the knowledge of workers, and supported the notion of the formation of teams through cross-functions in which a horizontal rather than a vertical authority would foster a freer exchange of knowledge within organizations.

A 1959 article that caught the attention of the growing project management community was authored by Paul Gaddis, entitled “The Project Manager,” and published in the Harvard Business Review. It described the role of an individual in an advanced-technology industry who functioned as a focal point for the management of resources being applied to manage ad hoc activities across organizational boundaries.

Another contribution to the emerging theory and practice of project management, entitled “Functional Teamwork,” appeared in the Harvard Business Review in 1961, authored by Gerald Fish. He described the growing trend in contemporary organizations toward functional-teamwork approaches in organizational design.

Professor John F. Mee, a noted scholar in the history of management theory and practice, published an article in Business Horizons in 1964 that described the characteristics of the “matrix organization.” He described one of the key characteristics of this approach as an organizational system that created a “web of relationships” rather than a line and staff relationship of work performance.

David I. Cleland and William R. King published Systems Analysis and Project Management (New York: McGraw-Hill) in 1968. This book was the first scholarly work on project management cast in the context of the emerging “systems approach” in management theory and practice.

Since these landmark documents were published, a host of publications has appeared each year. Amazon.com lists more than 2300 books for sale in 2005, and this number does not include books that are out of print. It is estimated that more than 500 project management books are published each year in the United States in the English language. This number does not include books on aspects of project management that have other terms in their titles, such as project manager and risk management.

1.5 GOVERNMENT LITERATURE

In 1964, the U.S. Air Force announced publication of a series of manuals and policies to force consistent management processes over the design and acquisition of major weapons systems. The series changed the relationship between the government and private industry, whereby private industry had to adopt and use the defined practices. The manuals and policies selected to effect management change were part of a series of Air Force Systems Command Manuals referred to as the 375 Series. The six most important of these manuals are

AFSCM 375-1, Configuration Management

AFSCM 375-3, System Program Office Manual

AFSCM 375-4, System Program Management

AFSCM 375-5, System Engineering Management Procedures

AFSCM 375-6, Development Engineering

AFSCM 310-1, Management of Contractor Data and Reports

The impact of the 375 Series of guidelines was to introduce changes in the government-defense industry relationship. The impact that these guidelines had on the evolving project management literature was significant in terms of shaping project management in the United States and in countries influenced by the manner in which U.S. project management has been conducted. Much of the early literature of the 1960s and 1970s drew on and reflected the philosophies, concepts, processes, and techniques put forth in the 375 Series. Today, as the project management literature continues to emerge, one can see some of the early seeds of the 375 Series and how these seeds matured.

1.6 LEADING PROJECTS OF ANTIQUITY

One cannot review the history of civilization without concluding that projects on scales both small and epic have been central to the continued evolution of society. Examples of some of the leading people and projects of antiquity that have created change are listed in Table 1.2 and are described later.

TABLE 1.2 Leading Projects of Antiquity

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• Projects of Prince Henry of Portugal

• The Great Pyramids of Egypt

• The Giant Cathedrals of Europe

• The Grand Canal of China

• Noah’s Ark

• St. Petersburg, Russia

• The Panama Canal

• Tower of Babel

• The Magna Carta

• The Battle of Crecy

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Project of Prince Henry of Portugal (1394–1460)

In the early years of the fifteenth century, Prince Henry the Navigator developed and operated what could be called today a research and development laboratory located in Sagres, Portugal. The voyages of the discovery that set forth could be considered to be “projects.” These projects of discovery made important conditions to the evolving body of knowledge in cartography, navigation, and shipbuilding. Experiments in shipbuilding produced a new type of ship—the caravel, which made future exploration projects possible.

The caravel, a major improvement over older ships, contributed to the success of Prince Henry’s exploration efforts. It was faster and could sail well into the wind with both square sails and a triangular one. At about 65 feet long with a capacity of roughly 130 tons of cargo or supplies, the caravel was more perfectly sized for the type of exploration conducted by Prince Henry.

Each voyage documented discoveries, and each following voyage built on prior work. Each new “project” was a continuation of the process for exploring and assessing the lands of Africa. Ship captains were sent on voyages with questions to be answered, which gave them a specific set of objectives—as with all good projects.

The Great Pyramids of Egypt (circa 2700 to 2500 B.C.)

Outside Cairo, Egypt, stand the Great Pyramids at Giza. Some of the characteristics of these projects are as follows:

• The pyramids were national projects.

• The workers were organized into competing teams.

• The workers were motivated through their deep religious belief, and they believed that by building a tomb for their king, they were ensuring his rebirth.

• The workforce was highly organized. Each group of workers was responsible for one part of the pyramid complex.

• A highly developed support force was needed, including a place to feed and house all the workers, as well as the bakers, brewers, butchers, and so on.

• The workers were well treated and well fed and had access to medical care.

The workforce had all the evidence of a highly organized team of motivated individuals—not the typical depiction of slaves being whipped to work. There is little doubt that the project team for each pyramid had a mixture of technical skills and knowledge that represented a sophisticated approach to building the structure.

The Great Cathedrals of Europe

Between 1050 and 1350 in France alone, more than 500 large churches were built, as well as 1000 parish churches, so that there was a church or chapel for every 200 people. In Germany, the Cologne Cathedral, considered by some to be the most perfect specimen of Gothic architecture in the world, undoubtedly took the longest to build. The foundation alone was laid in 1248. By 1417, one of the towers was finished to one-third its present height, but at the time of the Reformation, its roof was still covered with boards. Finally, the cathedral was completed in 1880, more than 630 years after construction first began.

Each church and chapel was a project that relied on the technology of the day. These artifacts of projects suggest that an early form of project management had to be used to organize the workforce and construct these houses of worship. The positive impact on society because of the churches cannot be estimated in any comparative analysis.

The Grand Canal of China (486 B.C. to the present)

This is the world’s oldest and longest canal, far surpassing the next two grand canals of the world: the Suez and Panama Canals. The building of the canal began in 486 B.C. during the Wu Dynasty. It was extended during the Qi Dynasty and later by Emperor Yangdi during the Sui Dynasty. The canal is 1114 miles long with 24 locks and some 60 bridges. A project is currently underway to extend the Grand Canal to Ningbo—or more than twice its present length to 3100 miles.

This canal has served China for nearly 2500 years and continues to be used as a means of commerce through waterborne transport of goods. The project to construct the canal and its supporting bridges and locks could have been accomplished only through dedicated planning and work effort to achieve its objectives.

Noah’s Ark

The designer of the Ark was God Himself. The shape of the ark was that of a rectangular barge with a low draft. Some other specifications include

• Make a roof and finish it to within 18 inches at the top.

• Coat inside and out with pitch.

• The Ark was to be about 437 to 512 feet in length, with a beam of 75 feet.

• The Ark would have an internal volume of 1,515,750 cubic feet.

• There would be only one door to enter and exit.

Historians have speculated that it took 120 years to build the Ark. The size of the project and its end product—the Ark—leave much to the imagination as to how the “project team” acquired the materials and the technology needed to shape and assemble the parts.

St. Petersburg, Russia (1703–1713)

In 1703, Emperor Peter began construction of a new city in the north of Russia, where the Neva River drains Lake Ladoga. The city was built on a myriad of islands, canals, and swamps. Construction conditions were brutal. Nearly 100,000 workers perished in the first year. Within 10 years, St. Petersburg was a city of 35,000 buildings of granite and stone and the capital of the Russian Empire. Today, the city is valued for its historic buildings and contribution to Russian history. Although no longer capital of Russia, it plays an important role in industrial and cultural activities of the people. This 10-year project gave the Russian people, and visitors to St. Petersburg, a cultural center that had endured for more than 300 years.

The Panama Canal Construction from (1870–1914)

The Panama Canal was started by a French company in 1870 and completed by the United States in 1914—a span of 44 years. Opening the Canal has significant consequences for international trade in that ships would save as many as 6 weeks travel time from the east coast to the west coast of the United States. Prior to the Panama Canal, ships would travel around the southern cape of South America. People and materials would sometime sail to the Isthmus of Panama and take the train to the opposite coast—a distance of approximately 50 miles—where they would board another ship.

The creation of the Panama Canal was far more than a vast, unprecedented engineering feat, it was a profoundly important historic event and a sweeping human drama, not unlike that of a war. Apart from wars it represents to date, one of the largest, most costly single efforts ever before mounted anywhere on earth. It held the world’s attention over a span of 44 years from 1870–1914⁷.

Tower of Babel

According to Genesis 11:1-9, a structure was erected in the plain or valley of Shinar. The builders presumed to build an edifice that reached the heavens—symbolizing human self-sufficiency and pride. Historians believe that the myth on which the building of the tower rests may have developed as an attempt to account for the diversity of human language—in the modern thought, an inability to communicate or to fail to understand one another’s communication. One might ask if there have been any modern construction projects where a lack of communication among the project stakeholders was a cause for delay or cancellation of the project.

Signing of the Magna Carta (1215)

The Magna Carta is a document that states the basic liberties guaranteed to the English people. The Magna Carta proclaims rights that have become a part of English law and are now the foundation of the constitution of every English-speaking nation. The Magna Carta, which means “great charter” in Latin, was drawn up by English barons and churchmen, who forced the tyrannical King John to set his seal on it on June 15, 1215. King John’s cruelty and greed united the powerful feudal nobles, the churchmen, and the townspeople against him. While he was waging a disastrous war in France, the leading nobles met secretly and swore to compel him to respect the rights of his subjects. When King John returned from the war, they presented him with a series of demands. King John tried to gather support, but almost all his followers deserted him. At last he met with the nobles and bishops along the south bank of the Thames in a meadow called Runnymede and affixed his seal to the Magna Carta.

Empress Catherine the Great of Russia (1729–1796)

Catherine assumed power in Russia in 1762 after a coup d’état in which she led officers of the Royal Guard. Unlike her husband, she was well loved by the country’s elite and received good press in Europe thanks to her contacts with many figures of the French Enlightenment. Catherine’s court was extremely luxurious. She was the first to move into the newly built Winter Palace. Catherine started a royal art collection, which later was housed in the world-famous Hermitage. Several additional buildings (the Small Hermitage and the Old Hermitage) were commissioned for the growing royal collection of art. The Hermitage Theater was built, and the area around the palace was put in order and built up with the finest houses and palaces.

1.7 MILITARY CAMPAIGNS

Most, if not all, military campaigns have taken on the characteristics of projects. Military battles and campaigns have objectives and consume resources through planned activities in most cases. The introduction of new weapons that have been developed in a structured form typically gives military leaders some advantage over their adversaries by exploiting a weakness.

These new weapons frequently represent a response to an adversary’s weakness, such as the introduction of body armor on the battlefield to counter sword, knife, and club weapons. The opposition countered with weapons that exploited the openings in the armor, such as under the armpits when a knight would raise a sword to strike. One response was to provide armor under the armpits. Armor was discarded as an advantage when weapons such as guns were able to penetrate the material. Interestingly enough, the modern-day helmet and bulletproof vest have been adopted as a means to stop opposing gunfire.

The Battle of Crecy (August 26, 1346)

Fought on Saturday, August 26, 1346, the Battle of Crecy, France, was the first of several significant battles during which the longbow triumphed over crossbows and armored knights. The French forces in the battle numbered approximately 30,000; English forces numbered 12,000, of which 7000 were archers. The battle line was about 2000 yards wide. The English army occupied the top of a gentle ridge near the town. Each English archer carried two sheaves of arrows into battle. The arrows could be shot at 250 to 300 yards. The French made 14 to 16 charges against the English lines from the start of the battle at 4:00 P.M. until the end of the battle at midnight. Casualties were estimated to be 5000 for the French knights and Genoese crossbowmen and about 100 for the English.

The Battle of Crecy had political consequences in Europe. From a military hardware perspective, the use of the longbow by the English forces proved superior to the traditional crossbow and mounted-knight strategy of the French. Tactically, the Battle of Crecy established the supremacy of the longbow on the battlefield and gave England standing as a great military power. The longbow was responsible for vast changes in the nature of medieval warfare. It made England the foremost power in Europe during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. England won almost every battle fought through a skillful and tactical use of massed archers and men-at-arms. On many occasions, the English troops were outnumbered but still were able to win the battle. It was during King Edward’s victory at Caen, on the way to Crecy, that a “mooning” incident occurred. Several hundred Norman soldiers “mooned” the English archers; many of these soldiers paid a painful price for their display!

The Manhattan Project (1942–1945)

The Manhattan Project for the development and delivery of the atomic bomb had a major impact on the strategy for winning World War II by the United States and its allies. General Leslie R. Groves was appointed as the project manager for the development, production, and delivery of the atomic bomb, which, although devastating to Japan, is credited with saving the lives of thousands of American military personnel.

The Manhattan Project was a complex arrangement of participants in Chicago, Illinois, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, and Los Alamos, New Mexico. The technical challenge to harness the atom required the work of many scientists working under the direction of a military man, General Groves. In addition, the requirement for security and administration of the various participants posed an additional burden on the project manager.

The Normandy Invasion (June 6, 1944)

Operation Overlord was the largest military seaborne and airborne invasion of World War II. Planning for the invasion began in the summer of 1942, with detailed planning nearly completed by late 1943. Revision and updating of the plan continued until June 1944, when the invasion took place. This planning encompassed a massive assembly of human resources, war materials, air and sea transport, and logistic support. Significant Allied (Britain, Canada, France, Greece, The Netherlands, Norway, Poland, and the United States) military forces and resources were gathered in Britain. The initial sea assault from landing ships and craft was on a five-division front between the French Orne River and the Cotentin Peninsula. Airborne forces parachuted behind German lines to capture critical lines of communication and resupply routes.

The seaborne region was divided into five landing beaches (code named from west to east Utah, Omaha, Gold, Juno, and Sword). The overall battle itself, however, would be decided by the abilities of the Allies to reinforce their initially weak beachhead by sea as compared with the easier movement of German reinforcements by land.

On June 5, 1944, thousands of ships and craft from the Allies put to sea and gathered in assembly areas southeast of the Isle of Wight. Airborne forces assembled at key airfields in anticipation of parachuting into France. After overrunning the German beach defense, the Allies rapidly expanded the individual beachheads and reinforced the beach assault forces with new troops, munitions, and supplies. By July 25, the Allies were strong enough to launch Operation Cobra to begin the liberation of France.

In a larger sense, the successful Allied landing in France was a psychological blow to the German occupation of Europe. The invasion challenged the ability of the German to control western Europe, dramatically increased partisan activity and heartened the morale of all the people in Europe fighting against Nazi tyranny. The balance of power on the continent, already weakened by a Soviet offensive into Poland, was tipped in favor of the Allies. From the breakout at Normandy, the Allies would begin the drive into Germany, leading to surrender of the Nazi regime on May 7, 1945.

Military/Defense Projects That Failed

A few other projects that have changed the world and have historical significance because of the failure to meet strategic objectives are easily recognized. The Great Wall of China was built in segments over 2000 years from 221 B.C.-1644. The Great Wall of China was constructed to keep out foreign invaders. Some amazing projects in history, such as the Great Wall of China, Hadrian’s Wall, the Walls of Jericho, and the Maginot and Ziegfried lines in Europe were major failures. They really never protected anyone, and did not stop the invasion of the territory they were meant to protect. The building of these massive projects consumed major resources, took many years to complete, but failed to accomplish the strategic intent for which they were designed.

1.8 PROJECTS THAT CHANGED THE WORLD

Projects that have greatly impacted society and were, perhaps, building blocks for subsequent changes to the world are many. Some of the more important projects as viewed by the authors are summarized below to stimulate thought and imagination.

• Ancient Roman roads, a planned system of public roads around Rome constructed and maintained by the state. The roads were constructed from different materials layered to provide for durability. The roads ranged in width from 8 to 40 feet with ditches for good drainage.

• The first steam engine (1704), built to pump water from mines. This engine used atmospheric pressure to power the thrust of the piston (by cooling the steam to create a vacuum). Later versions used steam to power the thrust of the piston.

• The Coliseum of Rome, constructed in the first century. The Coliseum was constructed to a height of 160 feet and could seat about 50,000 spectators. Its purpose was for games of entertainment.

• The catacombs of Alexandria, Egypt (second century A.D.), are the graves of a single family. These catacombs, opposite of the Great Pyramids of Egypt, are more than 100 feet below ground at their lowest point.

• The dikes of Holland, started in the thirteenth century. The dikes of Holland are a form of water management system that recovers land. The levees and dams retain the water while windmills pump excess water out. This represents recovery and use of more than 160,000 hectares of land.

• The Siberian Transcontinental Railroad (1891–1905). This railroad was built to link Moscow with Vladivostok in the east—a distance of some 6000 miles. This commercial link aided in transporting materials in both directions.

• The exploratory journeys of Ponce de Leon (1540–1621) resulted in the discovery and claiming of Florida for Spain. Ponce de Leon accompanied Columbus on his second voyage to America in 1593 and stayed in the Dominican Republic as its governor.

• The inventions of Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790). Benjamin Franklin was a man of science as well as a statesman. He is probably best known for his experiments flying a kite during an electrical storm thus “discovering” electricity. He helped draft the Declaration of Independence, was a scientist of international celebrity, with a half-dozen significant inventions to his credit. The lightning rod is considered to be the most notable of his inventions. Clearly he understood the meaning of a project and how a successful project can lead to strategic changes in an environment.

1.9 THE MODERN PROJECTS

The nineteenth and twentieth centuries were fertile grounds for projects and some of the best-known project management of those centuries. These projects have significantly altered the world through creating change in a disciplined fashion under great difficulty. Table 1.3 lists the projects and the descriptions.

TABLE 1.3 Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Projects.

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• Lewis and Clark Expedition from 1803 to 1806

• The Suez Canal constructed from 1859 to 1869

• The US Transcontinental Railroad link from 1862 to 1869

• The Pennsylvania Turnpike constructed from 1935 to 1940

• The Internet started in 1962

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Lewis and Clark Expedition (1803–1806)

In 1801, President Jefferson long had an interest in exploration of the western area of America leading to the Pacific. What helped to prompt Jefferson to dispatch the first American exploration to the Pacific was the publication of a small book detailing the first British expedition to reach the Pacific from Canada in the late eighteenth century. Rival Canadian competitors in the fur trade, the Hudson Bay Company and the Northwest Company were striving to dominate the fur trade in what now is western Canada and the western United States. In one of the trading posts in what is now Alberta, Canada, Alexander Mackenzie, a member of the Northwest Company began to consider how far it might be to the Pacific coast, which had been explored by James Cook, George Vancouver, and other English seamen. Mackenzie followed the river named for him, and the river took him to the shores of the Arctic Ocean. In a journey in 1792, he had better success by following the Peace River and its tributaries, reaching the Continental Divide. From the western slope of the Rockies, he struck the upper reaches of the Fraser River, hoping that it would lead him to the coast. He found that the canyons of the Fraser River were impossible to traverse. Following some suggestions made by a group of Indians, he set out on an overland journey and reached the coast of British Columbia in July 1793. It was another eight years before he published a full account of the journey. A year later, Thomas Jefferson received a copy in the United States.

An American captain, Robert Gray, had already found the Columbia River. It was a massive river that Jefferson believed must reach inland to the Rockies. He believed that if Americans could travel up the Missouri River and reach the Columbia from the east, they might find what MacKenzie had missed: an effective water route from the American heartland to the Pacific coast and the markets of Asia. Apparently the fact that the Missouri River flowed through territory not belonging to America did not bother Jefferson.

The prize that Jefferson sought was a practical route to the Pacific. The U.S. Congress could sponsor such a journey. The earliest assessment of cost for the journey was $2500 for equipment and provisions, including gifts for the Indians. During the spring and summer of 1803, Jefferson and Lewis worked feverishly to get the expedition under way.

In the charter given to Lewis, Jefferson stated that the mission was to find “the most direct and practicable water communication across the continent for the purposes of commerce” and to ensure that the U.S. Government received accurate information about it. Jefferson also instructed Lewis and Clark to take careful note of the latitude and longitude of all remarkable points between them from the Missouri River and the coast of the Pacific Ocean. Jefferson had another assignment for Lewis and Clark—to be Jefferson’s roving ambassador to the western Indians. Lewis and Clark were to compile as much information as they could about the Indian nations through the lands in which they passed. They were instructed to meet with Indian leaders and make them acquainted with our wish to be friendly and useful to them.

It is widely known by the project management community that a project has to have a strong sponsor—an individual or organization that justifies the project, sets a time schedule, establishes the technical objectives, and provides resources is essential. This is what was done in the planning for the Lewis and Clark expedition.

The Suez Canal (1859–1869)

The Suez Canal is one of the wonders of the nineteenth century. It was a French initiative, designed by a Frenchman, financed by Frenchmen, and opened up by a French symbol of power. French entrepreneur Ferdinand de Lesseps led the Suez Canal effort. The canal ended up being one of the strengths of British imperial power.

During the campaign of Napoleon in Egypt in the late eighteenth century, the French had seen the commercial and military possibilities of linking the Mediterranean and Red seas. One man, a diplomat in the French Foreign Service, saw his career eroding in the diplomatic service. His personal life was saddened by the loss of his wife and one of his children. He dedicated himself to a one-man canal-building campaign from 1853 until 1869 and was obsessed with the building of the Suez Canal.

He convinced the Egyptians that the building of the canal would prove that they still had the potential to be a powerful force in world affairs. To the French he said that the canal would offer a grand example of their national capability more than wars and revolutions. Rich Frenchmen invested in his company. Unfortunately, he was considered to be somewhat of a crackpot in other countries. In England, British leaders trashed his plans. A spokesman in England called it “among the many bubble schemes that from time to time have been put on gullible capitalists.” Whether this trashing was a reflection of British stupidity, a lack of foresight by British leaders, or a subtle cunning on the part of the British leaders is not known.

The Franco-Egyptian feat of engineering was advantageous to the British, who were the most skeptical. Britain’s ocean links to India would benefit most from a canal. Before the canal opened, it had taken at least 113 days for a steamship to sail the 6000 miles from London to Calcutta via the Cape of Good Hope. The canal cut the distance by a third under the terms of the concession obtained by Lesseps, whose company had the clearance to dig a channel across the arid Suez Isthmus, a distance of 100 miles, and to operate it for 99 years. The Egyptian government would receive 15 percent of the profits, the founders 10 percent, and the shareholders the rest.

Experience with modern major construction projects indicates that they cost at least twice the amount stated in the prospectus and that the expected revenues usually are about half of what is projected. In the Suez Canal there were additional reasons for cost overruns. A huge labor force would have to be obtained from the Egyptian peasantry. In addition, there were major problems in cutting the canal through its pathway in arid land.

Transcontinental Railroad, Omaha, Nebraska, to Sacramento, California (1862–1869)

In the United States in the mid-1800s, a project was initiated to join the continent of North America by railroad. The two biggest corporations in America, the Central Pacific and the Union Pacific railroads, had armies of men at work building separate railroad lines. This project was an epic of logistics, organization, and endurance. When the two railroads were joined in Promontory, Utah, a single transportation system became operational from the east coast to the west coast of the United States.

Completion of this project linked the east and west coasts of the United States through a rail system to conduct commerce. Between Omaha and Sacramento, there were few towns on the path to benefit from the commerce. The railroad, however, provided the incentive to build communities both to service the system and to use it.

The Pennsylvania Turnpike (1935–1940)

Building the Pennsylvania Turnpike in the late 1930s is an example of the early use of project management in the United States. The Pennsylvania Turnpike opened on October 1, 1940, and was completed on time and within budget. Moreover, it attained its objective as an innovative means for improving highway systems.

The initial turnpike was envisioned as a four-lane road extending from just east of Pittsburgh to Carlisle—a distance of 160 miles—using the right of way for a planned railroad. The turnpike incorporated the latest in design features to accommodate modern travel, such as no road or rail crossings, gentle curves and slopes, and 10 service plazas for travelers. This turnpike set the example for roadways in the future and subsequently was incorporated into the overall system of major highways.

The Internet (August 1962)

The creation and building of the Internet was not a monolithic project. Rather, it was a patchwork of individual and organizational contributions pieced together through the years. It was an immense integration of much solitary effort and cooperative work. It came into being where knowledge and competency resided in thousands of uncelebrated places—laboratories, classrooms, offices, social gatherings, and so forth—where people knowledgeable in computers and telephone lines got together and tried to improve communication among themselves.

Professor and innovator J. C. R. Lickrider played a role much akin to a “virtual project manager,” throwing out ideas and concepts to fertile minds that worked informally together to create a means of communication that led to the World Wide Web and other supporting technologies and protocols that are known today as the Internet. [A fascinating summary description of the evolution of the Internet can be found in James Tobin, “The Internet,” Chapter 8 in Great Project (New York: Free Press, 2001).]

1.10 THE RESULTS OF HISTORICAL PROJECTS

Projects of the past have been challenging and have contributed to the well-being of millions of people by creating changes that advanced society. In some instances, the project was a response to a situation such as a natural disaster that threatened lives. Change through making the best use of resources is project management. The resulting benefits throughout history have been delivered in the form of new or enhanced projects, valuable services, and improved organizational processes.

Projects have ranged in length throughout antiquity from perhaps a single day to hundreds of years. A battle fought in a single day could change the future of generations. Some of the effects of projects include

• Change or reactions to change

• New or enhanced products, services, or organizational processes

• Varied degrees of risk and uncertainty

• Benefits and/or destructive results

• Modest to spectacular results

• Creation of something that did not exist previously

• Integrated results into the strategic or operational initiatives of the owner

• Social progress (or lack of progress)

1.11 THE PAST, THE PRESENT, AND THE FUTURE FOR PROJECTS

The Past in Project Management

The previous portion of this chapter has given a glimpse into the evolution of project management by using evidence of projects and has provided selected examples of projects over nearly 5000 years. The artifacts attest to the need for and the obvious employment of some fundamental form of project management. One might assume that modern project management came into being during the 1950s when concepts and processes were being fully documented in literature. The 1950s brought forth a more robust form of project management beyond the foundation areas of cost, schedule, and technical performance.

The Present in Project Management

The present project management practices, while still not perfect, are being employed to create change through the efficient use of resources to deliver predetermined benefits. Project management theory and practice continues to be refined toward a purpose of managing change to achieve greater efficiency with less risk and uncertainty. Techniques have been developed that give more positive control over resource consumption to achieve desired objectives. New tools, primarily computer software, have brought forth the means to better manage projects from initiation through delivery of benefits.

Senior managers in many organizations are familiar with the promise of project management as the most effective means of performing unique work to convert resources to new products, service, or organizational change. A significant number of individuals from a variety of professions are becoming more involved in project management practices and they are learning to employ project management techniques to achieve the desired results. The professionals seeking to use project management in their workplace include engineers, architects, physicians, and nurses to name a few.

The level of interest and emphasis in project management may be realized by the growth of professional associations. The Project Management Institute, headquartered in the United States, has experienced rapid growth in the past 5 years to now total more than 230,000 members. The International Project Management Association, headquartered in Switzerland, has 40 member associations with a total membership exceeding 100,000 individuals. The Japanese Project Management Forum, headquartered in Tokyo, has about 5,000 members and is growing.

There is an effort for a limited number of organizations to assess their maturity of project management, both from a practice perspective and from the knowledge and skills possessed by their project managers. Tools and methodologies play a major role in organizational maturity in the field of project management.

Certification programs for project management personnel continue to expand and more individuals are seeking validation of their qualifications. It is estimated that more than 100,000 individuals have demonstrated their knowledge or competence in project management through a certification program.

The Future of Project Management

In considering the future of project management, some of the major forces that have emerged in the field of the management discipline have appeared. One of the fascinating predictions about the future of project management was stated by Thomas A. Stewart, who wrote in 1995, “Project management is the wave of the future.”⁸ Since 1995, this prediction is supported by a wider and more thorough use of project management in the United States and in International projects. There is no indication that Stewart’s prediction will wane in the near future.

The need for rapid change under controlled situations dictates that the future demand for projects and the inherent management of those projects will drive the need for newer and better practices and techniques to prosecute the work. Faster initiation and decisions to proceed with projects can be expected that places a requirement for more highly skilled project management practitioners—be they managers, leaders, or team members.

The mantra of “faster, cheaper, quicker” will continue to be the driving force for senior managers of organizations to achieve their business and strategic goals. Survival in a global economy where more and more international projects are conceived as the answer to border spanning interests will be common place. Seeking and selection of less expensive human resources to achieve organizational objectives will also drive how projects are conceived and implemented either as international projects or as projects with foreign suppliers of components of projects.

International projects will face new challenges as the number increases worldwide. Developing nations that have an abundant source of inexpensive labor will become involved and build on their project management capabilities so as to be good partners for international projects as well as good providers of products and service within their national boundaries. It will be the responsibility of the leading organization in international projects to nurture and grow the developing nations’ project management capabilities.

Technology plays a major role in today’s projects and will continue to expand to embrace more applications for collection and formatting of information, communication of information between stakeholders, and storing relevant information for rapid retrieval and use. Technology will continue to grow to support the function of resource selection, resource allocation, and resource tracking to reduce waste of effort for human resources assigned to projects. Technology will also play an important role in capturing information that relates to project risks and risk management.

Project managers will enhance their competence through experience and training in the relevant areas of project management and interpersonal skills. New certification programs will provide the impetus that defines professional goals and will validate qualifications of project managers at several levels such as small project leader, project manager, project director, program manager, and project portfolio manager. The defined roles will establish the responsibilities and accountabilities associated with each level of organizational need for project management.

New thinking in project management will change the orientation from a single project view to an enterprise view with projects and programs being considered building blocks that meet the enterprise’s business and strategic objectives. The linkage will be established between the enterprise’s goals and objectives for every project started and maintained over the life of the project. Projects conducted outside the parameters of the selection criteria will be reviewed for possible termination.

Project portfolio management—the selection and management of projects as groups—will expand in use to make the best use of resources. Project selection will be against criteria aligned with enterprise goals for projects. Grouping of multiple projects will be a routine matter to obtain the most efficiency and effectiveness from human resources. Low value projects will be terminated and replaced by more viable projects that align with enterprise goals and objectives.

Projects will be smaller in the future, but more complex in their management. Organizations will elect to initiate and implement short-duration projects to achieve early benefits rather than long-duration projects. Compexity to managing projects will be inherent in the number of owners involved in the project and the geographic separation of components of the projects such as international projects spanning several borders.

Formal training of project participants will be required, especially those skills that contribute to working in teams. Training will focus on “team work”—collaborative efforts of groups of people with a single agenda and similar goals—as well as “team work” the work effort required to be accomplished by a group of people.

Some trends that affect the growth and application of project management in the future are:

• Reengineering application teams will be used to bring about a fundamental rethinking and radical design of business processes to achieve improvements in organizational efficiency.

• Concurrent engineering applications will continue to use concurrent product, service, and organizational development teams to develop, produce, and market products and services earlier, of a higher quality, and at a lower cost.

• Benchmarking initiatives will be conducted by teams to compare organizational products, services, and processes against the most formidable competitors and industry leaders to establish new performance standards for the enterprise.

• Business development opportunities will use teams to explore, design, develop, and execute new ventures for the enterprise.

• Improvements will be made for application of project management in managing operational and strategic change.

• The influence of stakeholders as legitimate claimants of those things of value being created by the enterprise will continue to grow.

• There will be an increase in the use of alternative team organizational designs to cope with the need for the integration of interfunctional and interorganizational activities to support product, service, and process development.

• Downsizing and restructuring of organizations to improve efficiency and effectiveness has resulted in the elimination and shifting of managerial and professional positions.

• The relative roles of “managers” and “leaders” will continue to come under scrutiny and redefinition.

• More emphasis will be placed on the interpersonal capabilities of executives and the role of traditional first-level supervisors changing from a traditional to a facilitator, coach, mentor, counselor, coordinator, and oversight person in obtaining and using resources in the enterprise.

• Global competition will drive the demand for products and services in countries, as well as the need for infrastructure improvement throughout the world, for project management services.

• The maturation of a philosophy of strategic management of the enterprise, the management of the enterprise as if its future mattered, is reflected in more proactive strategic planning and execution strategies in contemporary enterprises.

One of the major contributions of project management, and alternative team management during the past 25 years, has been a modification to the management discipline. These modifications have changed management philosophies, processes, techniques and the performance standards by which an enterprise’s efficiency can be judged. These modifications and their likely continuation include:

• Acceptance and virtual institutionalization of the “matrix” organizational as the normal business process.

• Acceptance of the importance of project planning as a means for determining the resources required and how these resources will be used during the life cycle of the project. In the future, project planning will gain in importance as the means for identifying and committing resources to deal with operational and strategic change in the enterprise.

• Opportunities will continue for workers to perform managerial and leadership functions in operational and strategic teams in the enterprise while gaining an appreciation of the challenges facing organizational managers and leaders.

• Individuals will serve on the various teams and recognize that “self-control” is important to individual productivity.

• New applications for project management will continue to grow in a variety of different industries and organizations both for profit and not for profit.

• International issues over scarce energy resources will continue to challenge organizations and will create new demands for more efficiency in projects.

• Experience and competence in team management and leadership will become major considerations in the selection and promotion of senior managers.

• New products and services will be created at unprecedented rates in the future by projects because of competitive factors emerging through relentless changes to the global marketplace.

1.12 TO SUMMARIZE

Project management has evolved over many centuries of use. It was not until the 1950s that the literature began to reflect the evolving theory and practice of this discipline. An early rudimentary form of project management was used over the centuries in the creation of artifacts and cultural enhancements in world societies.

Project management, as a methodology for efficiently accomplishing work, continues to advance both its application to different situations and in the refinement of the process for a wide variety of efforts. Examples of projects through artifacts and literature that span more than 5000 years demonstrate the utility and versatility of project management as effecting change in an organization through the judicious use of resources to create and deliver products, services, and organizational change.

For more than 50 centuries, project management has evolved to become the principal means for dealing with change in modern organizations. Today, project management is widely known and acknowledged as the means to convert resources to create something more valuable. Peoples of many nations on earth embrace project management concepts and practices to design, develop, and deliver products and services.

Although project management has taken nearly 5000 years to evolve to its current state, there are still improvements to be realized because of the global nature of the economy and the growing number of international projects. It is anticipated that project management will evolve to accommodate new needs and resultant demands for better efficiencies. These changes will take advantage of new technology for information interchange, raising the level of competence in project management for all participants, and changes to methodologies to bridge across processes. Project management professional associations will play a major role in advancing the state of the art through volunteer efforts and sharing experiences.

1.13 ADDITIONAL SOURCES OF INFORMATION

The following additional sources of project management information may be used to complement this chapter’s topic material. This material complements and expands on various concepts, practices, and the theory of project management as it relates to areas covered here.

• Claude S. George Jr., The History of Management Thought (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1968). This book knits together into a meaningful whole with many of the fragments of management thought that make up the history of this still emerging profession. George brings together in one summary volume the most pertinent examples of the fragments of management practice and theory. It includes a chronological bibliography of management literature. The careful and imaginative reader will find some seeds, which become part of the evolving practice and process of project management.

• Henri Fayol, General and Industrial Management (Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, 1949). Fayol’s book was the first one to describe the overall management of an industrial enterprise. He put forth the idea of management principles, suggesting that such principles are flexible and capable of adaptation to every management need. He was also the first to describe the managerial functions of planning, organization, command, co-ordination, and control. In his description of the chain of superiors ranging from the ultimate enterprise authority to the lowest ranks, he introduces the idea of lateral contact between people in different organizational chains who need to work together across organizational boundaries to do their work. He thus sowed the seed for what has become known in contemporary project management theory as the matrix organization.

• Daniel J. Boorstin, The Discoverers (New York, NY: Random House, 1983). This book is a vivid, sweeping and original history of man’s greatest adventure: his search to discover the world around him and the relationships of the heavens to his own planet. His narrative reveals mankind’s imaginative leaps forward in the discovering, understanding, and development of the heavenly empire, the measurement of time, the opening of the new Western worlds, and the mastery of technological, social, and economic systems in the global community. As one reads this wonderful and massive book, there is the realization that man’s search for change throughout history is directly related to what we call project management today!

• Dr. Alan A. Zeitoun and Dr. Andy W. Helmy, “The Pyramids and Implementing Project Management Processes,” Proceedings, Project Management Institute (Chicago: 28th Annual Seminar/Symposium, 1977), pp. 593–596. This paper addresses the building of the pyramids and the concepts behind this enormous project. The authors build a case that many of the concepts and processes of modern project management were applied in building these major antiquities.

1.14 DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. What is the reason for learning about the historical evolution of project management?

2. The authors have identified three areas for categorizing historical projects. These areas are: artifacts, cultural strategies, and literature and documents. Are there any additional areas that could be included in such a categorization?

3. Identify several historical projects and discuss how these projects created change in their environment.

4. Discuss how the theory and practice of project management might change in the future.

5. The authors state that general management theory and practice contains some seeds that ultimately germinated and became a part of project management. Identify and discuss some of these seeds.

6. Identify and discuss some of the projects that are described in Daniel Defoe’s Essay on Projects. How could some of the ideas that he puts forth apply to the management of contemporary projects.

7. Identify and discuss some historical projects that have not been included in this chapter. What changes did these projects bring about in the past?

8. Discuss why the United States Air Force policy and procedural documents had such an influence in the emerging project management literature.

9. Discuss why the practice of project management existed long before the development of literature in the field.

10. Identify and discuss some of the reasons why the Pennsylvania Turnpike was completed on time, within budget, and attained its objective as an innovative means for improving highway systems.

11. It can be assumed that a form of project management can be found in all ancient societies. Discuss what evidence supports such a statement.

12. It is stated in the Bible: “there is no new thing under the sun.” Discuss how this statement might or might not be applied to the evolution of project management.

1.15 USER CHECKLIST

1. What projects has the organization had in the past?

2. What’s been the “success” or “failure” record on these projects?

3. How have the organization’s projects in the past influenced the manner by which the organizational mission was attained?

4. What reasons might be learned by doing a review of the relative success/failure of organizational projects in the past?

5. Does the organization have a library, which contains some of the basic literature described in this book?

6. Are actual or pending changes in the organization’s market place being identified? What projects should be initiated to deal with these changes?

7. Would it be useful for the managers of the organization to read and discuss Henri Fayol’s book?

8. In an evaluation of the relative effectiveness with which contemporary projects are being managed in the organization, how might a study of the history of past projects in the organization be useful?

9. What are the five or six major reasons for the success of projects in the organization? What have been the five or six reasons for the failure of projects in the past?

10. Is there any information in this chapter that could be of assistance in the management of current projects in the enterprise?

11. How well do the current project team members in the organization know the long heritage in the history of project management?

12. Does the organization conduct a post-audit of major projects in the company to assess the effectiveness with which the project has been managed? If so, are the results of such audits added to the history of how projects have been managed?

1.16 PRINCIPLES OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT

1. A study of the historical evaluation of project management can enhance an understanding of contemporary project management.

2. The practice of project management precedes the development of related literature in the field.

3. Project management has evolved from the practice and theory of general management.

4. Changes in antiquity were aided and facilitated through early forms of project management.

5. Projects were the building blocks of change in ancient societies.

1.17 PROJECT MANAGEMENT SITUATION—PROJECTS OF ANTIQUITY

Select a project of antiquity that is briefly described in this chapter. Do as much research as possible to learn more about this project in order to answer the following questions:

1. What were the general background environmental forces and factors that prompted the need for this project?

2. How was the need for the project recognized?

3. What strategic objectives and goals were established for the project? By whom?

4. What resources were required to support the project? Were the original estimates for these resources realistic?

5. How effective was the oversight of the project carried out? Who had the responsibility for this oversight?

6. What lessons can be learned from a study of this project from the perspective of the management of a contemporary project?

1.18 STUDENT/READER ASSIGNEMENT

1. Prepare a “database” that provides answers to the above questions.

2. Prepare a short update of the information concerning this project.