SOUND PRODUCTION FOR THE VISUAL MEDIA
Most of what has been covered in this book deals with audio-only material, such as a disc-jockeyed show or a radio newscast. Frequently, however, audio is used in conjunction with visual media—a TV production, a music video, a talk show, an animated cartoon, a dramatic movie, a video game, a documentary, and so on.
To some extent, dealing with audio joined with visuals is no different than dealing with audio alone. Microphones used for a TV game show have the same directionality and construction options as those used for a radio interview. The audio board used to record a television cooking show has many of the same controls as one used by a disc jockey. If the video is shot outside the studio, wind noises will be a problem, just as they are for audio recording. However, there are also differences in the audio techniques needed when a visual is an element—differences that this chapter will address.
11.2 THE IMPORTANCE OF SOUND TO A VISUAL PRODUCTION
Audio adds a great deal to any visual production. In video production, for example, some have estimated that audio supplies 80 percent of the information and that the video image supplies only 20 percent. This does not mean that audio gets as much respect as the video image, however. On a video or film shoot, much more time is usually consumed by the needs of the picture than the needs of the sound. If an audio operator encounters a problem recording sound, the director is often less sympathetic than that director would be to a cinematographer’s problem. One audio operator who regularly works on television productions has confessed to a method he uses to handle this situation. If he needs time to fix an audio problem he will say, “I think I saw a shadow on the actor’s face.” While crew members are scurrying trying to find what might be a source of a shadow, he has time to rectify his audio problem.
The good news is that as audience members build home theaters with surround sound, they demand the best in audio. Their demands are trickling down to the production process and audio is gaining more respect. There are exciting, challenging jobs available for those who want to work with the sound of visual production.
11.3 THE NEED TO ACCOMMODATE THE PICTURE
Audio recordists who are preparing material to be used with images need to take the picture into account. For example, for some forms of programming, such as television news or music shows, it is perfectly acceptable for the microphone to show in the picture. But for fictional forms (dramas, sitcoms), the presence of a mic will break the illusion, because in real life, people who are having an argument or embracing each other do not wear microphones.
Audio must also be recorded in such a way that it fits the needs of the overall program. If the material is fictional, then the sound must serve the needs of the story; if the scene is tense, the music and sound effects must be intense. To a lesser extent, the same is true for documentary productions. Documentary sound tracks often include music and sound effects. Very few documentaries use Foley (explained later in this chapter), but none the less all the sounds elements, including interviews, location, and ambient sounds, are mixed down from multiple tracks. New productions usually just include voice tracks and sounds for story elements.
For productions with complicated audio, such as movies, a sound designer is often hired to plan the overall strategy for sounds and to consider the purpose of sound in relation to the image. Sound designers are also being used in television broadcast dramas. There is a minimal, yet present, amount of sound design in some reality television, too.
Throughout the remainder of this chapter we will cover various types of sound common to production with the visual media, how these sounds are recorded, and how they are incorporated in the final product.
Recording the spoken word is very important in any type of program. If the audience members can’t understand the dialogue of a drama or the conversation of a talk show, they will not be able to follow the story or learn from the information. As with any form of recording, you must decide the directionality of the microphone(s) that you plan to use. Cardioid mics are the workhorses of video and film recording, because they do not pick up sounds well from one side, the side where the video or film equipment usually is. For example, in a studio shoot, cooling fans might be heard through an omnidirectional mic. Also, as with audio recording, you must decide on the construction of the mic. If the mic is likely to be moved often, you probably want the more rugged dynamic mic. If the mic is going to be recording a wide range of frequencies, you may opt for a condenser mic.
The positioning of the mic is usually much more complex when an image is involved than when only audio is being recorded. For an interview situation, a television reporter might use a handheld mic in a fashion similar to how a radio reporter would hold it, but for dramas, sitcoms, and similar material, the microphone must not be obvious in the picture.
The most common type of microphone holder used for visual media production is one that is hardly ever used for radio or other audio-only productions. It is called a fishpole because it is a long pole with a mic at the end. The operator holds the fishpole (also referred to as a boom) and moves it above the heads of the performers, pointing the end of the mic toward the actor’s mouth. The best position is 1 to 3 feet above the performer and 1 to 4 feet in front. It is particularly effective for recording dialogue, because the person holding the fishpole can move the mic quickly to capture dialogue of different people (see Figure 11.1).
But the fishpole has disadvantages. If the camera shot is at all wide, the mic is likely to show in the picture. Directors often like to use two cameras at the same time, one showing a long shot and another a close-up (see Figure 11.2). Therefore, audio operators have to be creative in the placement of the boom. Sometimes the solution is to place the pole at the talent’s feet with the mic pointing up toward the mouth. Some audio operators place a piece of white tape on the end of the mic. That way the camera operator can easily spot it if it dips into the picture, and the camera operator and audio operator, working cooperatively, can determine just how low the mic can come.
Another problem with the fishpole is that it is likely to cast a shadow on the characters or the set. There usually is no way to prevent a shadow, but you can minimize it by positioning the fishpole in such a way that the shadow falls onto the floor or onto a flowerpot or other piece of scenery where it will not be noticed. If that doesn’t work, someone can stand by the microphone and look to see what light is causing the problem (see Figure 11.3). Moving that light slightly to the left or right can often redirect the shadow to a harmless area. If you can’t move a light to solve a sound problem, you may be able to adjust the camera angle or actor position. Because a boom mic is often used to record several people talking, there is always the possibility that one person will talk more quietly than another. Usually this can be overcome by placing the mic closer to one person than to the other, but this involves skill and experience on the part of the fishpole holder.
PRODUCTION TIP 11A
Holding a Fishpole
Holding a fishpole can be tiring. If you do not have a great deal of upper-body strength, you would be well-advised to visit a gym and do a little body building before attempting a long day of shooting. Before you actually hold the fishpole for a long time, experiment with it to find several positions that are comfortable for you and then occasionally switch from one to the other. You will probably find that having your arms stretched out at far as possible is one of the better positions because that way you can balance the weight equally on both arms as opposed to having most of the weight on the arm nearest to the mic. During shooting, take every opportunity you can to put the fishpole down, even for a few seconds between shots. This will relax your arms and make it easier for you to hold the fishpole for the next shot.
As already mentioned in Chapter 4, “Microphones,” another way to record speech is with a lavaliere (lav), a small mic (see Figure 11.4) that can be clipped to a person’s clothing. The best way to position it is 8 to 10 inches below the talent’s mouth, attached to a tie or blouse, making sure that it is not in a position where it will pick up the rustle of clothing. Lav mics are often wireless so that they give the person wearing it more freedom (for example, the cooking show chef can move about the studio kitchen or the drama actor can run down the street), but they can also be totally wired. In either case, they usually include a power supply/transmitter antenna that can be worn on a belt or waistband or buried in a set. If the mic is wireless, the antenna transmits the signal to a receiver that is then attached by wire to a recording device. If it is wired, a connection from the power supply goes to an audio board or recorder. If you are using condenser mics, they are connected to the board through their power supply (for example, an AA battery located in the mic shaft) or directly from the mic when using phantom power. Each person has his or her individual lav, so it is easy to record each person’s speech on a different track of an audio recorder.
FIGURE 11.1 A boom operator (right) readying a fishpole for use. It is best to position the fishpole so the mic is 1 to 4 feet in front of the mouth of the person speaking and 1 to 3 feet above it.
FIGURE 11.2 In this situation, two cameras are recording the same shot. The camera on the left has a wide shot and the camera on the right has a close-up. Therefore, the audio person needs to hold the mic a little higher than would be proper if only the close-up camera were shooting.
FIGURE 11.3 You can see what light is causing the microphone shadow if you stand in the shadow and look at the microphone. The offending light will be the one you see behind the mic.
FIGURE 11.4 A lavaliere microphone. (Image courtesy of Bosch Communications Systems.)
A disadvantage of lavalieres is that they are sometimes visible in a close-up. Also, the cables that are part of the lav assembly should be strung under the person’s clothes because, even if it is all right for the mic to show, a cable draped down the front of a shirt or blouse looks sloppy. Depending on what the person is wearing, the stringing of the cables can be difficult. Also, because each person must be miked separately, if the people get too close together, there is the danger of multiple-microphone interference (see Chapter 4) or phase cancellation.
11.7 OTHER FORMS OF MICROPHONE POSITIONING
Some large-scale productions, such as musical reviews, use perambulator booms, which are movable platforms that can move the mic in, out, up, down, and various other directions. More modest boom stands (see Figure 11.5) consist of a long horizontal pipe with a standard thread for a microphone on one end and a weight on the other end to balance the microphone. This pipe is attached to a vertical stand that is attached to wheels. The boom stand can be moved around to record different people in much the same way as the fishpole. It is easier on the arms of its operator than a fishpole, but not as maneuverable as a human body.
Mics can also be hidden on the set. Frequently microphones are placed in recesses of a news sets directly in front of where the anchors sit. For dramas, they can be hidden in flowerpots or other props. For a TV studio shoot, they can hang from the grid in the ceiling. Hidden locations free the talent of the need to deal with mics or even look at them, and as long as they pick up the sound well, they represent a valid way to mic. The main problem with them is that they do not move and, for most video or film productions, the performers move. The mic in the flowerpot might pick up the actress well while she is sitting on the sofa, but lose her sound as she walks to the door. Worse yet is hiding the mic in something that moves during the course of a shot—when the uncle picks up an umbrella to exit and the sound goes out the door with him.
There are times when desk stand mics are used for guests on public affairs TV shows, when floor stands are used for music videos, when hand mics are used by talk show hosts who converse with people in the audience, when headsets are used by TV sports announcers, and when shotgun mics are used to record distant sounds for a video documentary. The use of these devices has the same advantages and disadvantages as have already been discussed in Chapters 4 and 10.
11.8 CONTINUITY AND PERSPECTIVE
Continuity and perspective are two concepts that play a larger role in visual productions than in audio-only productions. Continuity refers to shooting in such a way that there will be a consistent progression from one shot to another when the final product is assembled. On a movie set, continuity is almost an obsession, mainly because scenes are shot out of order. One of the crew positions is a script supervisor who has as a main part of his or her job making sure shots will work together. Is the actor wearing the same tie as he enters his car in a scene shot on Monday as the one he is wearing when he gets out of his car in a scene shot on Thursday? In a documentary about an author, was the author holding the book in her right hand both for the long shot and for the close-up that was shot after the interview?
Script supervisors are supposed to check for audio continuity also, but in reality, that job often falls to the audio recordist. If the air conditioning is operating during a long shot of a couple arguing, it should also be on during the close-ups of the couple, so that when the editor cuts from a long shot to a close-up, the background noise level will not change. When everyone breaks for lunch, you should note how far away the mic was from the performers so that when shooting starts again after lunch, the mic can be in the same position. To the extent possible, you should use the same mic for the same person throughout a production. Because each mic has its particular sound, switching mics can change the sound. Sometimes this is not possible, however. You may be using a boom for the bulk of the shooting but need to switch to a wireless lav for a long shot of a person running. In such circumstances, you should listen to recordings of various available mics and choose ones that sound fairly similar.
Perspective relates to distance. If a dog is barking in the background of a shot, the dog’s sound should be different than if it is in the foreground of the shot. In this way, the viewers will feel closer to or farther from the dog and the sound will reinforce what they are seeing on the screen and help give the two-dimensional frame more of a three-dimensional feel. The easiest way to achieve proper perspective is to move a mic farther away or closer to the sound. If the mic is on a fishpole, it usually needs to be farther away for a long shot because it will show if it is right above the actor’s head. Lav mics present a problem with perspective. They are always the same distance from the person’s mouth so should not be used when perspective changes are needed. Hidden mics can be good for perspective if the picture relates to where the mic is placed. If the shot widens as the actress moves back from the hidden mic, perspective will be accurate. But if the camera follows the actress with a close-up while she is moving farther from the mic, the perspective will be incorrect.
FIGURE 11.6 To sync picture shot on film and sound recorded on a separate recorder so that they could ride together for editing purposes, filmmakers used (and still use) a clapper, such as the one shown here. At the beginning of each shot, a crew member holds the clapper in front of the film camera and claps the sticks together. In the editing suite, the frame where the clapper closes is lined up with the sound of it closing. Then the rest of the shot that follows is in sync. (Image courtesy of iStockphoto, Tomasz Rymkiewicz, Image #5540076.)
The simplest way to record sound for video is to plug the end of the microphone cable into the camera and record the sound on the tape or hard drive that is part of the camera assembly. This works well for a single sound, such as a news reporter doing a stand-up. But if the sound is more complex, involving a number of different voices or a number of different microphones, it is a good idea to have additional equipment that can control sound. If a program is being shot in a TV studio, the mics run through an audio board and the sound is adjusted just as it is for any production that involves studio audio. In the field, many audio recordists use a portable mixer so that they can manipulate sounds—for example, record a soft-spoken person at a high volume level on one track while recording a person with a louder voice at a lower level on another track.
The output from this mixer can be sent directly to the camera (either through cables or in a wireless manner) or it can be recorded separately on an audio recorder. Recording separately is referred to as double-system sound and recording onto the same source as the video is called single-system sound. Double-system recording was historically used for movies shot on film, because the sound couldn’t be recorded on the film in an effective manner that allowed for editing. Sound and picture were recorded on separate pieces of equipment and later synched by lining up the picture and sound of a clapper (see Figure 11.6).
Video is edited electronically, so there is no technical reason to record sound separately. However, double-system sound recording is often used with video recording for a number of reasons. Not having an audio cable or a wireless receiver attached to the camera allows the camera operator more flexibility of movement. If sound is recorded using both single- and double-system recording, the editor has more flexibility once the project is in the editing suite. Perhaps more important is that the camera operator is busy framing the picture and often doesn’t have time (or the inclination) to make sure the sound is being recorded properly. A person who devotes his or her entire attention to audio recording will produce a better product. In fact, big-budget productions usually have at least three audio people—one to hold the fishpole, one to operate the audio recording equipment, and the other to serve as a utility sound technician.
PRODUCTION TIP 11B
Recording with Your Eyes Shut
There is a great deal happening during a video or film shoot: people moving props, makeup artists powdering actors’ foreheads, technicians rearranging lights. It is easy to get distracted. If you are in charge of recording audio, try to arrange to sit off to the side with your mixer and/or recorder (see Figure 11.7). Wear high-quality headphones so that you can hear the sound you are recording distinctly and then close your eyes. This approach will allow you to concentrate on the sound and ignore the other hubbub. You will find it much easier to identify audio problems, such as extraneous noises that should not be part of the recording.
FIGURE 11.7 Shown here is production sound mixer, Richard Lightstone CAS, working on the ABC show Lincoln Heights. Note the use of the Yamaha 01V96 digital mixer and the Zaxcom Deva V 10-track digital recorder, appropriate for mixing and recording multiple actors on the set. (Image courtesy of Omar Milano.)
Many sound effects for visual productions are obtained from CDs or the Internet, in the same manner as for audio productions (see Chapter 1, “Production Planning”). But there is a different concept that must be considered: sync sound versus non-sync sound. Synched sounds are those that are tied to the picture—when a dog that is onscreen barks, the audience expects to hear the bark and they expect it to coordinate with the picture. Barks that occur out of sync with the opening and closing of the dog’s mouth are unacceptable. However, if the dog is offscreen, the bark does not need to be synched to the picture. In fact, you can use a standard sound effect, eliminating the need to record the sound at all.
Most commonly, onscreen synched sound effects are recorded during production; in fact, it is almost impossible not to record them. For that reason, they need to be carefully miked. If the person talking is petting the dog, the boom mic picking up the voice is adequate for picking up the barks. If the dog is by itself but onscreen, it may need to be separately miked—not necessarily an easy chore. You need to experiment with different mics and different positions to see what works well. You might be able to hide or hang the mic or use a fishpole or shotgun mic. If the dog’s barking occurs when the actor is not talking, you can, in a pinch, rely on sound effects of a dog barking that can be synched in postproduction. But if the man is talking while the dog is barking and they are therefore on the same track of audio, you need to make sure that you are picking up both sounds adequately. If the sound effect is non-sync, the process is much easier. You can place the mic wherever it sounds best, because there is no chance of it showing in the finalized production.
FIGURE 11.8 The RocknRoller® Multi-Cart® carries huge amounts of set equipment and folds small for storage. (Image courtesy of Fred Ginsburg CAS PhD MBKS.)
Video games have presented interesting challenges in terms of sound effects. For starters, the types of sounds used in video games often need to be “manufactured.” They are not sounds that can be found in everyday life or on sound effects sources. Many of them are created by manipulating normal sounds in computers—raising the pitch, changing the timbre, stretching the vowels. Others are ingeniously constructed by such methods as running a razor over a bell or hitting a pillow with a wrench. Microphone selection and placement is varied until the proper effect is achieved. Even sounds based on real ones such as gunfire need to be manipulated, because they change as the dynamics of the game change. For example, if a player is too close to a cannon when it fires, this action might trigger an automatic change in loudness that brings about a realistic ringing in the player’s ears. Sometimes sounds are “placed” on tires or windshields and triggered only when the player hits one of those areas. Everything needs to work together. If the player does hit the windshield, there needs to be the additional sound of glass falling to the ground. All of this organization takes a great deal of foresight and enables many creative recording sessions.
11.11 RECORDING AMBIENT SOUNDS
Ambient sounds, as discussed in Chapter 10, “Location Sound Recording,” are general background noises, such as room tone, atmosphere sounds, and walla walla. They are just as important for visual programs as for audio productions. It is often harder to record room tone on a video or film shoot, however, because there are more crew members. Getting everyone to be quiet for 30 seconds so that you can record the ambience of the place where you are shooting can be a difficult task. Camera operators, grips, and lighting technicians are usually eager to pack up the equipment, but you should record the room tone with all the equipment still in place. Otherwise, the room will have more of a hollow sound. The best mic to use is the one that you used to record whatever was happening in the room—an interview, dialogue for a drama, and so on. Doing so will further help ensure a similar sound quality that can be used later in postproduction.
Atmosphere sounds are usually recorded at a different time than the main portions of a production or they are obtained from prerecorded sources. As with audio only, these sounds, such as a bubbling brook or a noisy highway, add to the feel of the final product. With video or film productions, they must also coordinate with the picture. Although they do not need to be in sync with the picture, they must portray reality. If the highway in the picture shows a traffic jam, the atmosphere sound should not be that of traffic whizzing by. Most video cameras have a built-in microphone that should not be used in most video production circumstances, because it picks up noises close to the camera much better than it picks up dialogue from someone 5 feet away. However, for atmosphere sounds, the camera mic is often the best one to use, because you are trying to record general sounds of a particular area (see Figure 11.9). Of course, you don’t really need a camera to record atmosphere sounds; you can just use an audio recorder, but video people usually record everything through a camera so that it is all in one place.
Walla walla (the sound of people talking in the background) is more likely to be needed for visual productions than audio only productions. Often scenes such as those in a bar are filmed with only the main characters talking and everyone in the background moving their mouths but not making any sounds. This gives a clean dialogue track to which other sounds can be added in postproduction. Walla walla is best recorded with an omnidirectional mic (which can be a camera mic) either by hiring people to say “walla walla” or by going to an actual location, such as a bar, and taping the sound of people talking (see Chapter 10). You can also use a combination of mics on a set from using a boom, which by nature adds more ambience to the voice, lavs, which give a good clean signal if done properly, and set mics. Each mic is given its own track and they are later mixed together.
FIGURE 11.9 On this camera, the camera mic is mounted right above the lens. (Image courtesy of iStockphoto, Oktay Ortakcioglu, Image #4892147.)
Music for a visual project is usually recorded after the project has been edited, so that the music can fit precisely where it is needed. Some music, such as opening theme music, can be recorded ahead of time, and music that is part of the plot, such as a rock band song that the leading actor and some of his buddies play, is recorded during the course of the main production, but generally music recording is one of the final stages.
Music can come from a variety of sources. There are many companies that supply stock music for a modest fee (see Chapter 1), but it is hard to find prerecorded music that fits the exact mood and timing required by most video productions.
FIGURE 11.10 TV composer Ray Colcord (Family Affair, Touched by an Angel, The Simpsons) works out of a studio in his home, where he has a full array of software and hardware to aid his composing.
A great deal of music for video or film productions is supplied by composers who work at their computers laying down various tracks of synthesized instruments (see Figure 11.10). They may never meet anyone involved with the production; in fact, a composer can live in France and compose music for a movie made in Hollywood. Often the director or someone aligned with the production makes a timing sheet (see Figure 11.11) for the composer. It lists the time code numbers for places where the director feels that music should be added, and the composer is, of course, given a time-coded copy of the movie to use as a guide. The composer records music of the right mood and length and sends it over high-quality phone lines or the Internet to the director, who may ask for some changes or accept it as it is and incorporate it within the movie. All the “recording” is undertaken in the composer’s computer.
Other times, the composer might write a musical score designed to be played by an orchestra or band hired by the production company. The composer (often acting as the conductor) leads the group of musicians through the music. The portions of the production that require music are projected onto a screen in front of the composer so that he or she can make sure the recording fits the length and needs of the production. This is undertaken in a studio environment with technicians working at a large audio console to fade-in and mix various groups of instruments. The miking and recording process is similar to that for the musical recordings discussed in Chapter 10.
Smaller budgets (which encompass most non-broadcast video and film productions) often use free music or low-cost Internet sites, and other fee-based music libraries. Your school may have a music department program, where you can have original music composed.
When music is the mainstay of a program that is live or recorded as though it were live, a large audio crew is needed. American Idol, for example, has one group of audio technicians attending to the band and another attending to the singers. In addition, there are audio technicians handling the sound for the audience, the host, and the judges. All of these people need to work in close coordination with each other so that the sounds blend properly. They also must work cooperatively with the crew members handling the light cues, the camera work, and the scenery in order for the program to reach the audience as a seamless whole.
ADR stands for automated dialogue replacement (sometimes also called looping). There really is nothing automated about it. It is a rather tedious process of rerecording dialogue that for some reason was recorded improperly during production. The reasons for needing ADR are usually legitimate—such as noises from a busy airstrip that were impossible to eliminate, or an actor who was too out of breath from physical activity to record useable dialogue.
TIMING SHEET
FIGURE 11.12 An ADR facility. Actors undertaking ADR look at the screen to sync the sound. They can stand or sit on the stool and that way they can move if they need to change perspective. Having a podium where they can place a script or notes also helps the process. (Image courtesy of Sony Pictures Entertainment.)
If the director knows that the sound is going to need to be rerecorded, the audio crew does not need to try to record it properly. Instead they can record a scratch track—audio that is clear enough to be used as a guide during ADR, but not good enough for the final production. (One should always attempt to get the best image or audio signal that you possibly can. You may have to rethink what you are doing to get cleaner recorded audio, such as if there is a wind problem, maybe you can move a little to perhaps the other side of the building, etc.) During the ADR process, actors come to a soundproof room where they watch short segments (loops) of themselves on screen and listen through earphones to the scratch track for that loop. They rehearse lines until they feel they can say them in sync with their lips on the screen. Then they record the lines into a mic—usually a cardioid mic on a boom stand (see Figure 11.12). When they finish they go on to the next loop. A sound technician sits in a separate room by an audio console, playing back the loops and recording the new dialogue.
Of course, one problem with ADR is that it is recorded in pristine conditions, whereas the original audio (including parts of the dialogue that were perfectly fine) was recorded in a location with background noise. Here is where recorded room tone is a necessity. What is recorded in ADR will need to be mixed with room tone for the final product. If possible, try using the same mic to record ADR that was used to record the actor on the set. This can help in matching the recorded dialogue to that recorded on the set. ADR is expensive, so it is always preferable to record the sound properly on location, but sometimes looping is unavoidable.
A similar process to ADR is used for dubbing video productions into foreign languages or recording voices for an animated film. Although no faulty dialogue is being replaced, a technician plays short loops of video to actors who rehearse and then record the appropriate words.
Most Foley work involves recording sounds that relate to actions in a movie or video production—for example, sounds like footsteps on concrete, the thud of a falling book, the clink of water glasses. Foley walkers, agile people who are often dancers, watch the video or film on a screen and perform the acts needed to provide synchronous sound for the various movements. The room where they record is equipped with various surfaces—sand, cement, tile, gravel—and various materials that they need to perform—high-heeled shoes, tree branches, water, utensils. They rustle cloth if a woman on screen walks close to the sofa, they don tennis shoes and run on cement if a man is jogging, they fall during fight scenes, scream in terror, and do whatever else is needed to enhance the sounds for the movie (see Figure 11.13).
A technician sits in an adjoining room recording all the sounds through an audio board onto a server or recorder. This technician or the Foley walkers make sure a microphone (usually cardioid) is properly placed to pick up the sound. If a Foley walker is trudging through sand, the mic will be by his or her feet. If he or she is pouring water from one pitcher to another, the mic will be at table height. Because the mic needs to be moved a great deal, it is usually mounted on a boom arm. Foley walkers often work in pairs with a man performing the acts related to men and a woman imitating women’s movements, but sometimes one Foley walker undertakes all the actions. Foley is completed after the video or film is edited so that the Foley walkers are recording sounds as they will be needed for the final version of the project.
FIGURE 11.13 This Foley walker is in a Foley pit moving branches in relation to what he sees on the TV screen. The mic on a boom stand is pointed toward the branches. (Image courtesy of Henninger Media Services.)
Voice-overs (VO) (also called narration) are easier to record than ADR or Foley, because they do not involve synced sound. Depending on the type of production, they can explain complicated processes, indicate what a person is thinking, or comment on what is occurring in the picture.
They are often recorded in soundproofed rooms with a setup similar to that of ADR, but they can be recorded from beginning to end without the looping. The person doing voice-over usually needs to watch the video so that the pace of reading matches what is on the screen. Sometimes, however, the voice-over is recorded before the production is put together and then it is edited to match the narration.
A cardioid mic attached to a desk stand or boom arm is generally used for voice-overs. Readers usually have scripts, and these are best displayed on a computer screen behind the mic. If the script is on paper, its pages should not be stapled together, because when they are turned they will make a shuffling noise. Rather readers should have loose script pages that they can lift off and gently place to the side.
11.16 POSTPRODUCTION CONSIDERATIONS
Before a video or film production is complete, the sounds need to be edited and mixed together. This can be a simple operation, such as making sure the musical interludes for an interview show are the correct length and do not overpower the speech. Or it can be a complex task that involves mixing dialogue, sound effects, ambient sounds, music, ADR, Foley, and voice-over. If there are many sound sources, they are often initially dealt with separately from the picture. While an editor is putting together the picture and dialogue, the sound designer or a sound editor is collecting and organizing the sound effects and ambient sounds and making sure that any ADR, Foley, or VO is under way.
Some of the sounds undergo sweetening at this point. Sweetening refers to making changes in the audio, usually to make everything sound better. For example, a door slam recorded during production might not sound realistic enough so the audio technician would sweeten it by adding some reverb. Audio technicians replace poorly recorded dialogue with ADR. They filter out an electrical hum accidentally recorded during a documentary interview. If there are continuity errors, they try to fix them, perhaps by adding walla walla to cover a gaff.
Once the editor has completed a rough cut of the picture, the sound editor can view it and create a spotting sheet, which indicates where in the production each effect should be placed (see Figure 11.14). The timing sheet for the composer also comes at this point.
SPOTTING SHEET
FIGURE 11.14 A spotting sheet.
Sound technicians place the various sound effects and other sounds on audio tracks, usually within a computer program (see Chapter 3, “Digital Audio Production”). Once the picture and dialogue are complete, the sounds (with the aid of time code) are positioned where they are needed—the gunshot when the trigger is pulled, the chirping birds throughout a rural scene. Sometimes, such as for a music video or a documentary with elaborate voice-over, the picture is edited to the sound, so the audio track is built first. Usually, however, the sounds are matched to the picture. They are initially laid down without taking volume into account; they are simply placed where they are needed in the production.
The final mix is the time when the relative volumes are adjusted to fit the needs of the story. It can be undertaken within a computer program or in a room with a large screen, an audio board, and excellent speakers. Several technicians sit at the audio board, perhaps with one concentrating on dialogue, one on music, and one on sound effects. They watch the production in small increments, altering the volume of various elements so that the sounds have the proper balance—music does not overpower the sound of a car engine starting or one person’s dialogue is not noticeably louder than another. They double-check perspective to make sure that sounds in the distance are fainter than sounds in the foreground.
They fade-in and fade-out music, cross-fade Foley sounds, segue sound effects, mix room tone with ADR, and so on. Sometimes they upmix dialogue or other sounds that were recorded in mono so that they become stereo or surround sound. They do this by using the pan control on the audio board to place the sound to the left or right of one of surround sound’s 5.1 positions. They create the enveloping sound effects sounds, such as that of an airplane that sounds like it is flying behind you from left to right.
CUE SHEET
They usually have a cue sheet (see Figure 11.15) to work from so that they know what the director has in mind. The technicians must work cooperatively so that all of the sounds will work together harmoniously.
If the final mix is completed using a computer program, one person does the whole thing. Under these circumstances, sweetening and the final mix can be one and the same—the audio operator alters and fixes sounds while mixing them, one small section at a time. If a production is simple (for example, adding opening and closing music and two sound effects), using a computer editing program is adequate. However, for complicated audio that needs extensive mixing and a large number of cross-fades, having several people work on sound together is faster and more likely to yield a better result.
If sound is going to be used on a computer for web-based material or video games, it is best to mix it within computer software. Video games present particular challenges when the games try to create different sounds depending on what the player is doing. For example, in first-person shooter games, if the player is holding the weapon steady, the audio focus may be on heartbeat and music intensity. If the player seems less confident, the sound track might consist of many distracting ambient noises.
When the final mix has been completed, it is placed in sync with the image. Where no more changes are expected in the editing of the images, other than color correction, it is called “picture locked.”
Sound production used in conjunction with visual media is more complex than sound production for audio-only productions. It requires a knowledge of the principles related to all audio recording plus an ability to record and postproduce audio so that it enhances the overall production. Keep in mind that sound has specific requirements depending upon the visual production. For example, in video productions (and other media) there is a direct relationship to type of program. In news production, audio is the easiest and fastest to organize, while documentary productions can get complicated. TV (talk shows to talent shows) and TV soap operas (even though they are slowly going away) are produced in controlled broadcast studios, while dramas are quite often shot in the film style of a single camera. Those that can effectively manipulate audio in the service of the story are valued in video and film production.
1. What is the name of a sheet given to a composer that includes time code numbers of where the director thinks that music is needed?
a) cue sheet
b) spotting sheet
c) timing sheet
d) segue
2. Which of the following would be a perspective problem?
a) A person is seen in a close-up, but the person’s voice sounds like it is coming from a distance.
b) The rumble of a train is heard when a man is talking to a woman but is not heard when the woman replies to the man.
c) The sound cuts in and out because the microphones are too close together.
d) The script supervisor neglected to note where the mic was positioned when the crew broke for lunch.
3. Why is a fishpole effective for recording audio for video?
a) It is also known as a boom.
b) It is likely to cast a shadow.
c) It needs to be held 4 feet in front of the talent.
d) It can move above the heads of several performers.
4. What is a disadvantage of using a lavaliere mic to capture sound for a movie?
a) It does not fit well on a desk stand and desk stands are the most common mic holders for movies.
b) It might be visible in a close-up.
c) It can be wireless.
d) It is hard for the script supervisor to see.
5. Which of the following is a movable platform that can be used to move a microphone in various directions?
a) grid
b) shotgun
c) table stand
d) perambulator boom
6. Why are cardioid mics appropriate for recording dialogue for video?
a) They generally don’t pick up sounds from the area where the video equipment is operating.
b) They are rugged.
c) They are less likely to cast a shadow than omnidirectional mics.
d) They are large microphones.
7. Which of the following would be an example of double-system sound?
a) recording some material in sync and some out of sync
b) recording to an audio recorder rather than the camera
c) recording without using a mixer
d) recording for a video game by using a clapper to ensure correct pitch
8. Which of the following is most likely to need various walking surfaces such as brick, tile, and cement?
a) Foley
b) ADR
c) single-system sound
d) VO
9. For which type of television show is there the most need for the microphone to be invisible?
a) news report
b) drama
c) music video
d) talk show
10. What is another name for “automated dialogue replacement”?
a) ATM
b) looping
c) scratch track
d) narration
11. Which of the following is least likely to be an ambient sound?
a) atmosphere sound
b) walla walla
c) room tone
d) music
12. Which of the following is most likely to involve filtering out a hum from an audio track?
a) transferring audio to multitrack tape
b) cross-fading
c) sweetening
d) recording with a boom stand
13. What is one way that dealing with audio joined with video is different from dealing with audio only?
a) Wind noises are more of a problem for video, because it is usually shot in a studio.
b) Cardioid microphones are never used for video shoots.
c) Audio uses only digital audio consoles and video uses analog audio consoles.
d) Microphone placement can be more difficult for video, because the microphone should not show in the picture.
14. What is the title of the person who plans the overall strategy of sounds for a video production?
a) sound designer
b) script supervisor
c) Foley walker
d) composer
15. What might a microphone that is put in a vase of flowers that is on the set be called?
a) floor mic
b) omnidirectional mic
c) hidden mic
d) flower mic
If you answered A to any of the questions:
1a. Wrong. This is used for the final mix. (Reread 11.12 and 11.17.)
2a. You are right.
3a. Although a fishpole is also known as a boom, that doesn’t have anything to do with its effectiveness. (Reread 11.5.)
4a. No. Desk stands aren’t used often. (Reread 11.6 and 11.7.)
5a. No. This is not the correct term. (Reread 11.7.)
6a. Correct. Cardioids are less likely to pick up unwanted equipment noise.
7a. Wrong. Sync has nothing to do with double-system recording. (Reread 11.9 and 11.10.)
8a. This is the correct answer. These would be part of the Foley stage.
9a. No. In news reporting it is acceptable to hold a mic. (Reread 11.3.)
10a. Incorrect. This is where you get your money. (Reread 11.13.)
11a. No. Atmosphere sound is considered ambient sound. (Reread 11.11.)
12a. Wrong. Transferring to tape won’t filter out unwanted sound. (Reread 11.16.)
13a. No. Wind would be the same for both types of productions and there wouldn’t be wind in a studio. (Reread 11.1)
14a. Yes, sound designer is the correct answer.
15a. Wrong. This is not a name for a microphone. (Reread 11.7.)
If you answered B to any of the questions:
1b. Wrong. A spotting sheet is for other kinds of sounds. (Reread 11.12 and 11.16.)
2b. No. This would be a continuity problem. (Reread 11.8.)
3b. No. This would be a reason it is undesirable. (Reread 11.5.)
4b. Yes. This could be a disadvantage.
5b. Wrong. A shotgun isn’t a platform. (Reread 11.7.)
6b. Not the best answer. Cardioids might be rugged and they might not depending on their structure. (Reread 11.4.)
7b. Yes. This is the correct answer for double-system sound.
8b. No. There is a better answer. (Reread 11.13 and 11.14.)
9b. Correct. You would not want a mic to be seen in a drama.
10b. Right. Looping is the correct answer.
11b. No. Walla walla is considered ambient sound. (Reread 11.11.)
12b. Incorrect. Cross-fading has nothing to do with filtering. (Reread 11.16 and 11.17.)
13b. Absolutely not. Cardioid mics are used for both, but are particularly useful for video shoots. (Reread 11.1 and 11.4.)
14b. No, the script supervisor deals with continuity. (Reread 11.3 and 11.8.)
15b. No. It might be omnidirectional, but pickup pattern doesn’t have anything to do with its placement. (Reread 11.7.)
If you answered C to any of the questions:
1c. Yes. A timing sheet is the correct answer.
2c. This describes an entirely different phenomenon. (Reread 11.6 and 11.8.)
3c. No. That is a proper position, but that doesn’t determine effectiveness. (Reread 11.5.)
4c. No. This is more likely to be an advantage. (Reread 11.6.)
5c. Incorrect. This is not a platform. (Reread 11.7.)
6c. Not the best answer. The type of mic is not what causes a shadow. (Reread 11.4 and 11.5.)
7c. Wrong. A mixer can be useful, but it’s not the answer. (Reread 11.9.)
8c. Incorrect. This answer is unrelated. (Reread 11.9 and 11.14.)
9c. No. Singers often hold mics when they are performing. (Reread 11.3.)
10c. Wrong. Although a scratch track can be part of the process, it is not the other name. (Reread 11.13.)
11c. No. Room tone is considered to be ambient sound. (Reread 11.11.)
12c. Right. Sweetening is the correct answer.
13c. No. This wouldn’t make any sense. (Reread 11.1)
14c. Wrong. This person only deals with Foley, not other aspects of sound. (Reread 11.3 and 11.14.)
15c. Correct. It could be called a hidden mic.
If you answered D to any of the questions:
1d. Wrong. This isn’t even a sheet. (Reread 11.12 and 11.17.)
2d. Wrong. This could lead to a continuity problem but not a perspective problem. (Reread 11.8.)
3d. Yes. In this way, people can move.
4d. This is not the best answer. It may be a true statement but it is not a disadvantage. (Reread 11.6 and 11.8.)
5d. Yes. This is the correct term.
6d. Wrong. Size depends on construction. (Reread 11.4.)
7d. Very wrong. These elements have little to do with each other. (Reread 11.9 and 11.10.)
8d. Incorrect. (Reread 11.14 and 11.15.)
9d. No. A mic doesn’t need to be invisible for a talk show. (Reread 11.3 and 11.7.)
10d. No. This isn’t the right term. (Reread 11.13 and 11.15.)
11d. Yes. This is the correct answer.
12d. Wrong. A boom stand would not help. (Reread 11.17 and 11.16.)
13d. Yes, this is the correct answer.
14d. No. A composer only deals with music. (Reread 11.3 and 11.12.)
15d. No, there is no such thing. (Reread 11.7.)
Determine the importance of sound and picture.
Purpose
To help you decide whether you agree that audio provides more information than video.
Notes
1. Different genres of programs have different emphasis on video and audio. A talk show, for example, places a great deal of dependence on audio, and a western with many action scenes emphasizes video. Therefore, you may wish to use several shows for this project and mention the differences in your report.
2. If it is possible to record the programs at the same time as you are undertaking this project, you will then be able to look at them afterwards to see what was really happening.
How to Do the Project
1. Sit in front of your TV set and mute the sound. Watch for about 15 minutes and see how much of what is going on you understand.
2. Jot down your reactions—what you think you understand and what you don’t and what degree of frustration you think someone might have if there really were no sound.
3. Turn the sound back on and sit with your back to the TV set so you can’t see the picture. Listen for about 15 minutes and consider how much of what is going on you understand.
4. Jot down your reactions—what you think you understand and what you don’t and what degree of frustration you think someone might have if there really were no picture.
5. Using your notes, write a report about your experience. If possible, try to figure out what percent of the material you understood when you only watched the picture and what percent you understood when you only listened to the sound.
6. Give your report to your instructor to receive credit for this project.
Record sound for a video project.
Purpose
To give you experience coordinating sound elements with the needs of the picture.
Notes
1. The CD-ROM that accompanies this book contains some video material that you can use for this exercise, but you can also create something of your own.
2. If you are enrolled in a video production class, offer to be the sound designer for a group project and use that experience rather than what is on the CD-ROM.
3. Don’t bite off more than you can chew. Be realistic about what types of sounds you can actually obtain. Don’t spend a lot of money buying sound effects or traveling to exotic locations to record something. Use your ingenuity rather than your pocketbook.
1. View the video material on the CD-ROM and plan the sounds you would like to add to it in terms of voice-over, sound effects, atmosphere sounds, music, and so on.
2. Gather all these sounds from CDs, from the Internet, or by recording them yourself.
3. Use whatever editing program you have access to for inputting the audio and video and editing it. You might want to reread some of the material in Chapter 3 that is related to editing.
4. Turn your project in to your instructor to receive credit for this project.