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Electric Power Generation, Transmission, and Distribution, Third Edition
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Electric Power Generation, Transmission, and Distribution, Third Edition
by Leonard L. Grigs
Electric Power Generation, Transmission, and Distribution, 3rd Edition
Preface
Editor
Contributors
Section I - Electric Power Generation: Nonconventional Methods
Chapter 1 - Wind Power
1.1 Wind Resource
1.1.1 Wind Shear
1.1.2 Wind Maps
1.1.3 Wind Turbines
1.2 Wind Farms
1.2.1 Small Wind Turbines
1.2.2 Village Power
1.2.3 Wind Diesel
1.2.4 Other
1.2.5 Performance
1.3 Institutional Issues
1.4 Economics
1.5 Summary
References
Section 2 - Photovoltaic Fundamentals
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Market Drivers
2.3 Optical Absorption
2.3.1 Introduction
2.3.2 Semiconductor Materials
2.3.3 Generation of EHP by Photon Absorption
2.4 Extrinsic Semiconductors and the pn Junction
2.4.1 Extrinsic Semiconductors
2.4.2 pn Junction
2.4.2.1 Junction Formation and Built-In Potential
2.4.2.2 Illuminated pn Junction
2.5 Maximizing Cell Performance
2.5.1 Externally Biased pn Junction
2.5.2 Parameter Optimization
2.5.2.1 Introduction
2.5.2.2 Minimizing the Reverse Saturation Current
2.5.2.3 Optimizing Photocurrent
2.5.3 Minimizing Cell Resistance Losses
2.6 Traditional PV Cells
2.6.1 Introduction
2.6.2 Crystalline Silicon Cells
2.6.3 Amorphous Silicon Cells
2.6.4 Copper Indium Gallium Diselenide Cells
2.6.5 Cadmium Telluride Cells
2.6.6 Gallium Arsenide Cells
2.7 Emerging Technologies
2.7.1 New Developments in Silicon Technology
2.7.2 CIS-Family-Based Absorbers
2.7.3 Other III–V and II–VI Emerging Technologies
2.7.4 Other Technologies
2.7.4.1 Thermophotovoltaic Cells
2.7.4.2 Intermediate Band Solar Cells
2.7.4.3 Super Tandem Cells
2.7.4.4 Hot Carrier Cells
2.7.4.5 Optical Up- and Down-Conversion
2.7.4.6 Organic PV Cells
2.8 PV Electronics and Systems
2.8.1 Introduction
2.8.2 PV System Electronic Components
2.8.2.1 Inverters
2.8.2.2 Charge Controllers
2.9 Conclusions
References
Section 3 - Advanced Energy Technologies
3.1 Storage Systems
3.1.1 Flywheel Storage
3.1.2 Compressed Air Energy Storage
3.1.3 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage
3.1.4 Battery Storage
3.1.4.1 Battery Types
3.1.4.2 Lead–Acid Batteries
3.1.4.3 Nickel Iron and Nickel Cadmium Batteries
3.1.4.4 Nickel Metal Hydride Batteries
3.1.4.5 Sodium-Sulfur Batteries
3.1.4.6 Lithium Ion and Lithium Polymer Batteries
3.1.4.7 Zinc and Aluminum Air Batteries
3.2 Fuel Cells
3.2.1 Basic Principles
3.2.2 Types of Fuel Cells
3.2.3 Fuel Cell Operation
3.2.3.1 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane
3.2.3.2 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell
3.2.3.3 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
3.2.3.4 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
3.3 Summary
Chapter 4 - Water
4.1 Introduction
4.2 World Resource
4.3 Hydroelectric
4.3.1 Large (≥30 MW)
4.3.2 Small Hydro (100 kW to 30 MW, 10 MW in Europe)
4.3.3 Microhydro (<100 kW)
4.4 Turbines
4.4.1 Impulse Turbines
4.4.2 Reaction Turbines
4.5 Water Flow
4.6 Tides
4.7 Ocean
4.7.1 Currents
4.7.2 Waves
4.7.3 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
4.7.4 Salinity Gradient
4.8 Other
References
Recommended Resources
Section II - Electric Power Generation: Conventional Methods
Chapter 5 - Hydroelectric Power Generation
5.1 Planning of Hydroelectric Facilities
5.1.1 Siting
5.1.2 Hydroelectric Plant Schemes
5.1.3 Selection of Plant Capacity, Energy, and Other Design Features
5.2 Hydroelectric Plant Features
5.2.1 Turbine
5.2.2 Flow Control Equipment
5.2.3 Generator
5.2.4 Generator Terminal Equipment
5.2.5 Generator Switchgear
5.2.6 Generator Step-Up Transformer
5.2.7 Excitation System
5.2.8 Governor System
5.2.9 Control Systems
5.2.10 Protection Systems
5.2.11 Plant Auxiliary Equipment
5.3 Special Considerations Affecting Pumped Storage Plants
5.3.1 Pump Motor Starting
5.3.2 Phase Reversing of the Generator/Motor
5.3.3 Draft Tube Water Depression
5.4 Construction and Commissioning of Hydroelectric Plants
References
Chapter 6 - Synchronous Machinery
6.1 General
6.2 Construction (see Figure 6.1)
6.2.1 Stator
6.2.1.1 Frame
6.2.1.2 Stator Core Assembly
6.2.2 Rotor
6.2.2.1 The Rotor Assembly
6.2.2.2 Bearings and Couplings
6.3 Performance
6.3.1 Synchronous Machines, in General
6.3.2 Synchronous Generator Capability
6.3.3 Synchronous Motor and Condenser Starting
Reference
Chapter 7 - Thermal Generating Plants
7.1 Plant Auxiliary System
7.1.1 Selection of Auxiliary System Voltages
7.1.2 Auxiliary System Loads
7.1.3 Auxiliary System Power Sources
7.1.4 Auxiliary System Voltage Regulation Requirements
7.2 Plant One-Line Diagram
7.3 Plant Equipment Voltage Ratings
7.4 Grounded vs. Ungrounded Systems
7.4.1 Ungrounded
7.4.2 Grounded
7.4.3 Low-Resistance Grounding
7.4.4 High-Resistance Grounding
7.5 Miscellaneous Circuits
7.5.1 Essential Services
7.5.2 Lighting Supply
7.6 DC Systems
7.6.1 125 V DC
7.6.2 250 V DC
7.7 Power Plant Switchgear
7.7.1 High-Voltage Circuit Breakers
7.7.2 Medium-Voltage Switchgear
7.7.2.1 Medium-Voltage Air Circuit Breakers
7.7.2.2 Medium-Voltage Vacuum Circuit Breakers
7.7.2.3 Medium-Voltage SF6 Circuit Breakers
7.7.3 Low-Voltage Switchgear
7.7.3.1 Low-Voltage Air Circuit Breakers
7.7.4 Motor Control Centers
7.7.5 Circuit Interruption
7.8 Auxiliary Transformers
7.8.1 Selection of Percent Impedance
7.8.2 Rating of Voltage Taps
7.9 Motors
7.9.1 Selection of Motors
7.9.2 Types of Motors
7.9.2.1 Squirrel Cage Induction Motors
7.9.2.2 Wound Rotor Induction Motors
7.9.2.3 Synchronous Motors
7.9.2.4 Direct Current Motors
7.9.2.5 Single-Phase Motors
7.9.2.6 Motor Starting Limitations
7.10 Main Generator
7.10.1 Associated Equipment
7.10.1.1 Exciters and Excitation Equipment
7.10.2 Electronic Exciters
7.10.3 Generator Neutral Grounding
7.10.4 Isolated Phase Bus
7.11 Cable
7.12 Electrical Analysis
7.12.1 Load Flow
7.12.2 Short-Circuit Analysis
7.12.3 Surge Protection
7.12.4 Phasing
7.12.5 Relay Coordination Studies
7.13 Maintenance and Testing
7.14 Start-Up
References
Chapter 8 - Distributed Utilities
8.1 Available Technologies
8.2 Fuel Cells
8.3 Microturbines
8.4 Combustion Turbines
8.5 Photovoltaics
8.6 Solar-Thermal-Electric Systems
8.7 Wind Electric Conversion Systems
8.8 Storage Technologies
8.9 Interface Issues
8.9.1 Line-Commutated Inverters
8.9.2 Self-Commutated Inverters
8.10 Applications
8.10.1 Ancillary Services
8.10.2 “Traditional Utility” Applications
8.10.3 Customer Applications
8.10.4 Third-Party Service Providers
8.11 Conclusions
References
Section III - Transmission System
Chapter 9 - Concept of Energy Transmission and Distribution
9.1 Generation Stations
9.2 Switchgear
9.3 Control Devices
9.4 Concept of Energy Transmission and Distribution
9.4.1 High-Voltage Transmission Lines
9.4.2 High-Voltage DC Lines
9.4.3 Subtransmission Lines
9.4.4 Distribution Lines
References
Chapter 10 - Transmission Line Structures
10.1 Traditional Line Design Practice
10.1.1 Structure Types in Use
10.1.2 Factors Affecting Structure Type Selection
10.2 Current Deterministic Design Practice
10.2.1 Reliability Level
10.2.2 Security Level
10.3 Improved Design Approaches
10.A Appendix A: General Design Criteria—Methodology
References
Chapter 11 - Insulators and Accessories
11.1 Electrical Stresses on External Insulation
11.1.1 Transmission Lines and Substations
11.1.2 Electrical Stresses
11.1.2.1 Continuous Power Frequency Voltages
11.1.2.2 Temporary Overvoltages
11.1.2.3 Switching Overvoltages
11.1.2.4 Lightning Overvoltages
11.1.3 Environmental Stresses
11.1.3.1 Temperature
11.1.3.2 UV Radiation
11.1.3.3 Rain
11.1.3.4 Icing
11.1.3.5 Pollution
11.1.3.6 Altitude
11.1.4 Mechanical Stresses
11.2 Ceramic (Porcelain and Glass) Insulators
11.2.1 Materials
11.2.2 Insulator Strings
11.2.3 Post-Type Insulators
11.2.4 Long Rod Insulators
11.3 Nonceramic (Composite) Insulators
11.3.1 Composite Suspension Insulators
11.3.1.1 End Fittings
11.3.1.2 Corona Ring(s)
11.3.1.3 Fiberglass-Reinforced Plastic Rod
11.3.1.4 Interfaces between Shed and Fiberglass Rod
11.3.1.5 Weather Shed
11.3.2 Composite Post Insulators
11.4 Insulator Failure Mechanism
11.4.1 Porcelain Insulators
11.4.2 Insulator Pollution
11.4.2.1 Ceramic Insulators
11.4.2.2 Nonceramic Insulators
11.4.3 Effects of Pollution
11.4.4 Composite Insulators
11.4.5 Aging of Composite Insulators
11.5 Methods for Improving Insulator Performance
11.6 Accessories
References
Chapter 12 - Transmission Line Construction and Maintenance
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Transmission Line Siting
12.3 Sequence of Line Construction
12.4 Conductor Pulling Plan
12.5 Conductor Stringing Methods
12.5.1 Slack or Layout Method
12.5.2 Tension Stringing
12.6 Equipment Setup
12.7 Sagging
12.8 Overhead Transmission Line Maintenance
12.8.1 Introduction
12.8.2 Overhead Transmission Line Inspections
12.8.3 Transmission Line Inspection Software
12.8.4 Transmission Line Fault Investigations and Corrective Action(s)
12.9 Transmission Line Work
12.9.1 Live Line Work
12.9.2 Worksite Grounding
12.9.3 Vegetation Management
12.10 Data/Information Management and Analysis
12.11 Emergency Restoration of Transmission Structures
References
Chapter 13 - Insulated Power Cables Used in Underground Applications
13.1 Underground System Designs
13.2 Conductor
13.3 Insulation
13.4 Medium- and High-Voltage Power Cables
13.5 Shield Bonding Practice
13.6 Installation Practice
13.7 System Protection Devices
13.8 Common Calculations Used with Cable
References
Chapter 14 - Transmission Line Parameters
14.1 Transmission Line Parameters
14.1.1 Series Resistance
14.1.1.1 Frequency Effect
14.1.1.2 Temperature Effect
14.1.1.3 Spiraling and Bundle Conductor Effect
14.1.1.4 Current-Carrying Capacity (Ampacity)
14.1.2 Series Inductance and Series Inductive Reactance
14.1.2.1 Inductance of a Solid, Round, Infinitely Long Conductor
14.1.2.2 Internal Inductance due to Internal Magnetic Flux
14.1.2.3 External Inductance
14.1.2.4 Inductance of a Two-Wire, Single-Phase Line
14.1.2.5 Inductance of Three-Phase Transmission Line in Asymmetrical Arrangement
14.1.2.6 Inductance of Balanced Three-Phase Transmission Line in Symmetrical Arrangement
14.1.2.7 Inductance of Transposed Three-Phase Transmission Lines
14.1.3 Shunt Capacitance and Capacitive Reactance
14.1.3.1 Capacitance of a Single Solid Conductor
14.1.3.2 Capacitance of a Single-Phase Line with Two Wires
14.1.3.3 Capacitance of Three-Phase Transmission Line in Asymmetrical Arrangement
14.1.3.4 Capacitance of Three-Phase Transmission Line in Symmetrical Arrangement
14.1.3.5 Capacitance of Stranded Bundle Conductors
14.1.3.6 Capacitance due to Earth’s Surface
14.1.4 Equivalent Circuit of Three-Phase Transmission Lines
14.1.5 Characteristics of Overhead Conductors
References
Chapter 15 - Sag and Tension of Conductor
15.1 Catenary Cables
15.1.1 Level Spans
15.1.2 Conductor Length
15.1.3 Conductor Slack
15.1.4 Inclined Spans
15.1.5 Ice and Wind Conductor Loads
15.1.5.1 Ice Loading
15.1.5.2 Wind Loading
15.1.5.3 Combined Ice and Wind Loading
15.1.6 Conductor Tension Limits
15.2 Approximate Sag-Tension Calculations
15.2.1 Sag Change with Thermal Elongation
15.3 Numerical Sag-Tension Calculations
15.3.1 Stress–Strain Curves
15.3.1.1 Permanent Elongation
15.3.1.2 Permanent Elongation due to Heavy Loading
15.3.1.3 Permanent Elongation at Everyday Tensions (Creep Elongation)
15.3.2 Sag-Tension Tables
15.3.2.1 Initial vs. Final Sags and Tensions
15.3.2.2 Special Aspects of ACSR Sag-Tension Calculations
15.4 Ruling Span Concept
15.4.1 Tension Differences for Adjacent Dead-End Spans
15.4.2 Tension Equalization by Suspension Insulators
15.4.3 Ruling Span Calculation
15.4.4 Stringing Sag Tables
15.5 Line Design Sag-Tension Parameters
15.5.1 Catenary Constants
15.5.2 Wind Span
15.5.3 Weight Span
15.5.4 Uplift at Suspension Structures
15.5.5 Tower Spotting
15.6 Conductor Installation
15.6.1 Conductor Stringing Methods
15.6.1.1 Slack or Layout Stringing Method
15.6.1.2 Tension Stringing
15.6.2 Tension Stringing Equipment and Setup
15.6.3 Sagging Procedure
15.6.3.1 Creep Elongation during Stringing
15.6.3.2 Prestressing Conductor
15.6.3.3 Sagging by Stopwatch Method
15.6.3.4 Sagging by Transit Methods
15.6.3.5 Sagging Accuracy
15.6.3.6 Clipping Offsets
15.7 Defining Terms
References
Chapter 16 - Corona and Noise
16.1 Corona Modes (Trinh and Jordan, 1968; Trinh, 1995a)
16.1.1 Negative Corona Modes
16.1.1.1 Trichel Streamer
16.1.1.2 Negative Pulseless Glow
16.1.1.3 Negative Streamer
16.1.2 Positive Corona Modes
16.1.2.1 Burst Corona
16.1.2.2 Onset Streamer
16.1.2.3 Positive Glow
16.1.2.4 Breakdown Streamer
16.1.3 AC Corona
16.2 Main Effects of Corona Discharges on Overhead Lines (Trinh, 1995b)
16.2.1 Corona Losses
16.2.2 Electromagnetic Interference
16.2.2.1 Television Interference
16.2.3 Audible Noise
16.2.4 Example of Calculation
16.3 Impact on the Selection of Line Conductors
16.3.1 Corona Performance of HV Lines
16.3.2 Approach to Control the Corona Performance
16.3.3 Selection of Line Conductors
16.3.3.1 Worst-Case Performance
16.3.3.2 Long-Term Corona Performance
16.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 17 - Geomagnetic Disturbances and Impacts upon Power System Operation
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Power Grid Damage and Restoration Concerns
17.3 Weak Link in the Grid: Transformers
17.4 Overview of Power System Reliability and Related Space Weather Climatology
17.5 Geological Risk Factors and Geo-Electric Field Response
17.6 Power Grid Design and Network Topology Risk Factors
17.7 Extreme Geomagnetic Disturbance Events: Observational Evidence
17.8 Power Grid Simulations for Extreme Disturbance Events
17.9 Conclusions
References
Chapter 18 - Lightning Protection
18.1 Ground Flash Density
18.2 Mitigation Methods
18.3 Stroke Incidence to Power Lines
18.4 Stroke Current Parameters
18.5 Calculation of Lightning Overvoltage on Grounded Object
18.6 Calculation of Resistive Voltage Rise VR
18.7 Calculation of Inductive Voltage Rise VL
18.8 Calculation of Voltage Rise on Phase Conductor
18.9 Joint Distribution of Peak Voltage on Insulators
18.10 Insulation Strength
18.11 Calculation of Transmission Line Outage Rate
18.12 Improving the Transmission Line Lightning Outage Rate
18.12.1 Increasing the Insulator Dry Arc Distance
18.12.2 Modifying the Distribution of Footing Resistance
18.12.3 Increasing the Effective Number of Groundwires Using UBGW
18.12.4 Increasing the Effective Number of Groundwires Using Line Surge Arresters
18.13 Conclusion
References
Chapter 19 - Reactive Power Compensation
19.1 Need for Reactive Power Compensation
19.1.1 Shunt Reactive Power Compensation
19.1.2 Shunt Capacitors
19.2 Application of Shunt Capacitor Banks in Distribution Systems: A Utility Perspective
19.3 Static VAR Control
19.3.1 Description of SVC
19.3.2 How Does SVC Work?
19.4 Series Compensation
19.5 Series Capacitor Bank
19.5.1 Description of Main Components
19.5.1.1 Capacitors
19.5.1.2 Metal Oxide Varistor
19.5.1.3 Triggered Air Gap
19.5.1.4 Damping Reactor
19.5.1.5 Bypass Breaker
19.5.1.6 Relay and Protection System
19.5.2 Subsynchronous Resonance
19.5.3 Adjustable Series Compensation
19.5.4 Thyristor-Controlled Series Compensation
19.6 Voltage Source Converter–Based Topologies
19.6.1 Basic Structure of a Synchronous Voltage Source
19.6.2 Operation of Synchronous Voltage Sources
19.6.3 Static Compensator
19.6.4 Static Series Synchronous Compensator
19.6.5 Unified Power Flow Controller
19.7 Defining Terms
References
Chapter 20 - Environmental Impact of Transmission Lines
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Aesthetic Effects of Lines
20.3 Magnetic Field Generated by HV Lines
20.3.1 Magnetic Field Calculation
20.3.2 Health Effect of Magnetic Field
20.3.2.1 Epidemiological Studies
20.3.2.2 Laboratory Studies
20.3.2.3 Exposure Assessment Studies
20.3.2.4 Summary
20.4 Electrical Field Generated by HV Lines
20.4.1 Electric Charge Calculation
20.4.2 Electric Field Calculation
20.4.3 Environmental Effect of Electric Field
20.5 Audible Noise
20.6 Electromagnetic Interference
References
Chapter 21 - Transmission Line Reliability Methods
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Common Terminology for Analyzing Transmission Outage Data
21.3 Transmission Outage Data Sources and Current Data Gathering Efforts
21.4 Western Electricity Coordinating Council: Transmission Reliability Database
21.5 North American Electricity Reliability Corporation: Transmission Availability Database System
21.5.1 Data in Annual Reports
21.6 Salt River Project Transmission Outage Data
21.6.1 SRP Operating Environment
21.6.2 Transmission Event Data Capture
21.6.3 Transmission Event Data Characteristics
21.6.4 Nonrandom Event Performance Analysis of Actionable Transmission System Events
21.6.5 Potential Uses of the Nonrandom Event Performance, NREP, Feedback
21.6.6 Category Random
21.6.7 Category Nonrandom
21.6.8 NREP Conclusion Section
21.7 Southern California Edison Transmission Outage Data
21.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 22 - High-Voltage Direct Current Transmission System
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Current Source Converter–Based Classical HVDC System
22.2.1 Description of Classical HVDC
22.2.2 Operation of the HVDC System
22.3 HVDC with Voltage Source Converters
22.3.1 Description of HVDC with Voltage Source Converter
22.3.2 PWM Technology
References
Chapter 23 - Transmission Line Structures
23.1 Transmission Line Design Practice
23.1.1 Transmission Line Support Structures
23.1.2 Transmission Line Foundations
23.1.3 Factors Influencing Structure and Foundation Selection
23.2 Current Design Practices
23.2.1 Deterministic Design Approach
23.2.2 Reliability-Based Design Approach
23.2.3 Security Level
23.3 Foundation Design
23.3.1 Subsurface Investigation
23.3.2 Foundation Geotechnical Design Parameters
23.3.3 Foundation Design Models
23.3.4 Foundation Reliability-Based Design
References
Chapter 24 - Advanced Technology High-Temperature Conductors
24.1 Introduction
24.2 General Considerations
24.3 Aluminum Conductor Composite Core
24.4 Aluminum Conductor Composite Reinforced
24.5 Gap-Type ACSR Conductor
24.6 INVAR-Supported Conductor
24.7 Testing: The Sequential Mechanical Test
24.8 Conclusion
References
Section IV - Distribution Systems
Chapter 25 - Power System Loads
25.1 Load Classification
25.2 Modeling Applications
25.3 Load Modeling Concepts and Approaches
25.4 Load Characteristics and Models
25.5 Static Load Characteristics
25.5.1 Exponential Models
25.5.2 Polynomial Models
25.5.3 Combined Exponential and Polynomial Models
25.5.4 Comparison of Exponential and Polynomial Models
25.5.5 Devices Contributing to Modeling Difficulties
25.6 Load Window Modeling
References
Chapter 26 - Distribution System Modeling and Analysis
26.1 Modeling
26.1.1 Line Impedance
26.1.1.1 Carson’s Equations
26.1.1.2 Modified Carson’s Equations
26.1.1.3 Overhead and Underground Lines
26.1.1.4 Phase Impedance Matrix
26.1.1.5 Sequence Impedances
26.1.1.6 Underground Lines
26.1.1.7 Concentric Neutral Cable
26.1.1.8 Tape Shielded Cables
26.1.2 Shunt Admittance
26.1.2.1 Overhead Lines
26.1.2.2 Underground Lines
26.1.2.3 Concentric Neutral
26.1.2.4 Tape Shield Cable
26.1.3 Line Segment Models
26.1.3.1 Exact Line Segment Model
26.1.3.2 Approximate Line Segment Model
26.1.4 Step-Voltage Regulators
26.1.4.1 Voltage Regulator in the Raise Position
26.1.4.2 Voltage Regulator in the Lower Position
26.1.4.3 Line Drop Compensator
26.1.4.4 Wye Connected Regulators
26.1.4.5 Voltage Equations
26.1.4.6 Current Equations
26.1.4.7 Closed Delta Connected Regulators
26.1.4.8 Open Delta Connection
26.1.4.9 Generalized Equations
26.1.5 Transformer Bank Connections
26.1.5.1 Generalized Equations
26.1.5.2 Common Variable and Matrices
26.1.5.3 Per-Unit System
26.1.5.4 Matrix Definitions
26.1.5.5 Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
26.1.5.6 Center Tapped Transformers
26.1.6 Load Models
26.1.6.1 Wye Connected Loads
26.1.6.2 Delta Connected Loads
26.1.7 Shunt Capacitor Models
26.1.7.1 Wye Connected Capacitor Bank
26.1.7.2 Delta Connected Capacitor Bank
26.2 Analysis
26.2.1 Power-Flow Analysis
26.2.1.1 The Ladder Iterative Technique
26.2.1.2 The Unbalanced Three-Phase Distribution Feeder
26.2.1.3 Applying the Ladder Iterative Technique
26.2.1.4 Final Notes
26.2.1.5 Short-Circuit Analysis
References
Chapter 27 - Power System Operation and Control
27.1 Implementation of Distribution Automation
27.2 Distribution SCADA History
27.2.1 SCADA System Elements
27.2.2 Distribution SCADA
27.2.3 Host Equipment
27.2.4 Host Computer System
27.2.4.1 SCADA Servers
27.2.5 Communication Front-End Processors
27.2.6 Full Graphics User Interface
27.2.7 Relational Databases, Data Servers, and Web Servers
27.2.8 Host to Field Communications
27.3 Field Devices
27.3.1 Modern RTU
27.3.2 PLCs and IEDs
27.3.3 Substation
27.3.4 Line
27.3.5 Other Line Controller Schemes
27.3.6 Tactical and Strategic Implementation Issues
27.3.7 Distribution Management Platform
27.3.8 Advanced Distribution Applications
27.4 Integrated SCADA System
27.4.1 Trouble Call and Outage Management System
27.4.2 Distribution Operations Training Simulator
27.5 Security
27.6 Practical Considerations
27.6.1 Choosing the Vendor
27.6.1.1 Choosing a Platform Vendor
27.7 Standards
27.7.1 Internal Standards
27.7.2 Industry Standards
27.8 Deployment Considerations
27.8.1 Support Organization
Chapter 28 - Hard to Find Information (on Distribution System Characteristics and Protection)
28.1 Overcurrent Protection
28.1.1 Introduction
28.1.2 Fault Levels
28.1.2.1 Low-Impedance Faults
28.1.2.2 High-Impedance Faults
28.1.3 Surface Current Levels
28.1.4 Reclosing and Inrush
28.1.5 Cold Load Pickup
28.1.6 Calculation of Fault Current
28.1.7 Current Limiting Fuses
28.1.8 Rules for Application of Fuses
28.1.9 More Overcurrent Rules
28.1.10 Capacitor Fusing
28.1.11 Conductor Burndown
28.1.12 Protective Device Numbers
28.1.13 Protection Abbreviations
28.1.14 Simple Coordination Rules
28.1.15 Lightning Characteristics
28.1.16 Arc Impedance
28.2 Transformers
28.2.1 Saturation Curve
28.2.2 Insulation Levels
28.2.3 Δ-Y Transformer Banks
28.2.3.1 Transformer Loading
28.3 Instrument Transformers
28.3.1 Two Types
28.3.2 Accuracy
28.3.3 Potential Transformers
28.3.4 Current Transformer
28.3.5 H-Class
28.3.6 Current Transformer Facts
28.3.7 Glossary of Transducer Terms
28.4 Loading
28.4.1 Transformer Loading Basics
28.4.2 Examples of Substation Transformer Loading Limits
28.4.3 Distribution Transformers
28.4.4 Ampacity of Overhead Conductors
28.4.5 Emergency Ratings of Equipment
28.5 Miscellaneous Loading Information
Chapter 29 - Real-Time Control of Distributed Generation
29.1 Local Site DG Control
29.2 Hierarchical Control: Real-Time Control
29.2.1 Data Flow to Upper Layers
29.2.2 Data Flow to Lower Layers
29.3 Control of DGs at Circuit Level
29.3.1 Estimating Loading throughout Circuit
29.3.2 Siting DGs for Improving Efficiency and Reliability
29.4 Hierarchical Control: Forecasting Generation
References
Chapter 30 - Distribution Short-Circuit Protection
30.1 Basics of Distribution Protection
30.1.1 Reach
30.1.2 Inrush and Cold-Load Pickup
30.2 Protection Equipment
30.2.1 Circuit Interrupters
30.2.2 Circuit Breakers
30.2.3 Circuit Breaker Relays
30.2.4 Reclosers
30.2.5 Expulsion Fuses
30.2.5.1 Fuse Cutouts
30.2.6 Current-Limiting Fuses
30.3 Transformer Fusing
30.4 Lateral Tap Fusing and Fuse Coordination
30.5 Station Relay and Recloser Settings
30.6 Arc Flash
30.7 Coordinating Devices
30.7.1 Expulsion Fuse–Expulsion Fuse Coordination
30.7.2 Current-Limiting Fuse Coordination
30.7.3 Recloser–Expulsion Fuse Coordination
30.7.4 Recloser–Recloser Coordination
30.7.5 Coordinating Instantaneous Elements
30.8 Fuse Saving versus Fuse Blowing
30.8.1 Industry Usage
30.8.2 Effects on Momentary and Sustained Interruptions
30.8.3 Coordination Limits of Fuse Saving
30.8.4 Long-Duration Faults and Damage with Fuse Blowing
30.8.5 Long-Duration Voltage Sags with Fuse Blowing
30.8.6 Optimal Implementation of Fuse Saving
30.8.7 Optimal Implementation of Fuse Blowing
30.9 Other Protection Schemes
30.9.1 Time Delay on the Instantaneous Element (Fuse Blowing)
30.9.2 High–Low Combination Scheme
30.9.3 SCADA Control of the Protection Scheme
30.9.4 Adaptive Control by Phases
30.10 Reclosing Practices
30.10.1 Reclose Attempts and Dead Times
30.10.2 Immediate Reclose
30.10.2.1 Effect on Sensitive Residential Devices
30.10.2.2 Delay Necessary to Avoid Retriggering Faults
30.10.2.3 Reclose Impacts on Motors
30.11 Single-Phase Protective Devices
30.11.1 Single-Phase Reclosers with Three-Phase Lockout
References
Section V - Electric Power Utilization
Chapter 31 - Metering of Electric Power and Energy
31.1 The Electromechanical Meter
31.1.1 Single Stator Electromechanical Meter
31.2 Blondel’s Theorem
31.3 The Electronic Meter
31.3.1 Multifunction Meter
31.3.2 Voltage Ranging and Multiform Meter
31.3.3 Site Diagnostic Meter
31.4 Special Metering
31.4.1 Demand Metering
31.4.1.1 What is Demand?
31.4.1.2 Why is Demand Metered?
31.4.1.3 Integrating Demand Meters
31.4.2 Time of Use Metering
31.4.3 Interval Data Metering
31.4.4 Pulse Metering
31.4.4.1 Recording Pulses
31.4.4.2 Pulse Circuits
31.4.5 Totalized Metering
31.5 Instrument Transformers
31.5.1 Measuring kVA
31.6 Defining Terms
Further Information
Chapter 32 - Basic Electric Power Utilization: Loads, Load Characterization and Load Modeling
32.1 Basic Load Characterization
32.2 Composite Loads and Composite Load Characterization
32.2.1 Coincidence and Diversity
32.2.2 Load Curves and Load Duration
32.3 Composite Load Modeling
32.4 Other Load-Related Issues
32.4.1 Cold Load Pickup
32.4.2 Harmonics and Other Nonsinusoidal Loads
References
Further Information
Chapter 33 - Electric Power Utilization: Motors
33.1 Some General Perspectives
33.2 Operating Modes
33.3 Motor, Enclosure, and Controller Types
33.4 System Design
33.4.1 Load Requirements
33.4.2 Environmental Requirements
33.4.3 Electrical Source Options
33.4.4 Preliminary System Design
33.4.5 System Ratings
33.4.6 System Data Acquisition
33.4.7 Engineering Studies
33.4.8 Final System Design
33.4.9 Field Testing
Further Information
Organizations
Books (An Abridged Sample)
Chapter 34 - Linear Electric Motors
34.1 Linear Synchronous Motors
34.1.1 Basic Geometries and Constructions
34.1.2 Classification
34.1.2.1 PM Motors with Active Reaction Rail
34.1.2.2 PM Motors with Passive Reaction Rail
34.1.3 Flux-Switching PM Linear Motors
34.1.4 Motors with Electromagnetic Excitation
34.1.5 Motors with Superconducting Excitation System
34.2 Linear Induction Motors
34.2.1 Basic Geometries and Constructions
34.2.2 Propulsion of Wheel-on-Rail Vehicles
34.3 Variable Reluctance Motors
34.4 Stepping Motors
34.5 Switched Reluctance Motors
34.6 Linear Positioning Stages
References
Section VI - Power Quality
Chapter 35 - Introduction
Chapter 36 - Wiring and Grounding for Power Quality
36.1 Definitions and Standards
36.1.1 The National Electric Code
36.1.2 From the IEEE Dictionary—Std. 100
36.1.3 Green Book (IEEE Std. 142) Definitions
36.1.4 NEC Definitions
36.2 Reasons for Grounding
36.2.1 Personal Safety
36.2.2 Protective Device Operation
36.2.3 Noise Control
36.3 Typical Wiring and Grounding Problems
36.3.1 Insulated Grounds
36.3.2 Ground Loops
36.3.3 Missing Safety Ground
36.3.4 Multiple Neutral to Ground Bonds
36.3.5 Additional Ground Rods
36.3.6 Insufficient Neutral Conductor
36.3.7 Summary
36.4 Case Study
36.4.1 Case Study: Flickering Lights
36.4.1.1 Background
36.4.1.2 The Problem
36.4.1.3 The Solution
36.4.1.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 37 - Harmonics in Power Systems
Further Information
Chapter 38 - Voltage Sags
38.1 Voltage Sag Characteristics
38.1.1 Voltage Sag Magnitude: Monitoring
38.1.2 Origin of Voltage Sags
38.1.3 Voltage Sag Magnitude: Calculation
38.1.4 Propagation of Voltage Sags
38.1.5 Critical Distance
38.1.6 Voltage Sag Duration
38.1.7 Phase-Angle Jumps
38.1.8 Three-Phase Unbalance
38.2 Equipment Voltage Tolerance
38.2.1 Voltage Tolerance Requirement
38.2.2 Voltage Tolerance Performance
38.2.3 Single-Phase Rectifiers
38.2.4 Three-Phase Rectifiers
38.3 Mitigation of Voltage Sags
38.3.1 From Fault to Trip
38.3.2 Reducing the Number of Faults
38.3.3 Reducing the Fault-Clearing Time
38.3.4 Changing the Power System
38.3.5 Installing Mitigation Equipment
38.3.6 Improving Equipment Voltage Tolerance
38.3.7 Different Events and Mitigation Methods
References
Further Information
Chapter 39 - Voltage Fluctuations and Lamp Flicker in Power Systems
Further Information
Chapter 40 - Power Quality Monitoring
40.1 Selecting a Monitoring Point
40.2 What to Monitor
40.3 Selecting a Monitor
40.3.1 Voltage
40.3.2 Voltage Waveform Disturbances
40.3.3 Current Recordings
40.3.4 Current Waveshape Disturbances
40.3.5 Harmonics
40.3.6 Flicker
40.3.7 High Frequency Noise
40.3.8 Other Quantities
40.4 Summary
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