Preface

This book on Linear Integrated Circuits (LIC) is written to serve the learning interests of students (both undergraduate and graduate), teaching faculty, and practitioners. This book provides (a) students with good in-depth and complete study material that is easy to learn and gain mastery of the subject of ‘LIC’, subscribing fully to university course syllabus and later in their professional career, (b) teaching faculty find complete subject material easy to impart in the classrooms and build strong foundation for the students, and (c) practitioners in the area who need to refer back to a seemingly simple concept that needs clarity and reinforcement while working on live projects.

Students and teachers will appreciate the subject of integrated circuits (IC, heart of all modern electronics), as the book starts from the genesis, that is, historical events and original invention by researchers in giant organizations such as AT & T Bell Labs in New Jersey, USA, Radio Corporation of America (RCA), and Colombia University.

The footprint of modern electronics and IC technology starts from (a) personal electronics such as wearables and mobile phones, forming the basis of ‘Internet of Things (IoT)’; (b) widespread and ‘omnipresent’ wireless and wired global telecommunications using satellites, 3G, and 4G; (c) sophisticated medical equipment, (d) industrial applications using ‘Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT)’, and (e) Star Wars-type space explorations, space stations, and exploration.

Advancement of mankind is intrinsically linked to new, advanced, and smart modern electronics that will become the cornerstone of our civilization in 21st century.

With the birth of transistor in 1947 and silicon transistor in 1954 at AT & T Bell Labs, USA, the concept of integrated circuit (IC) became a reality and a technology boon for us. We can see the tallest transistor monument at AT & T campus in Holmdel, New Jersey, USA.

Despite these inventions, visionaries of 20th century grossly underestimated the adaption. Here are some golden statements.

I think there is a world market for maybe five computers.

—Thomas J. Watson,

Chairman, IBM, 1943

Where a calculator on the ENIAC is equipped with 18,000 vacuum tubes and weighs 30 tons, computers in the future may have only 1,000 vacuum tubes and weigh only 1.5 tons.

—Popular Mechanics, 1949

There is no reason anyone would want a computer in their home.

—Ken Olson,

President, Chairman, and Founder,

Digital Equipment Corp. (DEC), 1977

The period from 1930s to 1950s at Bell Labs could be regarded as golden years because of the development of amplifiers with the support of many inventors and engineers around the world. After World War II, operational amplifier was developed and improved for commercial use. The size and power consumption by (then) traditional vacuum tube op amp were minimized with the development of miniaturized ‘solid state operational amplifier’ during 1950s. First IC-based op amp was developed in mid-1960s. With continuous improvements, that tend to defy Moore’s Law, VLSI technology is dominating the world of electronics till today. One example is the considerable developments of various ICs using operational amplifier as the major controlling element in circuit performance. In 1947, the term ‘operational amplifier’ was coined in the industry. Op-amp was originally thought to help with ‘mathematical operations’ in an analog computer.

I developed interest to work with ICs when I completed my M. Tech. thesis on ‘Digital Heart Rate Meter’ at Department of ECE, JNTU College of Engineering, Kakinada (1978), under the guidance of Prof. M. Ramamurty and Prof. N. Laxminarayana (my HOD and my mentor and well-wisher even today). Along with many other ICs used in the project, operational amplifier ICs 1458 and μA741 used in DAC remained in my memory since that time. At last by now, I am realizing my desire to explore and explain the capabilities of operational amplifiers and ICs, using up-to-date applications, through this book on Linear Integrated Circuits.

Presentation Plan of Linear Integrated Circuits

Each chapter is organized as follows:

• Objectives and outline
• Theory, design, and analysis of the topic
• Worked out examples for clarity over the discussed topic
• Summary of the content learned in the chapter
• List of questions to answer and develop further clarity
• Key points to remember for quick application of the subject in future
• Multiple-choice questions for quick review in competitive exams
• Laboratory experiments with procedure for conducting experiments in the labs and getting observations and results

Last chapter covers circuit design and simulation using Pspice computer software, which is popular in the industry for design, analysis, and manufacturing systems using ICs. The concepts are presented in a systematic way using simple sentences so as to create a flexible student–teacher environment.

Topics Covered in the Book

Chapter 1 covers the basic concepts for the fabrication of active devices such as Diode, BJT, JFET, MOSFET, and R, L, and C electronic components and their interconnections. It also explains the working concepts of integrated circuits by knowing the device configurations, component specifications, and various features for electronic circuit design.

Chapter 2 covers the analysis of transistor differential amplifiers using block diagrams and inner circuit details, practical details, and characteristics of operational amplifiers and their significance and frequency response characteristics.

Chapter 3 covers design and analysis of several Op Amp applications such as sign changer, scale changer, inverting and non-inverting amplifier, integrator, differentiator, and their applications in analog computers. Conversion circuits—such as current to voltage (C–V or C/V), voltage to frequency (V–F or V/F), and frequency to voltage (F–V or F/V)—are also discussed in detail. These different op amp circuits are analysed by looking at the input and output signal waveforms.

Chapter 4 covers the application of operational amplifier such as voltage comparator circuit and two applications of comparator circuit such as window detector and zero crossing detector. Schmitt trigger circuit (regenerative comparator) and multivibrator circuits are also explained in detail. They generate square waves, producing gating and triggering waveforms for digital switching and logic circuits at various stages of digital computer circuits and counter circuits. Precision rectifier (super diode) and peak voltage detector circuits are also explained.

Chapter 5 covers the analysis and design aspects of waveform generators and oscillator circuits using operational amplifier to generate sine wave, ramp voltage, triangular wave, and square wave. Low frequency oscillators, RC phase shift, and Wien bridge oscillator circuits are explained in detail. High frequency oscillators, Hartley oscillator, Colpitts oscillator, and crystal oscillator (stable frequency oscillator) circuits are also covered in detail with worked out examples.

Chapter 6 covers different types of circuits using 555 IC Timer (IC Time Machine) to work as astable multivibrator, monostable multivibrator, and bistable multivibrator. It also covers the operation of PWM and PPM signal-generating circuits using 555 IC.

Chapter 7 covers the concepts and working principles of phase-locked loop with its architecture. It also consists of discussion on AM, FM, FSK nodulation, and detector circuits.

Chapter 8 focuses on the analysis and design of different types of voltage regulators, three terminal IC voltage regulators, and special types of voltage regulator circuits. With different voltages being used by different circuit modules inside electronic gadgets (laptops and computers) or special embedded systems (cable/SoHo LAN/WiFi gateway), these voltage regulators are used to interface or translate voltages across circuit modules. The chapter also covers switched mode power supply circuit operation.

Chapter 9 covers the analysis and design of different types of passive and active filters with frequency responses of LPF, HPF, BPF, BEF, Butterworth, and Chebyshev filters.

Chapter 10 covers the design and analysis of different types of ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converter Circuit) and DAC (Digital-to-Analog Converter Circuit) circuits.

Chapter 11 covers the analysis of different types of logic gates. Concepts of Digital Integrated circuits and TTL circuits are discussed in detail.

Chapter 12 discusses the complete procedure to use PSpice Simulation for wiring an electronic circuit (using operational amplifiers) on PSpice Work Space, obtaining the circuit results showing the input and output signals, and result screens obtained on print screens for circuit analysis and design with examples. This explained procedure for operational amplifiers is valid for all types of electronic circuits.

I have taken immense care to cover the various topics related to similar concepts and applications in a single chapter without staggering the device applications. I feel that this book will provide students and teachers a friendly atmosphere.

While I have made every effort to provide a text that is error free, it is possible that a few flaws might have crept in inadvertently. These, if detected, may be pointed out to the publisher or directly to me at [email protected].

Comments and feedback on the topics discussed in this book are welcome.

B. Visvesvara Rao