Index
A
absolute impedance amplitude, 369
AC circuit theory, 367–8
academic prototypes, 461–2
acceleration, 62–4
capacitive, 63
force-balance, 62–3
piezoelectric, 63–4
cantilever design using piezoresistive or piezoelectric transduction and capacitive gap change, 280
changes in input-output models, 76–7
schematic of the Z24 Bridge, 74
changes in time response based models, 77
damage identification algorithms, 72–3
examples of piezoresistive MEMS accelerometers in literature, 281
acoustic emission (AE), 103–4
duration, 162
fundamentals AE process, 161
monitoring, 377
technique, 103–4
fundamentals, 160–1
acoustic emission (AE) sensor, 281–2
AE equipment technology, 169–71
capacitive polymer sensor constructed using micro-stereolithography, 170
concept of capacitive MEMS resonator, 171
out-of-plane and in-plane sensor, Plate IV
AE localisation methods, 162–6
1-D source localisation, 164
2-D source localisation, 165
normalised cross-correlation function, 164
assessment and monitoring civil infrastructures, 159–76
field applications and structural health monitoring, 171–5
fundamentals of AE technique, 160–1
future challenges, 175–6
severity assessment, 166–8
field applications and structural health monitoring, 171–5
bridge wireless application, 173
crack location, 173
energy vs X crack position under low cycle fatigue loading, 174
interpretation of AE signals, 161–2
signal and parameters of AE techniques, Plate III
Acoustic Emission Array Processing, 103–4
acoustic nonlinearity, 183
acoustic source localisation, 175
acoustic waves, 187
acousto-elasticity, 181–2
active fibre composite (AFC), 95
active sensors, 6
actuator resource allocation algorithms, 470
adhesive bonding degradation, 283
aerospace structures, 107–8
applications, 107
air, 217
air-launched antennas, 221–2
airborne radar applications, See synthetic aperture radar (SAR)
Akaike Information Criterion (AIC), 163
alkali-silica reaction (ASR), 187–8
American Composites Manufacturers Association (ACMA), 303
American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 351
amplitude modulation (AM), 453
amplitude-splitting, 333
analog filtering, 42
analog-to-digital conversion, 34–9
Analogue Device ADXL202, 483
anemometers, 64–5
anodic reactions, 361
application layer, 455
application programming interface (API), 465
application software, 468–71
ARX models, 469
Atmel AVR ATmega 128L microprocessor, 483
atom-atom collision approach, 332
atomic system, 329
attenuation spectrum, 126
auto-regressive, exogenous input (ARX) model, 74
automated data interpretation software, 209
automated file transfer, 386
automated wireless structural damage detection, 469
automatic onset time determination, 175
autonomous robots, 421
autoregressive process, 163
auxiliary counter electrode, 366–7
avalanche photodiode (APD), 51–2
Avalanche transistors, 221
Avogadro constant, 329–30
axial tension, 131
B
b-value, 168
back scattering, 148
Bayesian finite element model, 75
Bernoulli-Euler assumptions, 516
Bersoft Image Measurement (BIM), 388
Bessel function, 37
Bill Emerson Memorial Bridge, 79
binary coded decimal, 34
binary coding, 33–4
biocular-vision-based measurement system, 387–8
BlueTooth, 453
Bode plot, 369–72
Boltzmann constant, 329–30
Boltzmann’s equation, 329
bonding effects, 97–8
bonding layer between a piezoelectric transducer and host structure, 98
Borehole antennas, 221–2
Bragg gratings (FBG), 128–9
bridge cable tension measurements, 348
displacement time histories of cable segment from camcorders, Plate XI
field measurement of cable vibration, 402
images of cable segment recorded by two camcorders, 403
schematic diagram of inclined cable, 401
bridge structures, 106–7
applications, 106
Brillouin scattering distributed sensors, 142–5
Brillouin scattering systems, 129
broadband piezoceramic transducers, 169
broadband stochastic energy harvesting, 533
buck-boost converter, 530
buffers, 44
bulb thermometer, 28
bulk micromachining, 270–1
Burj Khalifa Tower, 78
buses, 43
bytes, 34
C
C4 probe, 375
cables, 130
California Strong Motion Instrumentation Program, 3
camera calibration, 389–92
pinhole camera model, 389
plane-based camera calibration, 392
steel building frame with targets for camera calibration and tracking, 391
camera movement, 395–6
capacitive accelerometer, 63
carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP), 102
composites, 303–4
carbon nanomaterials
properties, 296–9
illustration of SWNT represents of single sheet of graphene rolled, 297
various types of carbon nanotubes sold by different companies, 298
carbonation induced corrosion, 360
Cartesian coordinates, 268
Cartesian reference system, 389–90
case study
data collection and management, 502–4
operating frequencies and mode shapes for New Carquinez Bridge, 504
time history profiles from strain gages located on bridge box, 503
time history profiles of wind speed and direction at south climate station, 503
two-tiered wireless sensing network, 504
field deployment, 486–7
wireless sensing unit, 486
Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco, California, USA, 482–7
communication scheme, 485–6
image, 482
schematic of bridge instrumentation, 484
wireless sensing unit, 483–5
Jingo Bridge, HaenamIJindo, South Korea, 492–7
communication scheme, 496
data collection and management, 497
image, 492
power consumption, 496
schematic of bridge instrumentation, 493
wireless sensing unit, 494–6
New Carquinez Bridge, Vallejo/Crockett, California, USA, 497–505
communication scheme, 502
image, 498
power consumption, 501
schematic of bridge instrumentation, 499
Stork Bridge, Winterthur, Switzerland, 487–92
communication scheme, 490
data management, 490–1
image, 488
network stability, 491
schematic of bridge instrumentation, 488
sensor mounted to stay cable, 488
cathodic reactions, 361
Celesco SP2-50 potentiometers, 500
cementitious-based composites, 299–303
mechanical reinforcement, 302–3
smart concrete fabrication and nanomaterial dispersion, 300–1
strain sensing, 301–2
measured resistance time history of self-sensing CNT/cement composite, 322
smart concrete modified MWNT for traffic monitoring applications, Plate VII
cementitious materials, 300
central processing unit (CPU), 43
channel, 451–2
charge amplifier, 25
charge-coupled device (CCD), 333
chemical vapour deposition, 270
chloride induced corrosion, 359–60
chloride ions, 359–60
civil infrastructure
acoustic emission sensors for assessment and monitoring, 159–76
AE equipment technology, 169–71
AE localisation methods, 162–6
field applications and structural health monitoring, 171–5
fundamentals of AE technique, 160–1
future challenges, 175–6
interpretation of AE signals, 161–2
severity assessment, 166–8
associated algorithms, 69–78
accelerometers, 71–7
displacement sensors, 69–70
environmental measurements, 77–8
strain gages, 70
commonly used sensors and their algorithms, 57–80
continuous monitoring systems, 78–9
future trends, 79–80
corrosion sensing for assessment and monitoring, 357–78
corrosion evaluation techniques, 361–72
field monitoring, 372–7
future trends, 377–8
principles of corrosion, 358–61
electromagnetic sensors for assessment and monitoring, 238–62
eddy current, 258
future trends, 262
magnetic sensory technologies, 245–9
magnetoelastic stress sensors for tension monitoring of steel cables, 253–6
magnetoelasticity, 242–5
removable or portable elastomagnetic stress sensor, 259–61
role of microstructure in magnetisation and magnetoelasticity, 249–53
temperature effects, 256–8
energy harvesting for sensing systems for assessment and monitoring, 510–34
harvest dynamic modelling, 514–18
ongoing advancements and future directions, 532–4
power availability and optimal harvesting admittance, 518–24
power extraction circuits, 525–32
fibre optic sensors for assessment and monitoring, 121–50
common optical fibre sensors, 130–45
future trends, 145–9
properties of optical fibres, 123–30
laser-based sensing for assessment and monitoring, 327–52
civil infrastructure applications, 348–50
laser digital shearography, 335–7
laser Doppler vibrometry, 339–42
laser interferometry or electronic speckle pattern interferometry, 333–5
laser principles, 329–32
laser safety, 351
laser scanning photogrammetry, 337–9
laser-ultrasound, 342–6
other techniques, 346–8
micro-electro-mechanical-systems (MEMS) for assessment and monitoring, 265–87
application examples, 284–5
future trends, 286–7
long term technical challenges, 285–6
MEMS sensors for SHM, 279–84
sensor characteristics, 273–8
sensor materials and micromachining techniques, 266–73
multifunctional materials and nanotechnology for assessment and monitoring, 295–317
cementitious-based composites, 299–303
fibre-reinforced polymer composites, 303–6
future trends, 316–17
polymer-based thin films, 306–16
properties of carbon nanomaterials, 296–9
nonlinear acoustic methods and ultrasound methods for assessing and monitoring, 179–97
fundamentals of nonlinear acoustoultrasound techniques, 181–2
future trends, 196–7
harmonic and subharmonic generation, 182–5
nonlinear resonance ultrasound spectroscopy, 191–5
nonlinear wave modulation, 185–91
piezoelectric transducers for assessment and monitoring, 86–113
applications, 105–10
bonding effects, 97–8
future trends, 110–12
limitations, 98–9
piezoelectric materials and fabrication, 92–5
principle of piezoelectricity, 87–92
SHM applications, 95–7
SHM techniques, 99–105
radar technology for assessment and monitoring, 201–34
brief history of ground penetrating radar (GPR) systems, 203–8
current challenges and state of the art systems, 208–9
electromagnetic interactions with materials, 217–19
fundamentals of operation, 209–17
future trends, 232–4
laboratory and field studies, 227–32
radio frequency, interferometric, millimetre wave and terahertz sensors, 201–34
signal processing, 224–7
transmitter and receiver design, 219–24
robotic sensing for assessment and monitoring, 410–39
future trends, 436–9
remote robotic sensing for structural health monitoring (SHM), 419–24
vibration-based mobile wireless sensors, 424–36
vision-based for structural health monitoring (SHM), 414–19
sensing technologies, 58–68
acceleration, 62–4
displacement, 59–60
environment, 64–5
prevalence of commonly used sensors in SHM systems, 65–8
strain, 60–2
vision-based sensing for assessment and monitoring, 383–406
applications, 396–405
important issues for vision-based measurement techniques, 388–96
vision-based measurement techniques for civil engineering applications, 386–8
wireless structural monitoring systems design and selection, 446–72
future trends, 471–2
hardware, 456–64
overview of wireless networks, 450–6
wireless sensor network software, 464–71
cladding modes, 125
classical impedance matching theory, 518–20
clear-channel assessment (CCA), 453
clipping, 38
closed-loop system, 519–20
co-linear wave mixing method, 188–9
cognitive radar system concepts, 233–4
coherence length, 134
coherent interferometers, 131–4
intensity signals as function of interferometer phase difference for two sensor signals, 134
schematic of Mach-Zehnder interferometer, 132
schematic of Michelson interferometer, 133
collapse voltage, 275–6
commercial wireless sensors, 460–1
complex reactive index mixture (CRIM), 219
compliance matrix, 92
computer-aided speckle pattern interferometry (CASPI), See laser interferometry
concrete, 192–3
concrete multi-depth sensor, 373–4
connectors, 130
constitutive equations, 90–2
construction monitoring, 348
continuous-wave radar system, 219
copper sulfate electrode (CSE), 362–3
corrosion
principles, 358–61
carbonation induced corrosion, 360
chloride induced corrosion, 359–60
mechanism of corrosion in reinforced concrete, 360–1
Pourbaix diagram for Fe-H2O at 25°C, 358
products of iron, 359
corrosion evaluation techniques, 361–72
cyclic polarisation, 372
electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), 367–72
equipment with guard ring, 366–7
galvanostatic pulse technique, 365–6
schematic illustration of equation, 367
schematic illustration of galvanostatic pulse results, 366
half-cell potential technique, 362–3
apparatus described in ASTM C876 to measure surface potential, 362
linear polarisation resistance (LPR), 363–5
schematic illustration of linear polarisation curve, 364
potentiostatic linear polarisation resistance, 365
corrosion mechanism, 360–1
corrosion monitoring, 246
corrosion potential, 361
corrosion-related magnetic (CMR) field, 247
corrosion sensing, 8
assessing and monitoring civil infrastructures, 357–78
corrosion evaluation techniques, 361–72
future trends, 377–8
principles of corrosion, 358–61
field monitoring, 372–7
electrochemical sensors, 372–5
other sensors, 375–7
circuit diagram for corrosion sensor based on inductance, 376
corrosion sensor, 283
CorrWatch multi-sensor, 374
cost-cutting development, 172
coupling coefficient, 138
matrix, 516
covariance-driven method, 349
cross-axis sensitivity, 29
crystal anisotropy, 242–3
crystallography, 268
custom solid-state converter topologies, 534
cyclic polarisation, 372
D
3D laser scanning system, 338
damage detection, 10
damage index method, 74
damage indicator (DI), 432
damage locating vector method, 75
dark current, 50
data acquisition, 23
data acquisition system, 41–7
analog signal considerations, 41–5
central bus architecture, 43
digital communications, 45–7
DAQ system plug-and-play architecture, 45
schematic diagram, 41
data acquisition unit, 255
data-driven method, 349
data link layer, 453
Debye expression, 218
deformation, 8
degrees of freedom (DOF), 77
destination, 452
dielectric, 217–18
dielectric constant, 216–17
matrix, 516
differential-ended connections, 42
diffusion, 270
digital-analog converter (DAC), 456–7
digital surface models (DSM), 337
digital terrain models (DTM), 337
digital-to-analog conversion, 39–40
schematic diagram, 40
diode bridge rectifier, 526–8
direct ADCs, See flash ADCs
direct stiffness calculation method, 75–6
discrete Fourier transform (DFT), 30–2
discrete-time methods, 395–6
displacement, 59–60
linear variable differential transformers, 59–60
potentiometers, 60
displacement sensors, 69–70
dithering, 38
Doppler effect, 340
Doppler frequency, 340
doublet, 220
dry etching, 270
durability demonstrations, 287
dynamic analysis, 349
dynamic magnetic signal, 246
dynamic modulus, 189
dynamic random access memory (DRAM), 44–5
dynamic range, 29
E
simulation of average longitudinal induction intensity, 260
simulation of classical eddy current and magnetic induction in steel, 260
edge-emitting diodes (ELEDs), 49
eigenvalue realisation algorithm (ERA), 349
elastomagnetic stress sensor
removable or portable, 259–61
calibration curves of U-shaped stress sensor at different temperatures, 261
magnetostatic simulation of induction in magnetic circuit of yoke and steel rod, 261
electric charge, 87
electric displacement, 90
electrical impedance tomography (EIT), 314–15
electrically-erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM), 44
electrochemical impedance, 101
electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), 367–72
data interpretation, 369–72
Bode plot for simple electrochemical system, 371
equivalent circuit for simple electrochemical system, 370
Nyquist plot for simple electrochemical system, 371
relationship between sinusoidal AC current and rotating vector representation, 368
electrochemical sensors, 372–5
examples, 373–5
concrete multi-depth sensor, 373–4
CorrWatch multi-sensor, 374
embedded corrosion instrument (ECI), 373
Interek-CAPCIS probes, 375
SensCore corrosion sensor, 374
electrochemical techniques, 361–2
electromagnetic interference, 137
electromagnetic sensors, 9
assessing and monitoring civil infrastructure, 238–62
eddy current, 258
future trends, 262
magnetic domain in non-magnetised ferromagnetic sample, 240
magnetic hysteresis curves for typical ferromagnetic materials, 241
magnetic sensory technologies, 245–9
magnetoelastic stress sensors for tension monitoring of steel cables, 253–6
magnetoelasticity, 242–5
removable or portable elastomagnetic stress sensor, 259–61
temperature effects, 256–8
role of microstructure in magnetisation and magnetoelasticity, 249–53
hardness of various carbon and alloy steels, 251
hysteresis of piano steel having undergone different heat treatment, 251
initiative magnetisation curves of various steels, 250
permeability vs stress up to yield point for piano steel rod, 253
relative permeability measurements for piano steel during initial magnetisation, 252
relative permeability of piano steels undergone different heat treatments, 251
relative permeability under technical saturation vs tension of different steel rods, 252
electromagnetic transducers, 514–17
electronic speckle pattern interferometry (ESPI), 333–5
electronics integration, 287
electroplating method, 270
electrostatic force, 309–10
electrostatic load, 276
embedded corrosion instrument (ECI), 373
embedded firmware, 464
emission limits, 207–8
energy, 162
ongoing advancements and future directions, 532–4
broadband stochastic energy harvesting, 533
frequency-robust monochromatic energy harvesting, 532–3
more efficient power electronics, 533–4
sensing systems for assessing and monitoring civil infrastructures, 510–34
harvest dynamic modelling, 514–18
harvesters with electromagnetics, 512
power availability and optimal harvesting admittance, 518–24
power extraction circuits, 525–32
sampling of commercially available VEH systems, 514
energy management, 463–4
engineered cementitious composites (ECC), 299
environment, 64–5
anemometers, 64–5
measurements, 77–8
thermocouples and resistive thermometers, 65
epipolar plane, 395
epitaxy, 270
epoxy moulding, 309
equivalent isotropically radiated power (EIRP), 207–8
evaporation, 309
exposure limits, 351
extrinsic Fabry-Pérot interferometer (EFPI), 136
F
piezometers, embeddable strain sensors, spot-weldable strain and displacement sensor, 137
schematic overview for strain, pressure and displacement, 136
Fabry-Perot tunable filter, 52
Faraday’ law, 514–17
fast Fourier transforms (FFTs), 457
feedback law, 520
Felicity effect, 166–7
ferroelectricity, 88
combined WDM and TDM for FBG sensor network, 140
multi-axis loading applied to FBG sensor written into bowtie PM fibre, 141
optical FBG sensor, 138
response of FBG embedded in compact tension specimen, 141
theoretical transmission spectrum for long period FBG, 142
fibre optic sensors
assessing and monitoring civil infrastructures, 121–50
common optical fibre sensors, 130–45
future trends, 145–9
properties of optical fibres, 123–30
types, 122
fibre-reinforced concrete (FRC), 299
fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites, 303–6
improving FRP electromechanical properties, 305–6
FRPs modified with CNTs exhibit great promise for strain sensing and SHM, 306
manufacturing, 304–5
wet layup and VARTM FRP composites manufacturing techniques, 305
field application, 7
field deployment, 486–7
finite difference time domain (FDTD), 216–17
finite element (FE) models, 342
flash ADCs, 39
flash memory (ROM), 44
flip-chip method, 278
Flooding Time Synchronisation Protocol (FTSP), 486
force-balance accelerometers, 62–3
Fourier analysis, 342
Fourier transform, 220
Fourier transformation, 186–7
Fourier’s theorem, 211–12
fractional bandwidth (FBW), 206
fracture-critical element, 173
free real-time operating system (RTOS), 465–6
frequency domain decomposition (FDD), 449–50
frequency modulation (FM), 453
frequency-robust monochromatic energy harvesting, 532–3
full-scale sensor network, 492
fundamental matrix, 395
fundamental mode, 125
fundamental power generation limits, 524
fused silica fibres, 126
G
Galerkin approximation, 516
galvanic corrosion, 247
galvanostatic pulse technique, 365–6
GalvaPulse, 367
game theory, 470
gauge factor, 273
Gauss bell, 220
Gauss-hermite functions, 220
Gaussian beams, 211–12
GECOR, 367
general purpose interface bus (GPIB), 46–7
Geophysical Survey System Inc. (GSSI), 203–4
global positioning system (GPS), 337
signal, 449
Golden Gate Bridge, 2
good thermal matching, 270
grating spectrum distortion, 140–1
Green’s function, 165–6
ground-coupled antennas, 221–2
ground penetrating radar (GPR), 9
brief history, 203–8
EM wave interactions with concrete bridge deck, 203
EM wavelengths as function of frequency for different media, 206
FCC15.209 emission limits, 208
maximum average emission limits for frequency bands above 960 MHz, 208
maximum average emission limits using resolution bandwidth of no less than 1KHx, 208
guard ring electrode, 366–7
schematic plan of GalvaPulse, Plate X
guided wave techniques, 99–101
principle of phased array technique, 101
pulse-echo mode and pitch-catch mode, 100
guided wave tomography, 100
guided waves, 99
H
half-cell potential technique, 362–3
Hall accelerometers, 2
hall-effect sensors, 429–30
harmonic generation, 182–5
harmonic ratio as function of water-to-cement content, 184
illustration, 183
physical explanation of CAN, Plate V
Harris corner detection methods, 392–3
harvest dynamic modelling, 514–18
electromagnetic transducers, 514–17
general principles, 517–18
piezoelectric transducers, 515–17
harvesters, 463–4
HERMES system, 204–5
high-birefringence fibres, 125–6
high frequency harmonics local nature, 196
high-performance fibre-reinforced cementitious composites (HPFRCC), 299
high power, 197
high-precision control applications, 109
high-strain piezoelectric transducers, 111
high temperature piezoelectric transducers, 110
Hilbert-Huang transform method, 349
historic index (HI), 167
historical structures limit analysis, 350
holey fibres, 146
Hooke’s law, 182
hostile environments, 175
hyperbolic nonlinearity, 226
I
IBM 7700 data acquisition system, 2–3
IBM 1710 personal computer, 2
image-based deformation measurement technique, 386
image based integrated measurement (IBIM), 386
image-based visual serving (IBVS) technique, 422
imaginary current, 369
imaging system, 207
Imote2, 495
impact modulation method, 190
impedance matched feedback law, 519–20
impedance matching, 223
impedance techniques, 101–3
impulse radar system, 219
in-network computing, 469
industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) radiofrequency (RF) spectrum, 449
infinity models, 216
information source, 451
infrared (IR) spectrum, 351
infrared lamp tracking systems, 415–16
infrastructure systems
permanent installation of wireless structural monitoring systems, 480–505
case study I of Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco, California, USA, 482–7
case study II of Stork Bridge, Winterthur, Switzerland, 487–92
case study III of Jindo Bridge, HaenamIJindo, South Korea, 492–7
case study IV of New Carquinez Bridge, Vallejo/Crockett, California, USA, 497–505
instantaneous absorbed power, 521
instantaneous-time methods, 395–6
insulators, 270
integrated circuits (IC) technology, 266
integrated development environment (IDE), 458
integration with optic-based SHM techniques, 111
intelligent data acquisition, 287
intensity losses, 148
interchannel delay, 42
Interek-CAPCIS probes, 375
interferometry
radar technology and radio frequency, millimetre wave and terahertz sensors, 201–34
assessment and monitoring civil infrastructures, 201–34
brief history of ground penetrating radar (GPR) systems, 203–8
current challenges and state of the art systems, 208–9
elctromagnetic interactions with materials, 217–19
fundamentals of operation, 209–17
future trends, 232–4
laboratory and field studies, 227–32
signal processing, 224–7
transmitter and receiver design, 219–24
International Telecommunication Communication (ITU), 449
ion implantation, 270
ion milling, 270–1
iWitness photogrammetry software system, 388
K
Kaiser effect, 166–7
Keil RTX, 465–6
L
laboratory steel portal frame, 430–1
Lamé constants, 342–3
Landau theory, 192–3
Langrange multipliers, 523
Laplace domain, 515
Laplace operator, 342–3
large-scale steel building frame test, 397–9
displacement responses, 399
laser, 329
laser-acoustic-emission (laser-AE) technique, 346–7
laser amplifying medium, 329
laser-based sensing, 8
assessing and monitoring civil infrastructures, 327–52
civil infrastructure applications, 348–50
laser digital shearography, 335–7
laser Doppler vibrometry, 339–42
laser interferometry or electronic speckle pattern interferometry, 333–5
laser principles, 329–32
laser safety, 351
laser scanning photogrammetry, 337–9
laser-ultrasound, 342–6
other techniques, 346–8
laser diffraction grafting, 346
laser infrared (IR) photothermal radiometry (pTR), 347
laser-based ultrasound, See laser-ultrasound
laser-based wireless power transmission, 422–4
laser targeting on orthogonal ceiling, 424
prototype of laser targeting mobile robot system, 423
laser beam pointing tracking system, 415–16
laser diffraction grafting, 346
laser digital shearography, 335–7
illustration, 336
laser Doppler vibrometry, 339–42
types of LDV, 339
laser holographic interferometry, 333–5
laser infrared photothermal radiometry (laser IR-PTR), 347
Laser Institute of America (LIA), 351
laser interferometry, 333–5
in-plane measurement, 334
laser holographic interferometry, 333–5
phase shifting illustration, 335
out-of-plane measurement, 334
laser photoacoustic spectroscopy, 347
laser principles, 329–32
optical amplification of lights in medium, 331–2
properties of selected lasers, 332
stimulated emission and thermal radiation, 329–31
energy absorption and emission, 330
ratio of stimulated emission rate to spontaneous emission rate, 331
three energy states in laser, 330
laser range finder (LRF), 350
laser safety, 351
laser scanning photogrammetry, 337–9
laser scanning vs photogrammetry, 338
principle of 2D laser scanning, 337
laser-ultrasound, 342–6
laser-acoustic technique for detecting subsurface debonding and cracking, 345
types of mechanical waves, 344
layer-by-layer (LbL) fabrication, 309–10
leakage, 32
Lifschitz theory, 192–3
LIGA process, 272
light pulses, 144
light reflection, 376
light source, 132
linear polarisation resistance (LPR), 363–5
linear-quadratic-Gaussian (LQG) control, 533
Linux, 502
logical link control (LLC), 453
long period grating (LPG), 125
long term technical challenges, 285–6
Los Angeles Amendment Building Code, 448
lossy dielectric, 218
Love waves, 343
low-coherence interferometers, 134–6
example of SOFO sensor installed in rebar and SOFO readout unit, 135
schematic overview of SOFO system, Plate I
low pressure chemical vapour deposition (LPCVP), 269
M
M3 probe, 375
M9 probe, 375
Mack-Zehnder interferometer, 132
macro-cell corrosion, 360
macro-fibre composite (MFC), 95
magnetic anisotropy, 242–3
sensory approach, 248
magnetic anisotropy and permeability system (MAPS), 247–8
magnetic method, 245–6
magnetic permeability, 250
magnetic sensory technologies, 245–9
distribution of residual principal stresses on longitudinal top surfaces of rail, 248
indicative corrosion-related magnetic field on ship, 248
indicative drawing of magnetic anisotropy sensor, 249
magnetic sensors to indicate various classes of defects in steel rope, 246
magnetic stress anisotropy, 243
magnetisation behaviour, 244
magneto-hydrodynamics theory, 246
magnetocrystalline anisotropy, 242–3
magnetoelastic stress sensors, 249–50
tension monitoring of steel cables, 253–6
EM sensor and load cell measurements for0.6 in. steel strand, 257
indicative configuration, 254
magnetoelastic characteristics of piano steel cables with different sizes, 256
hysteresis curves at descending stages for piano steel cable under various stress level, 244
magnetorestrictive sensors, 248–9
mapping, 247–8
Markov parameters, 469
Martlet wireless node, 461–2
Massachusetts Institute Technology, 95
master sensor, 163
mathematical theory, 451
maximum permissible exposure (MPE), 351
Maxwell equations, 247
Maxwell’s equation, 209–10
mechanical reinforcement, 302–3
mechanical response power (MRP), 104–5
mechanical tuning design, 522
media access control (MAC), 453
memory, 44
metal-metal oxide (MMO), 372–3
metallic reflective, 218
metals, 270
Mexican hat function, 220
MICAz mote, 483
Michelson interferometer, 132
Micrium real-time operating system (RTOS), 465–6
micro-cell corrosion, 360
micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS), 341
process, 170
micro-electro-mechanical-systems (MEMS)
application examples, 284–5
MEMS sensors in monitoring civil structures, 285
assessing and monitoring civil infrastructures, 265–87
future trends, 286–7
long term technical challenges, 285–6
sensor characteristics, 273–8
sensor materials and micromachining techniques, 266–73
sensors for SHM, 279–84
accelerometer, 279–81
acoustic emission sensor, 281–2
corrosion sensor, 283
strain sensor, 282–3
ultrasonic sensor, 283–4
micro-embossing fabrication technique, 282
micro-mechanical systems, 109–10
micro-optical-electromechanical systems (MOEMS), 341
micro-stereolithography, 169–70
micromachining methods, 270–3
process flows of three methods to create a freely moving microstructure layer, 271
profilometer measurements of capacitive sensor designs, Plate VI
micropower impulse radar (MIR), 204–5
Microstrain G/V-Link line, 460
microstructured optical fibre sensors, 146–8
SEM image of end of photonic crystal fibre, 147
microwave-based wireless power transmission, 421
middleware, 466–8
migration radar, 225–6
Miller indices, 267–8
millimetre wave
radar technology and radio frequency, interferometric and terahertz sensors, 201–34
assessment and monitoring civil infrastructures, 201–34
brief history of ground penetrating radar (GPR) systems, 203–8
current challenges and state of the art systems, 208–9
electromagnetic interactions with materials, 217–19
fundamentals of operation, 209–17
future trends, 232–4
laboratory and field studies, 227–32
signal processing, 224–7
transmitter and receiver design, 219–24
mobile sensing nodes, 436
mobile sensor network, 427–36
design of magnet-wheeled mobile sensing node, 429–30
mobile sensor components, accelerometer attachment and corner negotiation, 428–9
field validation experiments for vibration modal analysis, 435–6
3D illustration of five measurement configurations for mobile sensing nodes, 435
first three mode shapes with significant vertical components, 438
image of mobile sensing nodes during field testing, 437
image of space frame bridge on Georgia Tech campus, 435
laboratory validation experiments for structural damage detection, 430–5
DIs for three damage scenarios, 434
laboratory steel portal frame for damage detection using two mobile sensing nodes, 431
three damage scenarios on laboratory frame structure, 433
monocular-vision-based measurement system, 387–8
monocyle, 220
MOSFET, 529
multi-frequency diffraction tomography, 225–6
multi-functional piezoelectric sensing, 112
multi-hop network, 485
1-D multi-layered model, 210
multi-mode fibre, 125
multi-user micro-electro-mechanical systems (MUMPS) process, 170
multi-user polysilicon (MUMPs) process, 282–3
multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNT), 297–8
multicore fibre sensors, 146
cross-section of multicore fibre illuminated with white light and principle of curvature measurement, 147
multifunctional materials, 7
nanotechnology for assessing and monitoring civil infrastructures, 295–1317
cementitious-based composites, 299–303
fibre-reinforced polymer composites, 303–6
future trends, 316–17
polymer-based thin films, 306–16
properties of carbon nanomaterials, 296–9
multiple bimporph piezoelectric transducers, 515–16
multiplexing unit, 25
multisensory data fusion methods, 234
N
nano-piezoelectric transducers, 111–12
nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS), 341
nanomaterial dispersion, 300–1
nanotechnology
multifunctional materials for assessing and monitoring civil infrastructures, 295–317
cementitious-based composites, 299–303
fibre-reinforced polymer composites, 303–6
future trends, 316–17
polymer-based thin films, 306–16
properties of carbon nanomaterials, 296–9
NASA Langley Research Centre, 95
National Centre for Research on Earthquake Engineering, 397
National Instrument (NI) WSN line, 460
Navier equation, 342
negative-acknowledgement (NACK) collection protocol, 485–6
network layer, 453–4
network stability, 491
network time protocol (NTP), 502
Newton and Sykes equation, 366
noise filter, 25
non-contact technologies, 196
nondestructive detection techniques, 4
nondestructive testing (NDT), 105
nonlinear acoustic methods
ultrasound methods for assessing and monitoring civil infrastructures, 179–97
fundamentals of nonlinear acousto-ultrasound techniques, 181–2
future trends, 196–7
harmonic and subharmonic generation, 182–5
nonlinear resonance ultrasound spectroscopy, 191–5
nonlinear wave modulation, 185–91
nonlinear acousto-ultrasound techniques, 181–2
nonlinear behaviour, 187
nonlinear bulk waves, 183–4
nonlinear coefficients, 185
nonlinear effect, 196
nonlinear elastic coefficient, 182
nonlinear imaging, 196
nonlinear impact resonance acoustic spectroscopy (NIRAS), 193–4
nonlinear mesoscopic elastic (NME), 185
nonlinear resonance methods, 191–2
nonlinear resonance ultrasound spectroscopy (NRUS), 191–5
experiment for damaged sample, 193
nonlinear parameter as function of exposure temperature for P mode with S mode, 194
nonlinearity reference vs testes samples for highly reactive S2 mixture at 55 days, 195
resonance frequency vs drive amplitude of intact and damaged sample, 192
nonlinear wave equation, 182
nonlinear wave modulation, 185–91
correlation between variation of compressive strength and nonlinearity parameter, 191
linear and nonlinear modulation effect, 186
linear and nonlinear ultrasonic methods on thermally damaged concrete, 189
location before heating and same location after heating and permeable pore vs nonlinearity, 190
material with crack and amplitude modulation of probe and vibration and ultrasonic signal, 187
parameters measured at three locations in thick and thinner sample, 188
nonlinear wave modulation spectroscopy (NWMS), 185
novel sensor design, 287
nuclear energy, 108–9
nuclear power plants, 108–9
Nyquist filter, 25
Nyquist plot, 369–72
O
offset binary code, 34
Ohm zSeries, 460
Ohm’s law, 368
open circuit potential, 361
open-circuit voltage, 525
open systems interconnection (OSI) reference model, 452
operating frequency, 207
operating systems (OS), 464–6
Optech ILRIS 3-D, 338
optical amplification, 331–2
optical fibre concepts, 123–6
common fibre index of retraction profiles, 125
cross-section of step-index fibre, 124
material attenuation losses as function of wavelength for fused silica, 126
optical fibres, 376
properties, 123–30
cables, connectors and splicing, 130
optical fibre concepts, 123–6
sensing mechanisms, 126–9
sensor packaging, 129–30
optical microscopy, 190–1
optimal harvesting admittance, 518–24 1
Øresund Bridge, 78–9
Organisation Internationale de Normalisation, 452
oxidation, 270
P
packaging, 277–8
parallel SSHI circuit, 531–2
parametric acoustic array (PAA), 345
Particle Image Velocimetry, 386
passive film formation, 358–9
pavement texture characterisation, 350
pedestrian bridge test, 404–5
displacement along X, Y and Z axes and rotations about X, Y and Z axes, 405
pedestrian bridge and set-up of test, 404
peripheral component interconnect (PCI), 47
permanent installation
wireless structural monitoring systems in infrastructure systems, 480–505
case study I of Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco, California, USA, 482–7
case study II of Stork Bridge, Winterthur, Switzerland, 487–92
case study III of Jindo Bridge, Haenam/Jindo, South Korea, 492–7
case study IV of New Carquinez Bridge, Vallejo/Crockett, California, USA, 497–505
permanently installed transducers performance, 196–7
permittivity matrix, 91
phase array technique, 100–1
phase modulation (PM), 453
phase shifts, 132
phase velocity, 189
photodetectors, 49–52
PIN and avalanche photodiode cross-sections, 51
photodiodes, 48–9
surface-emitting and edge-emitting diode light source, 50
Photometrix, 388
photonic crystal fibres, 146
photovoltaic cavity converter system, 422
physical layer, 453
physical models, 196
physical vapour deposition, 270
Physik Instrumente Inc., 109
piezoceramic resonant transducers, 169
piezoelectric accelerometers, 63–4
schematic diagram, 64
piezoelectric ceramics
fabrication, 93–5
piezoelectric coefficients, 91–2
piezoelectric elements, 9
piezoelectric equations, 274
piezoelectric harvesters, 530–1
piezoelectric materials, 93
illustration, 93
typical properties of piezoelectric ceramics, 94
piezoelectric (PZT) crystal, 335
piezoelectric (PZT) device, 169
piezoelectric thin films, 274
piezoelectric transducer self-diagnosis techniques, 104–5
piezoelectric transducers, 515–17
applications based SHM, 105–10
aerospace structures, 107–8
bridge structures, 106–7
nuclear power plants, 108–9
pipeline structures, 108
wind turbines, 109
assessing and monitoring civil infrastructures, 86–113
bonding effects, 97–8
future trends, 110–12
limitations, 98–9
piezoelectric materials and fabrication, 92–5
principle of piezoelectricity, 87–92
other fields of applications, 109–10
high-precision and vibration control, 110
SHM techniques, 99–105
acoustic emission techniques, 103–4
guided wave techniques, 99–101
impedance techniques, 101–3
piezoelectric transducer self-diagnosis techniques, 104–5
structural health monitoring (SHM) applications, 95–7
paint sensor and smart aggregate, 97
properties of piezoelectric materials at 20°C, 97
various transducers, 95
piezoelectricity, 273
constitutive equations of materials, 90–2
typical piezoelectric material sheet, 91
definition and categorisation, 87–9
categorisation, 88
direct piezoelectric and converse piezoelectric effect, 87
polarisations of dielectric vs ferroelectric materials under varying electric field, 89
operational principle of materials, 89–90
longitudinal, transverse and volume effects, 89
principle, 87–92
piezoresistive accelerometers, 279
piezoresistive strain, 60–1
piezoresistivity, 273
piezoresistivity coefficient, 268
pin photodiode, 50–1
pinhole model, 389
pipeline structures, 108
pipelining, 485
Plancharel theorem, 518
Planck constant, 330
Planck radiation formula, 330
plane-based calibration process, 387–8
plane-based method, 390
plasma-coupled device (PCD), 346
plasma etching, 270–1
platinum, 65
polarisation, 361–2
behaviour, 88
scan rate, 372
polarisation maintaining (PM) fibres, See high-birefringence fibres
poling process, 94–5
polycrystalline silicon (polysilicon), 269
polymer-based piezoelectric paint sensor, 96
polymer-based thin films, 306–16
layer-by-layer (LbL) fabrication, 309–10
schematic of LbL fabrication methods for assembling CNT-PE thin films, 313
sensing skins for spatial damage detection, 314–16
carbon nanotube sensing skin coated with aluminium plate, Plate VIII
photosynthesis-inspired CNT-based multifunctional thin films, Plate IX
schematic illustration of procedure for solving EIT inverse problem, 315
strain sensing, 313–14
resistance time history response of SWNT-PE LbL thin film, 314
thin film fabrication, 307–9
electrical properties of carbon nanotube-polymer nanocomposites, 310
electrical properties of CNT buckypapers, 307
mechanical properties of carbon nanotube-polymer nanocomposites, 311
mechanical properties of CNT buckypapers, 308
SEM images of surface and cross-section of LbL SWNT-based thin film, 312
polymer casting, 309
polymer optical fibre sensors, 148–9
measured true stress-strain curves for single-mode PMMA doped core POF, 149
single-mode POF during loading with uniform visible light attenuation, Plate II
Polytec PSV 300, 341
Polytec PSV 400 3D-M, 341
Polytec PSV 400 system, 341
polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), 96
portable laser photogrammetric sensor, 338
post-tensioning process, 256
potentiometers, 60
potentiostatic linear polarisation resistance, 365
Pourbaix diagram, 358
monochromatic disturbances tuning, 520–4
equivalent circuits of matched impedances for monochromatic disturbances, 520
power extraction circuits, 525–32
diode bridge rectifier, 526–8
passive full-bridge diode rectifier, 527
pulse-width-modulation (PWM)-controlled DCIDC converters, 528–30
buck-boost DC-DC converter power extraction circuit, 529
resistive loads, 525–6
synchronised switching circuits, 530–2
SSHI circuit and influence on voltage, 531
Thevenin equivalent circuit for arbitrary VEH system, 525
power storage, 175–6
Preisach-Mayergoyz space representation, 181
presentation layer, 455
printed circuit board (PCB), 462–3
propagating light-wave, 129
propagation factor, 212
proportional-integral-derivative (PID), 417–18
pulse repetition frequency (PRF), 206
pulse-width modulation (PWM), 457
pulse-width-modulation (PWM)-controlled DC/DC converters, 528–30
Q
quantitative Lamb wave map, 100
quantization, 35–8
voltage by 3-bit digitizer, 37
quantization error, 35–8
signal-to-noise ratio as a function of A/D word-length capacity, 38
quantum cascade laser (QCL), 347
quartz crystal tuning fork (QCTF), 347
Quickfilter QF4A512, 495
R
Radar Review Panel, 206
RADAR technique, 144
radar technology, 7
fundamentals of operation, 209–17
2-D geometry of moving monostatic antenna and hyperbolic nonlinear distortion, 214
B-scan of aluminium bar suspended in air with hyperbolic nonlinearity, 215
hyperbolic nonlinearity that results from moving an antenna relative to fixed reflector, 214
various models of EM wave propagation, 210
laboratory and field studies, 227–32
ability of terahertz imaging system to detect corrosion under Space Shuttle TPS, 232
B-scan of Bostwick Road Bridge with reinforcing bar hyperbolas, 232
B-scan of concrete slab after 7 months of accelerated corrosion testing, 230
B-scan of concrete slab after 6 months of curing and before accelerated corrosion test, 229
B-scan of Turkey Lane Bridge showing distinct hyperbolas of reinforcing bars, 231
direction and path of scan on Bostwick Road Bridge, Shelburne, VT, USA, 231
GPR measurements with2.3 GHz handheld antenna on concrete slab specimen, 227
reflected signal vs time for two 38 mm slabs stacked with 1mm gap, 228
salt water ponding as part of accelerated corrosion test on reinforced concrete slab, 229
scanning the deck of Turkey Lane Bridge, Hinesburg, VT, USA, 230
radio frequency, interferometric, millimetre wave and terahertz sensors, 201–34
assessment and monitoring civil infrastructures, 201–34
brief history of ground penetrating radar (GPR) systems, 203–8
current challenges and state of the art systems, 208–9
electromagnetic interactions with materials, 217–19
future trends, 232–4
generic EM structural sensing system, 202
signal processing, 224–7
transmitter and receiver design, 219–24
detail of impedance-matching low-loss antenna apex connection, 223
full waveform digitisation of 1 ns impulse with sampling at 20 GHz by gang of ADC, 220
Gaussian impulses and derivatives as Gauss-Hermite functions, 221
high-speed ground-coupled GPR system, 222
image of horn antenna before mounting and encasement, 222
radio frequency
radar technology and interferometric, millimetre wave and terahertz sensors, 201–34
assessment and monitoring civil infrastructures, 201–34
brief history of ground penetrating radar (GPR) systems, 203–8
current challenges and state of the art systems, 208–9
electromagnetic interactions with materials, 217–19
fundamentals of operation, 209–17
future trends, 232–4
laboratory and field studies, 227–32
signal processing, 224–7
transmitter and receiver design, 219–24
rail track evaluation, 349
Raman scattering distributed sensors, 142–5
distributed sensor cables examples, 145
light scattering in optical fibres and use for strain and temperature sensing, 143
schematic example of distributed strain and temperature measurement, 144
ramp converter ADC, 39
ray tracing methods, 213
Rayleigh-Lamb equation, 343
Rayleigh-Ritz projection, 517
Rayleigh scattering distributed sensors, 149
Rayleigh waves, 343
reactive energy flows, 521
reactive ion etching (RIE) sputtering, 270–1
read-only memory (ROM), 44
real current, 369
real energy flows, 521
real-time operating system (RTOS), 465–6
receiver, 452
reference-free techniques, 99–100
reflection coefficient, 215
refractive index, 211
region of interest (ROI), 394
reinforced concrete, 360–1
remote digital photography, 386
remote robotic sensing
structural health monitoring (SHM), 419–24
laser-based WPT, 422–4
microwave-based WPT, 421
wireless, 420–1
wireless sensing and wireless power transmission (WPT), 419–20
repetitive cycling, 286
residual stress characterisation, 247–8
resistive loads, 525–6
resistive thermometers, 65
resolution, 29
responsivity, 50
Reynolds number, 276–7
Richter scale, 167–8
rise time, 162
RM Young Model 81000 anemometer, 495–6
robotic sensing
assessing and monitoring civil infrastructures, 410–39
future trends, 436–9
remote robotic sensing for structural health monitoring (SHM), 419–24
vibration-based mobile wireless sensors, 424–36
vision-based for structural health monitoring (SHM), 414–19
Robug IV prototype, 426–7
robust task scheduler, 465
Roma2 model prototype, 426–7
rotational velocity, 340
S
sacrificial layers, 270
sag effect, 402
sampling criteria, 30–3
5 Hz sinusoid waveform, 31
5 Hz waveform and DFT, 33
discrete Fourier transform (DFT), 31
sampling frequency, 30
saturated permeability, 255
Scalable Thin and Rapid Amassment Without Loss (STRAW), 485–6
scanning angular resolution, 338
SDOF electromagnetic harvester, 523
second-order differential equation, 515
SensCore corrosion sensor, 374
sensing
future trends, 13–17
damage models for structural health assessment, 15–16
data inundation and information extraction, 16–17
displacement measurement, 15
sensors for monitoring of material processes, 14–15
structural performance assessment and health monitoring, 1–17
application to operational structure, 11–13
overview, 5–9
sensor data interrogation and decision making, 9–11
sensing equation, 92
sensing hardware, 5
sensing mechanisms, 126–9
output signals of optical fibre sensors, 127
sensor interrogation schemes, 128
sensing module, 26–30
piezoelectric accelerometer cutaway vs second-order spring/mass/damper dynamic system representation, 27
sensing skins, 314–16
sensing systems
energy harvesting for assessing and monitoring civil infrastructures, 510–34
harvest dynamic modelling, 514–18
ongoing advancements and future directions, 532–4
power availability and optimal harvesting admittance, 518–24
power extraction circuits, 525–32
sensing transducer, 5–6
Sensirion SHT11 chip, 489
extraneous measurands, 29
sensor characteristics, 273–8
packaging, 277–8
ceramic package and plastic moulded package, 278
squeeze film damping, 276–7
stiction and collapse voltage, 275–6
intended microstructure and consequence of stiction, 276
thin film residual stress, 277
profilometer measurements of capacitive sensor designs, Plate VI
transduction principles, 273–5
SEM images of capacitive gap change design and out-of-plane and in-plane motion, 275
sensor data acquisition systems, 23–56
analog-to-digital conversion, 34–9
architectures, 38–9
quantization and quantization error, 35–8
simple switch, 35
concepts in signals and digital sampling, 30–4
digitization and encoding, 33–4
sampling criteria, 30–3
data acquisition system, 41–7
digital-to-analog conversion, 39–40
future trends, 54–6
schematic of sensor and data acquisition taxonomic evolution, 55
general measurement system, 24–6
schematic diagram, 24
optical sensing DAQ system, 47–53
fiber optic measurement system, 48
photodetectors, 49–52
photodiodes, 48–9
tunable optical filters, 52–3
sensing module, 26–30
sensor materials, 266–70
insulators, 270
mechanical and electrical properties of MEMS microstructure vs structural steel, 267
metals, 270
polycrystalline silicon (polysilicon), 269
sacrificial layers, 270
silicon, 267–9
wafer indicating primary flat and directions, 268
silicon carbide, 269–70
typical materials and purposes, 267
sensor order, 26
sensor packaging, 129–30
design, 130
sensors
used for civil infrastructures, 57–80
associated algorithms, 69–78
continuous monitoring systems, 78–9
future trends, 79–80
sensing technologies, 58–68
server-side computing, 469
server-side software, 464
session layer, 455
severity assessment, 166–8
example of intensity chart, 168
Kaiser effect, 166
severity index, 167
shape anisotropy, 242–3
shunt circuits, 41
sigma-delta ADCs, 39
signal conditioners, 462–3
signal processing, 224–7
flowchart of synthetic aperture algorithm, 225
geometry of wavenumbers associated with synthetic aperture imaging, 226
image of rebars and defects inside of concrete slab by Mast and Johansson, 224
silicon, 267–9
silicon carbide, 269–70
single crystal silicon, 267–8
single-ended connections, 42
single-mode fibre, 125
single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNT), 297–8
singular value decomposition (SVD), 342
slow dynamics, 192–3
small-scale building model test, 396–7
comparative results of videogrammetric measurement and shake table input, 398
displacement responses of 3-storey building model under 1940 El Centre earthquake, 398
experimental set-up of 3-storey building model, 397
smaller robot prototype, 427
smart aggregate, 97
smart concrete fabrication, 300–1
smart layer, 96
sol-gel technique, 274
SolidWork, 342
spatial damage detection, 314–16
spatial variations, 76
speckle image intensity, 336
spin coating, 309
splicing, 130
spontaneous emission, 49
spraying, 309
sputtering, 270
squeeze film damping, 276–7
ST Microelectronics LIS2L06 MEMS accelerometer, 489
standard telecom connectors, 130
static random access memory (SRAM), 44–5
static sensitivity, 27
steady-state stress, 280
step-frequency radar system, 219
step-index optical fibre, 123
step recovery diodes (SRD), 204–5
Stern-Geary equation, 364
StickyBot, 427
stiction, 275–6
stimulated emission, 329–31
stochastic disturbances, 524
stochastic subspace identification (SSI), 449–50
stone aggregates image segmentation, 349
Stonecutters Bridge, 78
straight binary code, 34
strain, 60–2
piezoresistive, 60–1
vibrating-wire, 61–2
strain gages, 70
strain sensor, 282–3
street mapping, 350
stress effective field, 243
stress-strain curves, 181
stress-strain matrices, 92
stress-strain nonlinear model, 192
acoustic emission techniques, 103–4
overview illustration, 103
applications, 95–7
guided wave techniques
principle of phased array technique, 101
guided wave tomography, 100
impedance techniques, 101–3
scheme illustration, 102
piezoelectric transducer self-diagnosis techniques, 104–5
illustration based on TRP for PZT debonding detection, 105
prevalence of commonly used sensors, 65–8
literative of health monitoring systems, 67–8
sensor layout for Stonecutters Bridge, 66
remote robotic sensing, 419–24
sensing, 1–17
application to operational structure, 11–13
future trends, 13–17
overview, 5–9
sensor data interrogation and decision making, 9–11
techniques, 99–105
vision-based robotic sensing, 414–19
wireless, 420–1
functional elements of wireless sensor, 420
subharmonic generation, 182–5
successive approximation ADC, 39
surface acoustic waves (SAW), 343–4
surface-emitting diodes, 49
surface micromachining, 271–2
Surveillance d’ouvrages par senseurs à fibres optiques (SOFO) sensors, 134
swept-wavelength interferometry (SWI), 149
switch register, 35
synchronised switching circuits, 530–2
synthetic aperture radar (SAR), 204–5
system operators, 207
T
Tafel constants, 364
target
correspondence, 392–5
epipolar geometry for two-camera image acquisition system, 396
schematic illustration of optical flow method, 395
target point extraction, 393
target point tracking by correlation-based method, 394
television holography, See laser interferometry
temperature effects, 256–8
dependence of initial magnetisation curve on temperature variation, 258
temperature dependence of permeability, 259
tensile stress monitoring, 249
terahertz sensors
radar technology and radio frequency, interferometric and millimetre wave, 201–34
assessment and monitoring civil infrastructures, 201–34
brief history of ground penetrating radar (GPR) systems, 203–8
current challenges and state of the art systems, 208–9
electromagnetic interactions with materials, 217–19
fundamentals of operation, 209–17
future trends, 232–4
laboratory and field studies, 227–32
signal processing, 224–7
transmitter and receiver design, 219–24
terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) system, 349–50
thermal protection system (TPS), 230–2
thermal radiation, 329–31
thermocouples, 65
Thevenin equivalent circuit, 525
thin film fabrication, 307–9
time constant, 27
time-division multiple-access (TDMA), 453
time-division multiplexing (TDM), 133–4
time domain, 521
time of arrival (TOA), 163
time-of-flight, 148
time-of-flight (TOF) laser scanner, 350
time reversal acoustic method, 165–6
time reversal process (TRP), 99–100
time synchronisation, 467–8
time-varying electric currents, 213
timing skew, 47
Tmote Sky, 489
transducer-based feature tracking systems, 415–16
transducers, 462
transduction principles, 273–5
transistor-transistor logic, 35
transmissibility function analysis, 431
transmission coefficient, 215
transmission control protocol (TCP), 454–5
transmission techniques, 534
transmitter, 451
transport layer, 454–5
transportation system, 12
transverse electric (TE) polarised wave, 215
transverse magnetic (TM) polarised wave, 215
triangular method, 392–3
Tsing Ma Bridge, 78
tunable optical filters, 52–3
etalon-based tunable Fabry–Pérot optical filter and transfer function, 53
tunnel liner inspection, 348–9
two-camera image acquisition system, 395
U
U-shaped yoke, 260–1
ultrasonic sensor, 283–4
ultrasound methods
nonlinear acoustic methods for assessing and monitoring civil infrastructures, 179–97
fundamentals of nonlinear acousto-ultrasound techniques, 181–2
future trends, 196–7
harmonic and subharmonic generation, 182–5
nonlinear resonance ultrasound spectroscopy, 191–5
nonlinear wave modulation, 185–91
ultraviolet (UV) spectrum, 351
ultrawideband (UWB), 204–5
unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV), 421
U.S. Department of Labour, Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), 351
USB, 46
user datagram protocol (UDP), 454–5
V
vacuum, 217
vacuum-assisted resin-transfer moulding (VARTM), 304
vacuum packaging, 278
van der Waals force, 309–10
vector field equations, 210
vector wave equations, 211
Versatile Onboard Traffic-Embedded Roaming Sensors (VOTERS) project, 11
vibrating-wire strain, 61–2
vibration-based mobile wireless sensors, 424–36
case study of development and validation of mobile sensor network, 427–36
literature review on climbing robots and mobile sensors, 426–7
static sensor networks vs mobile sensor networks, 426
vibration control, 109
vibration modal analysis, 435–6
video holography, See laser interferometry
videogrammetric technique, 387–8
vision-based measurement techniques
civil engineering applications, 386–8
vision-based robotic sensing
structural health monitoring (SHM), 414–19
vision-based structural displacement monitoring, 415–19
vision-based structural crack detection, 414–15
schematic diagram of Bridge Inspection Robot Development Interface, 415
vision-based sensing
assessing and monitoring civil infrastructures, 383–406
applications, 396–405
important issues for vision-based measurement techniques, 388–96
vision-based measurement techniques for civil engineering applications, 386–8
vision-based structural crack detection, 414–15
vision-based structural displacement monitoring, 415–19
configuration of conventional SL, 417
diagram of 6-DOF displacement estimation method using three laser range finders, 419
process of visually servoed paired structured light system, 418
schematic diagram of visually servoed paired structured light system, 417
visually servoed paired (ViSP), 416–17
voltage standard wave ratio (VSWR), 223
W
water intrusion, 227
water-to-cement ratio, 185
wave velocity, 175
wavefront-splitting, 333
wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM), 139–40
wavelet transform method, 349
web-based reporting system, 386
wet etching, 270
Wheatstone bridge, 65
WiDAQ, 461–2
Wind River VxWorks, 465–6
wind tunnel bridge sectional model test, 399
measured responses at Target A and B, 400
wind tunnel test for bridge sectional model, 400
wind turbines, 109
wire bonding method, 278
wired sensor technologies, 172
wireless control networks, 470
wireless HART, 460
protocol, 455–6
wireless local area networks (WLAN), 453
wireless networks
overview, 450–6
2.4 GHz channel interference, 454
common network stacks and development responsibility, 452
qualitative comparison of wireless standards, 456
range and data rate of wireless standards, Plate XIII
schematic view of IEEE 802.15.4 Data Packet MAC sub-layer, 454
wired vs wireless communications, 451
WSN topologies, Plate XII
wireless radio modules, 458–9
Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco, California, USA, 483–5
Jindo Bridge, Haenam/Jindo, South Korea, 494–6
Imote2 with antenna, stacked on battery board with SHM-A sensor board, 494
PVC enclosure for sensing unit, 495
Narada wireless sensing unit with power-amplified radio, 500
polycarbonate enclosure, 501
Stork Bridge, Winterthur, Switzerland, 489–90
energy consumption for field deployment of Tmote, 490
hardware packaging for wireless sensors units, 489
wireless sensor, 8–9
anatomy, 456–9
families, 459–62
academic prototypes, 461–2
commercial wireless sensors, 460–1
peripherals, 462–4
selected examples, 460
wireless sensor network software, 464–71
application software, 468–71
network wide capabilities of wired vs wireless, 468
middleware, 466–8
power usage in multi-hop networks, 467
WSN topologies, Plate XII
operating systems (OS), 464–6
wireless sensor networks, 425–6
wireless sensor peripherals, 462–4
energy management and harvesters, 4
energy densities of common WSN power sources, 464
signal conditioners, 462–3
transducers, 462
wireless structural health monitoring, 420–1
wireless structural monitoring systems
design and selection for civil infrastructures, 446–72
future trends, 471–2
overview of wireless networks, 450–6
state of practice, 447–8
state of the art, 449–50
wireless sensor network software, 71
hardware design and selection, 456–64
anatomy of wireless sensor, 456–9
overview, Plate XIV
wireless sensor families, 459–62
permanent installation in infrastructure systems, 480–505
case study I of Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco, California, USA, 482–7
case study II of Stork Bridge, Winterthur, Switzerland, 487–92
case study III of Jindo Bridge, Haenam/Jindo, South Korea, 492–7
case study IV of New Carquinez Bridge, Vallejo/Crockett, California, USA, 497–505
Wireless Structural Testing Systems, 460
words, 34
X
X-ray resist, 272–3
X-ray source, 272
Y
Z
zero resistance ammeter (ZRA), 373–4
ZigBee, 452
..................Content has been hidden....................
You can't read the all page of ebook, please click here login for view all page.