CHAPTER	4

Understanding participants as consumers

Think about the sports and recreational activities in which you participated during the past month. Maybe you played golf or tennis, lifted weights, or even went hiking. According to data from the National Sporting Goods Association (NSGA) provided in Table 4.1, millions of Americans participate in a variety of physical activities each year.

Table 4.1 Sport participation changes from 2013 (participants ages six and up)

2013 Sport/Recreational Activity Participation
Ranking	Sport	2013 Total Participation (in millions)
1	Exercise Walking	96.3
2	Exercising with Equipment	53.1
3	Swimming	45.5
4	Aerobic Exercising	44.1
5	Running/Jogging	42.0
6	Hiking	39.4
7	Camping (Vacation/Overnight)	39.3
8	Bicycle Riding	35.6
9	Bowling	35.2
10	Workout at Club	34.1
11	Weightlifting	31.3
12	Fishing (Fresh Water)	27.0
13	Yoga	25.9
14	Basketball	25.5
15	Billiards/Pool	19.5
16	Target Shooting (Live Ammunition)	19.0
17	Golf	18.9
18	Hunting with Firearms	16.3
19	Boating, Motor/Power	13.1
20	Soccer	12.8
21	Tennis	12.6
22	Backpacking/Wilderness Camping	12.2
23	Baseball	11.7
24	Volleyball	10.1
25	Softball	10.0
26	Table Tennis/Ping Pong	9.8
27	Dart Throwing	9.8
28	Fishing (Salt Water)	9.5
29	Football (Touch)	8.8
30	Archery (Target)	8.3
31	Kayaking	8.1
32	Football (Tackle)	7.5
33	Football (Flag)	6.8
34	Canoeing	6.7
35	Skiing (Alpine)	6.1
36	Roller Skating (In-line)	5.7
37	Hunting with Bow & Arrow	5.7
38	Mountain Biking (off road)	5.2
39	Gymnastics	5.1
40	Skateboarding	5.0
41	Paintball Games	4.8
42	Target Shooting (Airgun)	4.8
43	Snowboarding	4.5
44	Water Skiing	3.6
45	Cheerleading	3.5
46	Hockey (Ice)	3.5
47	Muzzleloading	3.2
48	Wrestling	3.1
49	Lacrosse	2.8
50	Scuba Diving (Open Water)	2.7
51	Skiing (Cross Country)	2.5

Source: Courtesy of The Sporting Goods Marketing Association.

At this point you may be asking yourself, “Why are sports marketers concerned with consumers who participate in sports?” Recall from our discussion of sports marketing in Chapter 1 that one of the basic sports marketing activities was encouraging participation in sports. Sports marketers are responsible for organizing events such as the Boston Marathon, the Iron Man Triathlon, or the Gus Macker 3-on-3 Basketball Tournament in which thousands of consumers participate in sports. Moreover, sports marketers are involved in marketing the equipment and apparel necessary for participation in sports. As you might imagine, sports participants constitute a large and growing market both in the United States and internationally.

To successfully compete in the expanding sports participant market, sports organizations must develop a thorough understanding of participant consumption behavior and what affects it. Participant consumption behavior is defined as actions performed when searching for, participating in, and evaluating the sports activities that consumers believe will satisfy their needs. You may have noticed this definition relates to the previous discussion of marketing concepts and consumer satisfaction. Sports marketers must understand why consumers choose to participate in certain sports and what the benefits of participation are for consumers. For instance, do we play indoor soccer for exercise, for social contact, to feel like part of a team, or to enhance our image? Also, the study of participant consumer behavior attempts to understand when, where, and how often consumers participate in sports. By understanding consumers of sports, marketers will be in a better position to satisfy their needs.

The definition of participant consumption behavior also incorporates the elements of the participant decision-making process. The decision-making process is the foundation of our model of participant consumption. It is a five-step process that consumers use when deciding to participate in a specific sport or activity. Before turning to our model of participant consumption behavior, it must be stressed that the primary reason for understanding the participant decision-making process is to guide the rest of the strategic sports marketing process. Without a better understanding of sports participants, marketers would simply be guessing about how to satisfy their needs.

Photo 4.1 Father and son fishing together by the ocean

Source: Shutterstock.com

Model of participant consumption behavior

To help organize all this complex information about sports participants, we have developed a model of participant consumption behavior that will serve as a framework for the rest of our discussion (see Figure 4.1). At the center of our model is the participant decision-making process, which is influenced by three components: (1) internal or psychological processes such as motivation, perception, learning and memory, and attitudes; (2) external or sociocultural factors, such as culture, reference groups, and family; and (3) situational factors that act on the participant decision-making process.

Participant decision-making process

Every time you lace up your running shoes, grab your tennis racquet, or dive into a pool, you have made a decision about participating in sports. Sometimes these decisions are nearly automatic because, for example, you might jog nearly every day. Other decisions, such as playing in a golf league, require more careful consideration because of the time and cost involved. The foundation of our model of participant consumption behavior is trying to understand how consumers arrive at their decisions.

Participant decision making is a complex, cognitive process that brings together memory, thinking, information processing, and making evaluative judgments. The five steps that make up the process used to explain participant decision making are shown in Figure 4.1. It is important to remember that every individual consumer arrives at decisions in a slightly different manner because of his or her own psychological makeup and environment. However, the five-step participant decision-making process, moving from problem recognition through post-participation evaluation, is relatively consistent among consumers and must be understood by sports marketers to develop strategies that fit with consumers’ needs.

Figure 4.1 Model of participant consumption behavior

As we progress through the participant decision-making process, let us consider the case of Jack, a 33-year-old male who just moved from Los Angeles to Cincinnati. Jack has always been active in sports and would like to participate in an organized sports league. Because of work and family commitments, Jack only has the time to participate in one league. He is unsure about what sport to participate in, although he does have a few requirements. Because he is a newcomer to the city, Jack would like to participate in a team sport to meet new people. Also, he wants the league to be moderately competitive so as to keep his competitive juices flowing. Finally, he would like to remain injury free, so the sport needs to be non- or limited-contact. Let us see how Jack arrives at this important decision by using the participant decision-making process.

Problem recognition

The first step in the participant decision-making process is problem recognition. During problem recognition, consumers realize they have a need that is not presently being met. Problem recognition is the result of a discrepancy between a desired state and an actual state large enough and important enough to activate the entire decision-making process.¹ Stated simply, the desired state reflects the “ideal” of the participant. In other words, what is the absolute best sport for Jack to participate in, given his unique needs? If there is a difference between ideal and actual levels of participation, then the decision-making process begins.

The desire to resolve a problem and to reach goals, once recognized by consumers, is dependent on two factors: (1) the magnitude or size of the discrepancy and (2) the relative importance of the problem. Let us look at how these two factors would affect problem recognition. Jack currently jogs on a daily basis and wants to participate in a competitive, organized, and aggressive team sport. Is the discrepancy between actual state (individual, recreational, and nonaggressive) and desired state (team play, competitive, and aggressive) large enough to activate the decision-making process? Let’s assume that it is and consider the second condition of problem recognition, the importance of the problem.

The second condition that must be met for problem recognition to occur is that the goal must be important enough to Jack. Some consumers may recognize the difference between participating in recreational sports versus an organized league. Would the benefits of participating in the new organized league (hopefully making some friends and being more competitive) outweigh the time, expense, and energy required to play? If the problem is important enough to Jack, then he moves on to the next stage of the decision-making process – information search.

What strategic implication does problem recognition hold for sports marketers? Generally, we would first identify the actual and desired states of sports participants or potential participants. Once these states have been determined, sports marketers can offer activities and events that will fill these needs and eliminate “problems.” In addition, sports marketers can attempt to alter the perceived ideal state of consumers. For example, it is common for health clubs to show the “ideal” body that can be achieved by purchasing a membership and working out. Media is continually an avenue in which the ideal and actual body are forever challenged as seen in the following video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ruIwamsQVck.

Photo 4.2 Many consumers see a discrepancy between the “ideal” and “actual” body.

Source: Shutterstock.com

Information search

After problem recognition occurs, the next step in the participant decision-making process is information search. Information search occurs when a participant seeks relevant information that will help resolve the problem. The sources of information sought by consumers can be broken down into two types: internal and external sources.

Internal sources of information are recalled from our own memories and are based on previous exposure to sports and activities. The internal information activated from memory can provide us with a wealth of data that may affect the decision-making process. Jack has spent most of his life participating in sports and recreational activities so information based on past experience is readily available. For instance, because Jack has played in an organized league in the past, he would use internal information to recall his experiences. Did he enjoy the competition of organized sport? Why did he stop participating in the sport? External sources of information are environmentally based and can occur in three different ways. First, Jack might ask personal sources, such as friends or family, to provide him with information about possible organized team sports in which to participate. Friends and family are important information sources that can have a great deal of influence on our participation choices. Second, marketing sources, such as advertisements, sales personnel, brochures, and Web sites on the Internet are all important information sources. In fact, sports marketers have direct control over this source of information, so it is perhaps the most critical from the perspective of the sports organization. The third type of external information source is called an experiential source. Jack may watch games in several different sports leagues to gather information. His decision is influenced by watching the level of competition.

Web 4.1 Online information source

Source: http://kayakonline.com

Some participants may require a great deal of information before making a decision, whereas others require little to no information. The amount of information and the number of sources used is a function of several factors, such as the amount of time available, the importance of the decision, the amount of past experience, and the demographics and psychographics of the participants.

The extent of the information search also depends on the perceived risk of the decision. Perceived risk stems from the uncertainty associated with decision making and is concerned with the potential threats inherent in making the wrong decision. For individual sports participants perceived risk surfaces in many different forms. Perceived risk may be the embarrassment of not having the skill necessary to participate in a competitive league (social risks) or being concerned about the money needed to participate (economic risks). Also, an important perceived risk for many adult participants is health and safety (safety risks).

At this stage of the participant decision-making process, sports marketers must understand as much as they can about the information sources used by consumers. For instance, marketers for the Cincinnati Recreational Commission want to know the information sources for teams, what is the most effective way to provide teams with information, how much information is desired, and to whom they should provide this information. Moreover, sports marketers want to understand the perceived risks for potential participants such as Jack. This information is essential for developing an effective promotional strategy that targets both teams and individual participants.

Evaluation of alternatives

Now that the information search has yielded all the available participation alternatives that have some of the basic characteristics that appeal to Jack, he must begin to evaluate the alternatives. Jack thinks about all the organized team sports in which he might participate and chooses a subset to which he will give further consideration. The few sports given the greatest consideration are called the evoked set of alternatives. Jack’s evoked set might consist of four sports: softball, basketball, bowling, and indoor soccer.

After consumers develop their evoked set, which is comprised of acceptable alternatives, they must evaluate each sport based on the important features and characteristics. These features and characteristics that potential consumers are looking for in a sport are called evaluative criteria. The evaluative criteria used by Jack include team sport, organized or league play, moderate level of competition, and moderately aggressive sport. It is important to realize that each of the four evaluative criteria carries a different weight in Jack’s overall decision-making process. To continue with our example, let us say that Jack attaches the greatest importance to participating in a team sport. Next, Jack is concerned with participating in a league or organized sport. The level of aggression is the next most important criterion to Jack. Finally, the least important factor in choosing from among the four sports is the level of competition.

In complex decision making, Jack would evaluate each of the sports against each of the evaluative criteria. He would base his final decision regarding participation on which sport measures best against the various factors he deems important. The two most important criteria – team sport and league play – are satisfied for each of the four sports in the evoked set. In other words, all the sports that Jack is evaluating are team sports, and all have league play. Therefore, Jack moves on to his next criteria, level of aggression. Ideally, Jack wants to remain injury free, so he eliminates indoor soccer and basketball from further consideration. Bowling seems to be a clear winner in satisfying these criteria, and Jack is aware of several competitive bowling leagues in the area. Therefore, Jack decides to participate in a bowling league.

The evaluation of alternatives has two important implications for sports marketers. First, sports marketers must ensure their sports are included in the evoked set of potential consumers. To accomplish this objective, consumers must first become aware of the alternative. Second, sports marketers must understand what evaluative criteria are used by potential consumers and then develop strategies to meet consumers’ needs based on these criteria. For example, marketers of bowling have determined that there are two different participant bowling markets: league or organized and recreational bowlers.

Recreational bowlers are growing in numbers and care most about the facilities at which they bowl and the related services provided. The evaluative criteria used by recreational bowlers might include the type of food served, other entertainment offered (e.g., arcade games and billiards), and the atmosphere of the bowling alley. League bowlers, however, constitute a diminishing market. This segment of bowlers cares most about the location of the bowling center and the condition of the lanes.²

Participation

The evaluation of alternatives has led us to what marketers consider the most important outcome of the decision-making process – the participation decision. The participation stage of the decision-making process might seem to be the most straightforward, but many things need to be considered other than actually deciding what sport to play. For instance, the consumer’s needs may shift to the equipment and apparel needed to participate. Jack may decide that he needs a new bowling ball, shoes, and equipment bag to look the part of bowler for his new team. Thus, marketers working for equipment manufacturers are interested in Jack’s participant consumption behavior. In addition, Jack may have to decide which bowling alley offers the best alternative for his needs. He may choose a location close to home, one that offers the best price, or the alley that has the best atmosphere. Again, these criteria must be carefully considered by sports marketers, because participants make choices regarding not only what sports they want to participate in, but also where they want to participate.

Other things might occur that alter the intended decision to participate in a given sport. At the last minute, Jack’s coworkers may talk him out of playing in a competitive men’s league in lieu of a co-rec, work league. There might be a problem finding an opening on a roster, which would also change Jack’s decision-making process at the last moment. Perhaps the bowling team that Jack wanted to join is scheduled to play during a trip that he had planned. All these “unexpected pleasures” may occur at the participation stage of the decision-making process.

Postparticipation evaluation

You might think that the decision-making process comes to an abrupt halt after the participation decision, but there is one more very important step – postparticipation evaluation. The first activity that may occur after consumers have made an important participation decision is cognitive dissonance. This dissonance occurs because consumers experience doubts or anxiety about the wisdom of their decision. In other words, people question their own judgment. Let us suppose Jack begins participating in a competitive bowling league, and the first time he bowls, he is embarrassed. His poor level of play is far worse than that of everyone else on the team. Immediately, he begins to question his decision to participate. Whether dissonance occurs is a function of the importance of the decision, the difficulty of the choice, the degree of commitment to the decision, and the individual’s tendency to experience anxiety.³ Jack does not know his teammates well and only paid $50 to join the league, so he may decide to quit the team. However, he does not want to let his team down and ruin his chance of making new friends, so high levels of dissonance may cause him to continue with the team. In either case, the level of dissonance that Jack feels is largely based on his own personality and tendency to experience anxiety.

Another important activity that occurs after participation begins is evaluation. First, the participant develops expectations about what it will be like to play in this competitive bowling league. Jack’s expectations may range from thinking about how much physical pain the sport will cause to thinking about how many new friends he will make as a result of participating. Next, Jack evaluates his actual experience after several games. If expectations are met or exceeded, then satisfaction occurs. However, if the experience or performance is poorer than expected, then dissatisfaction results. The level of satisfaction Jack experiences will obviously have a tremendous impact on his future participation and word-of-mouth communication about the sport.

Types of consumer decisions

We have just completed our discussion of Jack’s decision-making process and have failed to mention one very important thing: Not all decisions are alike. Some are extremely important and, therefore, take a great deal of time and thought. Because we are creatures of habit, some decisions require little or no effort. We simply do what we have always done in the past. The variety of decisions that we make about participation in sport can be categorized into three different types of participation decision processes. The decision processes, also known as levels of problem solving, are habitual problem solving, limited problem solving, and extensive problem solving.

Habitual problem solving

One type of decision process that is used is called habitual problem solving (or routinized problem solving). In habitual problem solving, problem recognition occurs, followed by limited internal information search. As we just learned, internal search comes from experiences with sports stored in memory. Therefore, when Jack is looking for information on sports next year, he simply remembers his previous experience and satisfaction with bowling. The evaluation of alternatives is eliminated for habitual decisions because no alternatives are considered. Jack participates in bowling again, but this time there is no dissonance and limited evaluation occurs. In a sense, Jack’s decision to participate in bowling becomes a habit or routine each year.

Limited problem solving

The next type of consumer decision process is called limited problem solving. Limited problem solving begins with problem recognition and includes internal search and sometimes limited external search. A small number of alternatives are evaluated using a few evaluative criteria. In fact, in limited problem solving, the alternatives being evaluated are often other forms of entertainment (e.g., movies or concerts). After purchase, dissonance is rare and a limited evaluation of the product occurs. Participation in special sporting events, such as a neighborhood 10k run or charity golf outing, are examples of sporting events that lend themselves to limited problem solving.

Extensive problem solving

The last type of decision process is called extensive problem solving (or extended problem solving) because of the exhaustive nature of the decision. As with any type of decision, problem recognition must occur for the decision-making process to be initiated. Heavy information search (both internal and external) is followed by the evaluation of many alternatives on many attributes. Postpurchase dissonance and postpurchase evaluation are at their highest levels with extensive decisions. Jack’s initial decision to participate in the bowling league was an extensive decision due to his high levels of information search, the many sports alternatives he considered, and the comprehensive nature of his evaluation of bowling.

For many people who are highly involved in sports, participation decisions are more extensive in nature, especially in the initial stages of participating in and evaluating various sports. Over time, what was once an extensive decision becomes routine. Participants choose sports that meet their needs, and the decision to participate becomes automatic. It is important for marketers to understand the type of problem solving used by participants so the most effective marketing strategy can be formulated and implemented.

Psychological or internal factors

Now that we have looked at the participant decision-making process, let us turn our focus to the internal, or psychological, factors. Personality, motivation, learning, and perception are some of the basic psychological or internal factors that will be unique to each individual and guide sports participation decisions.

Personality

One of the psychological factors that may have a tremendous impact on whether we participate in sports, the sports in which we participate, and the amount of participation, is personality. Psychologists have defined personality as a set of consistent responses an individual makes to the environment.

Although there are different ways to describe personality, one common method used by marketers is based on specific, identifiable personality traits. For example, individuals can be thought of as aggressive, orderly, dominant, or nurturing.⁴ Consider the potential association between an individual’s personality profile and the likelihood of participating in a particular sport. The self-assured, outgoing, assertive individual may be more likely than the apprehensive, reserved, and humble person to participate in any sport. Moreover, the self-sufficient individual may participate in more individual sports (e.g., figure skating, golf, or tennis) than the group-dependent individual. In one study, Generation X-ers were found to be more interested in fast-paced, high-risk activities, such as rock climbing and mountain biking.⁵ As such, action sports may be a good choice for the happy-go-lucky, venturesome personality type of the Generation X-ers. Action or extreme sports are defined as the pantheon of aggressive, non-team sports, including snowboarding, in-line skating, super modified shovel racing, wakeboarding, ice and rock climbing, mountain biking, and snow mountain biking.⁶ Another example of the relationship between sports participation and personality traits can be seen in Table 4.2. As illustrated, golfers most often described themselves as responsible, family-oriented, self-confident, and intelligent. The poorest descriptors for golfers were bitter, sick a lot, extravagant, and risk-averse. Interestingly, golfers described themselves as team players, although they participate in this highly individual sport.

Photo 4.3 A growing number of consumers participate in high-risk sports

Source: Shutterstock.com

Although personality and participation may be linked, take care not to assume a causal relationship between personality and sports participation. Some researchers believe sports participation might shape various personality traits (i.e., sport is a character builder). Other researchers believe we participate in sports because of our particular personality type. To date, little research supports the causal direction of the relationship between personality and participation in sport.

Not only does personality dictate whether someone participates in sports, but it may also be linked with participation in particular types of sports. The violent, aggressive personality type may be drawn to sports such as mixed martial arts, football, boxing, or hockey. The shy, introverted personality type may be more likely to participate in individual sports, such as tennis and running. Knowing the relationship between participation and personality profiles can help sports marketers set up the strategic sports marketing process so it will appeal to the appropriate personality segment. In addition, sports marketers of large participant sporting events use personality profiles to attract potential corporate sponsors who may want to appeal to the same personality segment.

Table 4.2 Golfer’s self-reported traits and personality characteristics

Poorest describers	Percentage	Best descriptors	Percentage
Born again	16	Practical	60
Attractive	15	Competent	61
Non-mainstream	14	Ambitious	61
Lonely	8	Sensitive	62
Fun-loving	8	Team player	63
Virgin	6	Fun-loving	64
Risk-averse	6	Intelligent	66
Extravagant	6	Confident	70
Always sick	3	Family-oriented	75
Bitter	3	Responsible	80

Source: Yankelovich Partners, “How Golfers Are Likely to Describe Themselves.”

Motivation

Why do people participate in sports? What benefits are people looking for from participating in sport, and what needs do participating in sport satisfy? McDonald, Milne, and Hong,⁷ drawing on Maslow’s human needs hierarchy, present evidence illustrating that consumers possess multiple and unique motivations – including achievement, competition, social facilitation, physical fitness, skill mastery, physical risk, affiliation, aesthetics, aggression, value development, self-esteem, self-actualization, and stress release – for participating in particular sport activities. Steve Jennison highlighted that “sport has the ability to enhance people’s lives, improve health status, and increase participation rates to support development of a physically active city. It can also unite communities and nations through success in international competition and major events through pride, passion, and participation”⁸ (Hull City). Additional studies suggest there are three basic reasons for participation in sport (see Table 4.3). Finally, studies have looked at understanding the motives for participation in a specific sport. For example, Rohm, Milne, and McDonald⁹ recently explored the motives of runners (see Table 4.4 for segmentation of runners by motives).

The study of human motivation helps to better understand the underlying need to participate in sports. Motivation is an internal force that directs behavior toward the fulfillment of needs. In our earlier discussion of the participant decision-making process, problem recognition resulted from having needs that are not currently being met. As the definition indicates, motivation is discussed in terms of fulfilling unmet needs. Although there is no argument that all humans have needs, there is disagreement about the number of needs and the nature of them.

Table 4.3 Why people participate in sports

Personal improvement Release of tension or relaxation, sense of accomplishment, skill mastery, improved health and fitness, other people’s respect for one’s athletic skill, release of aggression, enjoyment of risk taking, personal growth, development of positive values, and sense of personal pride Sport appreciation Enjoyment of the game, sport competition, and thrill of victory Social facilitation Time spent with close friends or family and sense of being part of a group
Why people play sport	Why people don’t play sport
Improve fitness/skill level	No time/too busy
Make new friends	Family/home/work commitments
Sense of belonging/peer pressure	Too competitive
Fun and enjoyment	Lack motivation or confidence
Fame or money	Cost – too expensive
Achievement of goals	Physically unable

Source: George Milne, William Sutton, and Mark McDonald, “Niche Analysis: A Strategic Measurement Tool for Managers,” Sport Marketing Quarterly, vol. 5, no. 3 (1996), 17–21.

Table 4.4 Segmentation of runners by motives

“I find running to be both relaxing and is the primary way along with a good diet that I keep up my plan for good health and fitness.” – Female 50+ years old, 18 miles/week, 4 days per week “Running is a very important because I use running to relieve stress and to think about what is bothering me. I use running to clear my head. Running is important to maintain fitness and to counteract my poor diet of late.” – Male, < 25 years old, no mileage reported. Social competitors “Running is one of the greatest joys of life. Keeps the body, mind, and spirit soaring. Running with friends is special. Competition pushes me to new levels. Can travel to races and see new places. I can share stories with runners from all over the world.” – Female, 25–39 years old, runs 40 miles per week, 5 days/week “I just recently started running 3 yrs ago. I used to weigh 317 lbs I’m now down to 245. Before I leave work I change and go directly to a 1/2 mile track located on the way home. My running is very important; it relieves a lot of stress and is something that is within my control. I have made many acquaintances at the track. We all motivate each other. If someone misses one day everybody is aware and concerned. That alone motivates you to keep going. Besides I am trying to get down to 199lbs.” – Male, 40–49, runs 24 miles/week, 6 days week Actualized athletes “I quit smoking at age 33, in 1978, and took up running and I will never stop running. I bike & kayak but running is my first love. It makes me feel good about myself and it gave me a lot of confidence. I’ve run many marathons in my past yrs and many races and you cannot describe the feeling of accomplishment at the end. It gave me the confidence to go back to school at the age of 40 and get a degree in nursing.” – Female, 50+ years old, runs 30 miles, 6 days/week “I love to run. I’ve always been athletic and enjoyed team sports. But running is different. It’s a solitary sport. It pits me against me. I’m 42 yrs old and I know I’ve yet to reach my potential as a runner. My best yrs are behind me and I know I’ll never be world class but I still have room to improve and I’ll keep trying, training, testing. It makes me fit, it makes me happy. I love to run.” – Male, 40–49 years old, runs 35 miles/week, 5 days/week Devotees “It is a big part of my life. It’s like brushing your teeth – it’s a gift I give myself every day or almost everyday. It is who I am and I never want not to run. It’s the most wonderful total feeling in life. It has made me grow in so many ways and also appreciate life so much more. You can do it anywhere at any time – no expense.” – Male, 50+ years old, runs 38 miles/week, 6 days/week “It’s part of who I am. Running is the most important free time activity I have besides spending time with my kids. I’m a happier person when I get my running.” – Female, 25–39, runs 20 miles/week, 4 days/week

Source: Andrew J. Rohm, George R, Milne, and Mark McDonald, “A Mixed-Method Approach for Developing Market Segmentation Typologies in the Sports Industry,” Sport Marketing Quarterly, 2006, 15, 29–39, © 2006 West Virginia University.

One popular theory of human motivation based on classification of needs is called Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (see Figure 4.2). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs consists of five levels. For video interpretation of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs see: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zIvRITVgyKM. According to Maslow, the most basic, primitive needs must be fulfilled before the individual can progress to the next level of need. Once this higher level of need is satisfied, the individual is then motivated to fulfill the next higher level of need. Let us look at the hierarchy of needs as it relates to participation in sports.

The first and most basic level of needs in Maslow’s hierarchy are called physiological needs. These are the biological needs that people have – to eat, drink, and meet other physiological needs. For some individuals, there may be a physiological need to exercise and have some level of activity. Once this lower order need is met, safety needs are addressed. Safety needs are concerned with physical safety, as well as the need to remain healthy. Sports equipment manufacturers address the need participants have for physical safety. With respect to the need for health, many participants cite that the primary reason for joining health clubs is to maintain or improve their health.

Figure 4.2 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Source: A. H. Maslow, Motivation and Personality, 2nd ed. (New York: Harper and Row, 1970). Reprinted with permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.

The next need level is based on love and belonging. Many people choose to participate in sport because of the social aspects involved. One of the early need theories of motivation includes “play” as a primary social need.¹⁰ For some individuals, sports participation is their only outlet for being part of a group and interacting with others. The need to be part of a team and to be respected by teammates has been demonstrated in a number of studies.

As these social needs are satisfied, esteem needs of recognition and status must be addressed. Certainly, sport plays a major role in enhancing self-esteem and the impact of sport participation on enhanced self-esteem has been well documented. Bungee jumping provides an excellent illustration of how sport influences esteem. The president of the U.S. Bungee Association (USBA), Casey Dale, describes the motives of people who use risky activities as a self-image booster. “People are less satisfied than they used to be with being pigeonholed by what they do, so they want to change their self-image. A quick fix is to become this extreme, risk-taking individual. All of a sudden, Bill the accountant goes bungee jumping off a 20-story bridge, and all of his coworkers see him in a new light.”¹¹

Finally, the highest order need, self-actualization, should be met. This refers to the individual’s need to “be all that you can be” and is usually fulfilled through participation in mountain climbing, triathlons, or any sport that pushes an individual to the utmost of his or her physical and mental capacities. For example, ultramarathons in which runners compete in 100k road races certainly test the will of all participants. Another example of self-actualization can be found in the amateur athlete who trains his or her whole life for the Olympic Games.

Photo 4.4 Sports participants fulfilling the need for self-actualization

Source: Shutterstock.com

As a sports marketer, you may be able to enhance strategies for increasing participation if you identify and understand the needs of consumers. In some instances, participation might fill more than one need level. Consumers may satisfy physiological needs, safety needs, social needs, esteem needs, or possibly self-actualization needs. For instance, marketing a health club membership might appeal to consumers wanting to fulfill any of the need levels in the hierarchy. The members’ physiological needs are being met through exercise. Safety needs might be met by explaining that the club has state-of-the-art exercise equipment that is designed to be safe for all ages and fitness levels. Social needs are addressed by describing the club as a “home away from home” for many members. The need for esteem for health club members might be easily satisfied by depicting how good they will look and feel after working out. Finally, self-actualization needs may be fulfilled by working out to achieve the ideal body.

The needs that have just been presented can be described in two ways: motive direction and motive strength. Motive direction is the way that a consumer attempts to reduce tension by either moving toward a positive goal or moving away from a negative outcome. In the case of sports participation, an individual wants to get in good physical condition and may move toward this goal by running, biking, lifting weights, and so on. Likewise, this same individual may want to move away from eating fatty foods and drinking alcohol.

Of particular interest to sports marketers is the strength of the sports participation motive. Motivational strength is the degree to which an individual chooses to actively pursue one goal over another. In sports marketing, the strength of a motive is characterized in terms of sports involvement. Sports involvement is the perceived interest in and personal importance of sports to an individual participating in a sport.¹² Triathletes are an excellent example of an extreme level of sports involvement because of the importance placed on training for events. In their study, Hill and Robinson demonstrated that extreme involvement in a sport affects many aspects of the athletes’ lives.¹³ Participation could have positive effects, such as increased self-esteem, improved moods, and a better sense of overall wellness. Conversely, high involvement in a sport (e.g., triathlon) may produce neglected responsibilities of work, home, or family, and feelings of guilt, stress, and anxiety. Said simply, extremely involved individuals frequently have a difficult time balancing their lives.

Sports marketers are interested in involvement because it has been shown to be a relatively good predictor of sports-related behaviors. For example, a study found that level of involvement was positively related to the number of hours people participate in sports, the likelihood of planning their day around a sporting event, and the use of sports-related media (e.g., television, newspaper, or magazines).¹⁴ Knowledge of sports involvement can help sports marketers develop strategies for both low- and high-involvement groups of potential participants.

Photo 4.5 The high involvement cyclist

Source: Shutterstock.com

Perception

Think for a moment about the image you have of the following sports: soccer, hockey, and tennis. You might think of soccer as a sport that requires a great deal of stamina and skill, hockey as a violent and aggressive sport, and tennis as a sport for people who belong to country clubs. Ask two friends about their images of these same sports, and you are likely to get two different responses. That is because each of us has our own views of the world based on past experience, needs, wants, and expectations.

Your image of sport results from being exposed to a lifetime of information. You talk to friends and family about sports, you watch sports on television, and you listen to sports on the radio. In addition, you may have participated in a variety of sports over the course of your life. We selectively filter sports information based on our own view of the world. Consumers process this information and use it in making decisions about participation.

The process by which consumers gather information and then interpret that information based on their own past experience is described as perception. Perception is defined as the complex process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting stimuli such as sports.¹⁵ Ultimately, our perception of the world around us influences participant consumer behavior. The images that we hold of various sports and of ourselves dictate, to some extent, what sports we participate in. One of the primary goals of sports marketing is to shape your image of sports and sports products.

Before sports marketers can influence your perceptions, they must get your attention. Selective attention describes a consumer’s focus on a specific marketing stimulus based on personal needs and attitudes. For example, you are much more likely to pay attention to advertisements for new golf clubs if you are thinking about purchasing a set.

Sports marketers fight with other sports and nonsports marketing stimuli for the limited capacity that consumers have for processing information. One job of the sports marketer is to capture the attention of the potential participant. But how is this done? Typically, sports marketers capture our attention through the use of novel promotions, using large and colorful promotional materials, and developing unique ways of communicating with consumers.

While sports marketers attempt to influence our perceptions, each participant brings a unique set of experiences, attitudes, and needs that affect the perceptual process. Generally speaking, consumers perceive things in ways that are consistent with their existing attitudes and values. This process is known as selective interpretation. For example, those who have played hockey all their life may not see it as a dangerous and violent sport, whereas others hold a different interpretation.

Ad 4.1 Wrangler® & Brett Farve

Source: Wrangler ®

Finally, selective retention, or the tendency to remember only certain information, is another of the influences on the perceptual process. Selective retention is remembering just the things we want to remember. The hockey player does not remember the injuries, the training, or the fights – only the victories.

Although sports marketers cannot control consumers’ perceptions, they can and do influence our perceptions of sports through their marketing efforts. For example, a sports marketer trying to increase volleyball participation in boys ages 8 to 12 must first attempt to understand their perception of volleyball. Then the sports marketer tries to find ways of capturing the attention of this group of consumers, who have many competing sports and entertainment alternatives. Once they have the attention of this group of potential participants, a marketing mix is designed to either reinforce their perception of volleyball or change the existing image.

In addition to understanding these consumers’ images of volleyball, sports marketers are also interested in other aspects of perception. For instance, how do potential participants perceive advertisements and promotional materials about the sport? What are the parents’ perceptions of volleyball? Do the parents perceive volleyball to be costly? The answer to all these questions depends on our own unique view of the world, which sports marketers attempt to understand and shape.

Learning

Another psychological factor that affects our participation decisions is learning. Learning is a relatively permanent change in response tendency due to the effects of experience. These response tendencies can be either changes in behavior (participation) or in how we perceive a particular sport. Consumers learn about and gather information regarding participation in various sports in any number of ways. Behavioral learning is concerned with how various stimuli (information about sports) elicit certain responses (feelings or behaviors) within an individual. Cognitive learning, however, is based on our ability to solve problems and use observation as a form of learning. Finally, social learning is based on watching others and learning from their actions. Let us look briefly at these three theories of learning as they apply to sports participation.

Behavioral learning

One behavioral learning theory of importance to sports marketers is operant conditioning. Conditioning teaches people to associate certain behaviors with certain consequences of those behaviors. A simplified model of operant conditioning is illustrated in Figure 4.3.

Let us illustrate the model of operant conditioning using participation in snowboarding. We may decide to try snowboarding (specific behavior) as a new sport. Next and unfortunately, our behavior is punished as we continually fall down, suffer social embarrassment, and feel uncomfortably wet and cold. Finally, the likelihood of our engaging in this behavior in the future is decreased because of the negative consequences of our earlier attempts at snowboarding. However, if we are rewarded through the enjoyment of the sport and being with others, then we will continue to snowboard more and more.

Figure 4.3 Model of operant conditioning

Figure 4.4 Model of cognitive learning

The theory of operant conditioning lies at the heart of loyalty to a sport. In other words, if the sports we participate in meet our needs and reinforce them, then we will continue to participate in those sports. The objective of the sports marketer is to try to heighten the rewards associated with participating in any given sport and diminish any negative consequences.

Cognitive learning

Although much of what we learn is based on our past experience, learning also takes place through reasoning and thought processes. This approach to learning is known as cognitive learning. Cognitive learning is best known as learning through problem solving or insight, as shown in Figure 4.4.

Consider a goal that concerns some of us – weight loss. Once this goal is established, consumers search for activities that allow them to achieve the goal. The activities necessary to achieve weight loss might include dieting, participating in aerobics, weight training, playing basketball, or jogging. When consumers finally realize what specific activities they feel are necessary to achieve the desired goal, insight occurs. Finally, and hopefully, the goal of weight loss is achieved.

By using the concept of cognitive learning, the first focus of sports marketers is to understand the goals of potential consumers or participants. In addition, marketers must make potential participants aware of how the sport or sports product will help participants achieve their goals.

Social learning

Much of our learning takes place by watching how others are rewarded or punished for their actions. This way of learning is called social learning. As children, we watched our friends, family members, and our heroes participate in various sports. To a large extent, this early observation and learning dictates the sports in which we choose to participate later in life. In social learning, we not only see someone benefiting from sport, but we also learn how to participate in the sport ourselves.

Those individuals we choose to observe and the process of observation are called models and modeling, respectively. The job of the sports marketer is to present positive models and present sports in a positive light, so others will perceive the benefits of sports participation. For example, Venus and Serena Williams may be seen as role models for young African American athletes thinking about participating in tennis, or Peyton Manning may be a model for young men interested in football.

Attitudes

Because of the learning and perceptual processes, consumers develop attitudes toward participating in sports. Attitudes are learned thoughts, feelings, and behaviors toward some given object. What is your attitude toward participation in bowling? One positive aspect of bowling is the chance to interact socially with other participants. However, bowling does not burn a lot of calories and may be seen as expensive. Your overall attitude toward bowling is made up of these positive and negative aspects of the sport.

Attitudes represent one of the most important components of the overall model of sports participation because they ultimately guide the decision-making process. Our attitudes are formed on the basis of an interaction between past experience and the environment in which we live. A simple model of attitude formation or how attitudes are developed is shown in Figure 4.5.

As the model of attitude formation suggests, an attitude is based on our thinking, feeling, and actions toward a sport. These three components interact to form an overall attitude. Let us look briefly at its three components: cognitive, affective, and behavioral.

The cognitive component of attitude holds the beliefs that people have toward the object. Beliefs can be either a statement of knowledge regarding bowling or thoughts someone has toward bowling. They are neither right nor wrong and vary from individual to individual. For example, here are some beliefs about participation in bowling that consumers might hold:

  Bowling is expensive.

  Bowling is time consuming.

  Very few women bowl.

  Bowling is for old people. (Note: The largest participant group for bowling is 18- to 34-year-olds.)

Figure 4.5 Model of attitude formation

Source: Adapted from Del Hawkins, Roger Best, and Kenneth Coney. Consumer Behavior: Building Marketing Strategy, 7th ed. (© 1998 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., New York)

The affective component of attitude is based on feelings or emotional reactions to the initial stimulus. Most beliefs, such as the ones shown for cognitive attitude, have a related affective evaluation. More recently, affects, or feelings, have taken a more central role in explaining attitudes than beliefs or behaviors. In other words, some people equate attitudes with feelings that are held toward an object.¹⁶ Here are some potential affective statements:

  I hate bowling.

  Bowling is a boring sport.

The final component is called the behavioral component and is based on participants’ actions. In other words, does the individual participate in bowling? How often does the individual bowl? What are the individual’s behavioral intentions, or how likely will he or she be to bowl in the future?

Generally, sports marketers must understand consumer attitudes to maintain or increase participation in any given sport. Only after attitudes are assessed can sports marketing strategies be formulated to improve upon or change existing attitudes. In our previous example, bowling equipment manufacturers and bowling alley management companies would need to change the beliefs that potential participants have about bowling. Additional strategies may attempt to change potential participants’ feelings about bowling by repositioning the sport’s current image. Finally, marketers may get potential participants to try bowling, which could lead to possible changes in their beliefs and feelings about the sport.

Sociological or external factors

Now that we have looked at the major internal or psychological factors that influence participation decisions, let us turn our attention to the sociological factors. The sociological or external factors are those influences outside the individual participant that affect the decision-making process. The external factors are also referred to as sociological because they include all aspects of society and interacting with others.

The external factors discussed in this chapter include culture, social class, reference groups, and family.

Culture

Participating in sports and games is one of the most long-standing traditions of civilization. Since the time of the ancient Greeks, participation in sports was expected and highly valued.¹⁷ In the United States, sports are criticized for playing too important a role in our society. Many detractors frown at public monies being spent to finance private stadiums for professional athletics or institutions of higher education spending more on a new coach than on a new president for the university. As the accompanying article illustrates, other cultures are trying to emulate sports participation patterns in the United States.

Culture is the set of learned values, beliefs, language, traditions, and symbols shared by a people and passed down from generation to generation. One of the most important aspects of this definition of culture includes the learning component. Socialization occurs when we learn about the skills, knowledge, and attitudes necessary for participating in sports. Sports marketers are interested in better understanding how the consumer socialization process takes place and how they might influence this process.

A model of sports socialization is presented in Figure 4.6, which provides a framework for understanding how children learn about sports. Although the sports socialization process begins at increasingly younger ages, it extends throughout the life of the individual. Sports marketers are interested in learning how the socialization process differs on the basis of gender, income, family lifestyle, and the number of children in the family.

Socializing agents also have a tremendous impact on the process. These factors represent the direct and indirect influences on the children. Sports marketers are also interested in understanding the relative impact of each socializing agent on a child’s interest in participating in sports. For instance, is watching parents or professional athletes a better predictor of sports participation among children? One study has shown that children look to parents first, but if they are unacceptable or unwilling role models, children turn to other people.¹⁸

Figure 4.6 Model of consumer socialization

Source: John Mowen, Consumer Behavior, 3rd ed. (New York: Macmillan, 1993).

The learning mechanisms of observation and reinforcement are just two ways that facilitate the socialization process. As discussed earlier, observation refers to looking to others as models for sports participation. For example, older siblings may serve as models for sports participation at earlier ages, whereas friends may become a more important learning mechanism as children age. Reinforcement may occur as children receive praise for participation in sport from parents, coaches, and friends.

The final element in the socialization model is the emergence of a socialized sports participant. Here, the child becomes actively engaged in sports participation. From the sports marketer’s perspective, when children participate in sports at an early age, they may have better potential to become lifelong participants. Certainly, sporting goods manufacturers are interested in having children associate their brands with the enjoyment of sport at the earliest possible age.

Aside from the learning that takes place during the socialization process, values represent another important aspect of any culture. Values are widely held beliefs that affirm what is desirable in a culture. Whereas American priorities are often found with freedom, countries like Sweden are often more attuned to openness. America’s main belief is rights for all through freedom, while Sweden’s main concern is with all being accepted and resolving issues through other means such as working together to come to a solution.¹⁹ Swedish citizens want to be able to have security and trust in their country. Several of the core values that reflect U.S. culture are shown in Table 4.5.

Some of the core American values listed in Table 4.5 have intimate ties to sports participation in the United States. Obviously, the last value mentioned, fitness and health, relates directly to our preoccupation with participating in sports. The activity value has a direct impact on the way Americans spend their leisure time, including sports participation. Likewise, achievement and success are a theme that is continually underscored as consumers participate in sports.

Table 4.5 Core American values

Core American Value	Descriptor
Achievement and success	Sense of accomplishment
Activity	Being active or involved
Efficiency and practicality	Saves time and effort; solves problems
Progress	Continuous improvement
Material comfort	Money; status
Individualism	Being themselves
Freedom	Democratic beliefs
External conformity	Adaptation to society
Humanitarianism	Overcoming adversity; supporting
Charity	Giving to others
Youthfulness	Looking and acting young
Fitness and health	Exercise and diet

Source: Leon Shiffman and Leslie Kanuk, Consumer Behavior, 5th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994).

Although they are not directly related, other core U.S. values may tangentially affect sports participation. For example, the value of individualism and being oneself may manifest itself in the types of sports or activities in which we choose to participate. Many sports, such as surfing, hang-gliding, climbing, and hiking, allow a consumer to express his or her own personality. Youthfulness is also expressed through participation in sport as consumers keep “young at heart” by staying active. Consumers may also participate in sporting events to help raise money for charities. One of the most visible charitable influences in sport today is developing breast cancer awareness. Athletes in professional, collegiate, and even youth levels will often be seen wearing pink gear to show their support for those fighting the disease.

Social class

Throughout history, people within various cultural systems have been grouped together based on social class. Whether it is the “haves” versus the “have nots” or the “upper class” versus the “lower class,” social class distinctions have always been present. Social class is defined as the homogeneous division of people in a society sharing similar values, lifestyles, and behaviors that can be hierarchically categorized. Important to this definition is the idea that individuals are divided into homogeneous classes, or strata. Typically, social strata are described in terms of a hierarchy ranging from lower to upper class. Consumers are grouped into the various social classes based on the interaction of a number of factors. Occupation, income, and education are usually considered the three primary determinants of social class. In addition, possessions (e.g., home and car) and affiliations (e.g., club membership, professional organizations, and community organizations) are also believed to be important factors.

Although researchers agree that there are distinct social strata, there is little agreement on how many categories there are in the hierarchy. For instance, some researchers believe a seven-tiered structure (as illustrated in Figure 4.7) explains social class in the United States. Others, however, believe in a simple two-tiered system (i.e., upper and lower).

Regardless of the class structure, sports marketers are interested in social class as a predictor of whether consumers will participate in sports and, if they do participate, the types of sports in which consumers might participate. Table 4.6 shows the relationship between average household income and participation in 22 selected sports activities.

Other research has shown that more than one in four Americans would like to have more time for leisure activities such as bowling and softball. A disproportionate number of those people who want more leisure time are lower income, blue-collar workers.²⁰ In addition, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service found that anglers are above average in income and are moderately well educated.²¹

Reference groups

Classic advertising slogans like “Be Like Mike, and “Witness” illustrate the power of reference group influence. More formally, reference groups are individuals who influence the information, attitudes, and behaviors of other group members. Sports participation is heavily influenced through the various reference groups to which an individual may belong. In these classic advertising campaigns hordes of children have identified with and created an association between athletes, representing a wide array of sports, and their respective sport products.

Figure 4.7 The structure of social class

Source: Richard P. Coleman, “The Continuing Significance of Social Class to Marketing,” Journal of Consumer Research, vol. 10 (December 1983), 265–280.

Table 4.6 Household incomes for select sports and activities

Activity	Household Income (in thousands)	Activity	Household Income (in thousands)
Basketball	$58	Roller hockey	$73
Bowling	$60	Running/jogging	$63
BMX bicycling	$49	Sailing	$82
Day hiking	$66	Saltwater fishing	$64
Downhill skiing	$83	Snorkeling	$83
Fitness bicycling	$71	Snowboarding	$63
Fitness swimming	$69	Soccer	$59
Fitness walking	$66	Surfing	$74
Football(tackle)	$54	Tennis	$68
Golf	$80	Tent camping	$58
Horseback riding	$65	Yoga/tai chi	$68

Source: Sports & Fitness Industry Association, www.sfia.org.

These types of reference groups, which have an impact on our participation in sports as well as on our purchase of sports products, are called aspirational groups. Although many famous athletes recognize the influence they can have on children, others refuse to accept the responsibility that reference groups can influence consumer demands (e.g., the now-retired Charles Barkley of the NBA stating, “I am not a role model”).

Celebrity athletes are not the only individuals who have an impact on sports participation. Friends and coworkers are also considered a primary reference group because of the frequent contact we have with these individuals and the power they have to influence our decisions. Many of us participate in sports because friends and coworkers urged us to join their team, play a set of tennis, or hit the links. Primary reference groups may exert a powerful influence among high-school athletes as participation continues to grow at this level.

Family

Another primary reference group that has one of the greatest influences on sports participation is the family. As you might guess, family plays a considerable role because sports marketers target families as spectators. But how does family influence affect participation in sport? Consider families of friends or your own family. It is common for family members to exert a great deal of influence on one another with respect to decisions about sports participation and activities. For example, children may either directly or indirectly get parents involved in a sport (e.g., in-line skating, soccer, or biking) so the entire family can participate together. Conversely, parents may urge their kids to get off the couch and get involved in sports.

Photo 4.6 Girls’ sport participation is eroding traditional gender roles

Source: Shutterstock.com

Traditionally, fathers have had the greatest impact on their children’s (mostly their sons) sports participation. Dad might have encouraged junior to play organized football because he did or go fishing because his father took him fishing. Of course, these scenarios are vanishing, as is the traditional family structure.

Long gone are the days of the mom, dad, two kids, and a dog. Long gone is the Leave it to Beaver mentality where fathers are breadwinners and mothers are homemakers. Today’s modern family structure typically includes dual-income families with no kids, divorced parents, single parents, or parents who are dually employed with kids.

Each of these modern family structures may influence participation in sports for both adults and children. For instance, dual-income families with no kids may have the time and the money to participate in a variety of “country club” sports. However, single or divorced parents may face time and financial constraints. Sports products such as the “10-minute workout” and 30-minute aerobic classes are targeted to working moms on the move. In addition, the tremendous increase in sales of home exercise equipment may be traced back to the constraints of the modern family structure.

Children’s ability to participate in organized sport may also be hampered by the single-parent family, although women are increasingly taking on the traditional male sex role of coach, sports participant, and sports enthusiast. Also, fathers are increasingly encouraging daughters to participate in sport, another sign of changing sex roles.

Situational factors

Now that we have looked at how the psychological and sociological factors influence the participant decision-making process, let us turn to the situational factors. Unlike the psychological and sociological factors that are relatively permanent in nature, the situational factors are temporary aspects that affect participation. For instance, the culture in which we make our participation decision is considered a long-term environmental factor. Likewise, personality is a set of consistent responses that we make to our environment. However, situational factors are those temporary factors within a particular time or place that influence the participation decision-making process.²²

Consider the following examples of situational influences on participant behavior. Your best friend is in town and, although you do not normally enjoy golfing, you do so anyway to spend time with your friend. You typically run five miles per day, but an unexpected ice storm puts a halt to your daily exercise routine. You have to study for final exams, so you settle for a 30-minute workout versus your normal 75 minutes. Each of these examples represents a different type of situational influence on participant decision making.

Consumer researchers have identified five situational influences that affect decision making. The five primary types of situational influences include physical surroundings; social surroundings; time; reason for participation, or task definition; and antecedent states. Let us briefly look at each in the context of participant decision making.

Physical surroundings

The location, weather, and physical aspects of the participation environment comprise the physical surroundings. In sports participation, the physical surroundings play an extremely important role in decision making. When the weather outside is good, people who might not participate in sports normally do so. Likewise, the weather can have a situational influence on where we choose to participate. The runner described in the earlier example may decide to jog indoors rather than skip the workout. In addition to the weather, location might influence our decision to participate. For example, nonskiers may be tempted to try skiing if they are attending a sales conference in Vail or Aspen. Other aspects of the physical environment, such as a perfectly groomed championship golf course or scenic biking trail, can also influence our participation decisions in a positive manner. From the perspective of the sports marketer, any attempt to increase participation must carefully consider the physical surroundings. Even the worst athletes in the world enjoy playing in nice facilities.

Social surroundings

The effect of other people on a participant during participation in a sport is another situational influence, called social surroundings. In other words, who we are with may have a positive or negative impact on participation decisions. The earlier golf example presented a case where the presence of a friend caused the person to participate. Likewise, golfing in the presence of unfamiliar coworkers at a corporate outing can be an unpleasant and intimidating experience. In this case, participation might be avoided altogether.

Crowds represent another social situation that is usually avoided. For example, if the tennis courts or golf courses are full, you might decide to participate in another sport that day. Biking and hiking represent two other activities where crowds are usually perceived to have a negative impact on participation. In other words, people generally do not like to bike or hike in large crowds. However, some people may take pleasure when participating among large crowds. Consider, for example, runners who feel motivated when participating in events with thousands of other runners.

Time

The effect of the presence or absence of time is the third type of situational influence. In today’s society, there are increasing time pressures on all of us. Changes in family structure, giving rise to dual-income families and single parents, have made time for participation in sports even scarcer. Slightly more than half of all U.S. residents under the age of 50 complain of a lack of leisure time, and this percentage is even higher for dual-income families. How many times have you heard someone say, “I don’t have the time to work out today”?

Because of time constraints, sports marketers are concentrating on ways to make our participation activities more enjoyable and more time effective. For example, few of us can afford to take five hours out of our day to enjoy 18 holes of golf. As such, golfing associations are always communicating ways to speed up play. Similarly, few of us feel that we have the time to drive to the gym each day. The marketers’ response to this was the development of the shorter, higher intensity workout (see accompanying article) and the enormous home health equipment industry.

Photo 4.7 Marathon

Source: Shutterstock.com

Reason for participation or task definition

Another situational influence, task definition, refers to the reasons that occasion the need for consumers to participate in a sport. In other words, the reason the consumer participates affects the decision-making process. Some participants may use jet skis or scuba dive once a year while they are on vacation. Other consumers may participate in a fantasy baseball camp once in a lifetime.

These examples represent special occasions or situational reasons for participating. Moreover, the participation occasion may dictate the sports apparel and equipment we choose. For example, a consumer participating in a competitive softball league might wear cleats, long softball pants, and batting gloves. However, the recreational participant playing softball at the company picnic would only bring a glove.

Antecedent states

Temporary physiological and mood states that a consumer brings to the participant situation are antecedent states. In certain situations, people may feel worn out and lack energy. This physiological state may motivate some people to work out and become reenergized at the end of a long day of work. However, feeling tired can elicit another response in others, such as “I’m too tired to do anything today.” Promotion to combat these negative antecedent states can be seen in the following link which was the Union of European Football Association “Get Active Campaign,” http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AY5AILaXDdA&feature=fvw.

Certainly, other situational mood states, such as being “stressed out,” can activate the need to participate in sports or exercise. Yet feeling tired or hungry can cause us to decide against participation. At the very least, our mood can influence our decision to ride or walk 18 holes of golf.

It is important to remember that antecedent means “prior to” or “before.” Therefore, the mood or physiological condition influences our decision making. For example, people who are experiencing bad moods may turn to sports to lift their spirits. Contrast this with those who feel great because they have just participated in a sporting event.

Summary

The focus of Chapter 4 is on understanding the sports participant as a consumer of sports. Sports marketers are not only concerned with consumers who watch sporting events, but also with the millions of consumers who participate in a variety of sports. To successfully market to sports participants, sports marketers must understand everything they can about these consumers and their consumption behaviors. Participant consumption behavior is defined as the actions performed when searching for, participating in, and evaluating the sports activities that consumers believe will satisfy their needs.

To simplify the complex nature of participant consumption behavior, a model was developed. The model of participant consumption behavior consists of four major components: the participant decision-making process, internal or psychological factors, external or sociological factors, and situational variables. The participant decision-making process is the central focus of the model of participant consumption behavior. It explains how consumers make decisions about whether to participate in sports and in which sports to participate. The decision-making process is slightly different for each of us and is influenced by a host of factors. However, the basis of the decision-making process is a five-step procedure that consumers progress through as they make decisions. These five steps include problem recognition, information search, evaluation of alternatives, participation, and postparticipation evaluation. The complexity of this process is highly dependent on how important the decision is to participants and how much experience consumers have had making similar decisions.

The internal or psychological factors are those things that influence our decision-making process. These psychological factors include personality, motivation, perception, learning, and attitudes. Personality is a set of consistent responses we make to our environment. Our personality can play a role in which sports we choose to participate in or whether we participate in any sports. For example, an aggressive personality type may be most likely to participate in boxing or hockey. Motivation is the reason we participate in sports. Some of the more common reasons we participate in sports are for personal improvement, appreciation of sport, or social facilitation. The strength of our motives to participate in sports is referred to as sport involvement. Another important psychological factor that influences our participation decisions is perception. Perception influences our image of the various sports and their participants as well as shaping our attitudes toward sports participation. Learning also affects our participant behavior. We learn whether to participate in sports because we are rewarded or punished by our participation (behavioral theories), because we perceive sports as a way to achieve our goals (cognitive theories), and because we watch others participating (social theories). A final internal or psychological factor that directly influences our sports participation decisions is attitudes. Attitudes are defined as learned thoughts, feelings, and behaviors toward some given object (in this case, sports participation). Our feelings (affective component of attitude) and beliefs (cognitive component) about sports participation certainly play a major role in determining our participation (behavioral component).

The external or sociological factors also influence the participant decision-making process. These factors include culture, social class, reference groups, and family. Culture is defined as the learned values, beliefs, language, traditions, and symbols shared by people and passed down from generation to generation. The values held by people within a society are a most important determinant of culture. Some of the core American values that influence participation in sports include achievement and success, activity, individualism, youthfulness, and fitness and health. Social class is another important determinant of participant decision making. Most people erroneously associate social class only with income. Our social class is also determined by occupation, education, and affiliations. Another important sociological factor is the influence of reference groups. Reference groups are individuals who influence the information, attitudes, and behaviors of other group members. For example, our friends may affect our decision to participate in a variety of recreational sports and activities. One reference group that has a great deal of influence over our attitudes and participation behavior is our family.

The final component of the model of participant behavior is situational factors. Every decision that we make to participate in a given activity has a situational component. In other words, we are always making a decision in the context of some unique situation. Five major situational influences that affect participant decision making include physical surroundings (physical environment), social surroundings (interaction with others), time (presence or absence of time), task definition (reason or occasion for participation), and antecedent states (physiological condition or mood prior to participation).

Key terms

  affective component

  antecedent states

  attitudes

  behavioral component

  behavioral learning

  cognitive component

  cognitive dissonance

  cognitive learning

  consumer socialization

  culture

  decision-making process

  esteem

  evaluation of alternatives

  evaluative criteria

  evoked set

  experiential source

  extensive problem solving (or extended problem solving)

  external sources

  family influence

  habitual problem solving (or routinized problem solving)

  information search

  internal sources

  learning

  limited problem solving

  love and belonging

  marketing sources

  Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

  model of participant consumption behavior

  motivation

  participant behavior

  participant consumption behavior

  perceived risk

  perception

  personality

  personal sources

  physical surroundings

  physiological needs

  postparticipation evaluation

  primary reference group

  problem recognition

  psychological or internal factors

  reference groups

  safety needs

  selective attention

  selective interpretation

  selective retention

  self-actualization

  situational factors

  social class

  socialization

  social learning

  socializing agents

  social surroundings

  sociological or external factors

  sports involvement

  task definition

  time

  values

Review questions

1.  Define participant consumption behavior. What questions does this address with respect to consumers of sport? From a marketing strategy perspective, why is it critical to understand consumer behavior?

2.  Outline the components of the simplified model of participant consumer behavior.

3.  Outline the steps in the decision-making process for sports participation. What are the three types/levels of consumer decision making? How do the steps in the decision-making process differ for routine decisions versus extensive decisions?

4.  Define personality. Why is it considered one of the internal factors of consumption behavior? Do you think personality is related to the decision to participate in sports? Do you think personality is linked to the specific sports we choose to play?

5.  Describe Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. How is Maslow’s theory linked to sports marketing?

6.  What is meant by the term sports involvement from the perspective of sports participants? How is sports involvement measured and used in the development of the strategic marketing process?

7.  Define perception and provide three examples of how the perceptual processes apply to sports marketing.

8.  Describe the three major learning theories. Which learning theory do you believe best explains the sports in which we choose to participate? Why is learning theory important to sports marketers?

9.  Describe the three components of attitude. How do these components work together? Why must attitudes be measured to increase sports participation?

10.  Define culture and explain the process of sports socialization. Describe the core American values.

11.  Define social class and explain the characteristics of individuals at each level of the seven-tiered structure.

12.  Explain how reference groups play a role in sports participation.

13.  Discuss the traditional family structure and then the nontraditional family structure. How do today’s nontraditional families influence sports participation? Is this for the better or the worse?

14.  Explain each of the five situational factors that influence the participant decision-making process.

Exercises

1.  Trace the simplified model of participant behavior for a consumer thinking about joining a health club. Briefly comment on each element of the model.

2.  Ask three males and three females about the benefits they seek when participating in sports. What conclusions can you draw regarding motivation? Are there large gender differences in the benefits sought?

3.  Interview five adult sports participants and ask them to describe the sports socialization process as it relates to their personal experience. Attempt to interview people with different sports interests to determine whether the socialization process differs according to the specific sports.

4.  Watch three advertisements for any sporting goods on television. Briefly describe the advertisement and then suggest which core American value(s) are reflected in the theme of the advertisement.

5.  Develop a survey instrument to measure attitudes toward jogging. Have 10 people complete the survey and then report your findings. How could these findings be used by your local running club to increase membership (suggest specific strategies)? Are attitudes and behaviors related?

6.  Interview five children (between the ages of eight and 12) to determine what role the family and other reference group influences have had on their decision to participate in sports. Suggest promotions for children based on your findings.

7.  Prepare a report that describes how time pressures are influencing sports participation in the United States. How are sports marketers responding to increasing time pressures?

Internet exercises

1.  Using the World Wide Web, prepare a report that examines sport participation in Australia. What are the similarities and differences in the sports culture of Australia versus that of the United States?

2.  Find and describe two sports Web sites that specifically appeal to children. How does this information relate to the process of consumer socialization?

3.  Find and describe a Web site for a health club. How does the information relate to the consumer decision-making process to join the club?

Endnotes

1  Del Hawkins, Roger Best, and Kenneth Coney, Consumer Behavior: Building Marketing Strategy, 7th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1998).

2  Ian P. Murphy, “Bowling Industry Rolls Out Unified Marketing Plan,” Marketing News (January 20, 1997), 2.

3  Del Hawkins, Roger Best, and Kenneth Coney, Consumer Behavior: Building Marketing Strategy, 7th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1998).

4  Raymond B. Cattell, Herbert W. Eber, and Maurice M. Tasuoka, Handbook for the Sixteen Personality Factors Questionnaire (Champaign, IL: Institute for Personality and Ability Testing, 1970).

5  Douglas M. Turco, “The X Factor: Marketing Sport to Generation X,” Sport Marketing Quarterly, vol. 5, no. 1 (1996), 21–23.

6  Terry Lefton and Bernhard Warner, “Alt Sportspeak: A Flatliner’s Guide,” Brandweek (January 27, 1997), 25–27.

7  Mark A. McDonald, George R. Milne, and JinBae Hong, “Motivational Factors for Evaluating Sport Spectator and Participant Markets,” Sport Marketing Quarterly, vol. 11 (2002), 100–113.

8  Steve Jennison, “Pride, Passion, and Participation: A Strategy for Sport and Active Recreation in Hull 2008–2013,” Sport England, The Humber Sports Partnership, and Hull City Council, Hull (2008).

9  Andrew J. Rohm, George R. Milne, and Mark A. McDonald, “A Mixed-Method Approach for Developing Market Segmentation Typologies in the Sports Industry,” Sport Marketing Quarterly, vol. 15 (2006), 29–39.

10  Henry Murray, Exploration in Personality: A Clinical and Experimental Study of Fifty Men of College Age (New York: Oxford University Press, 1938).

11  Rebecca P. Heath, “You Can Buy a Thrill: Chasing the Ultimate Rush,” American Demographics, vol. 19, no. 6 (1997), 47–51. Available from: www.demographics.com/publications/ad/97_ad/9706_ad/ad970631.htm.

12  Fred M. Beasley and Matthew D. Shank, “Fan or Fanatic: Refining a Measure of Sports Involvement,” Journal of Sport Behavior, vol. 21, no. 4 (1998), 435–443.

13  Ronald Paul Hill and Harold Robinson, “Fanatic Consumer Behavior: Athletics as a Consumption Experience,” Psychology & Marketing, vol. 8, no. 2, (1991), 79–99.

14  Fred M. Beasley and Matthew D. Shank, “Fan or Fanatic: Refining a Measure of Sports Involvement,” Journal of Sport Behavior, vol. 21, no. 4, (1998), 435–443.

15  Robert Sekuler and Randolph Blake, Perception, 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990).

16  John Kim, Jeen-Su Lim, and Mukesh Bhargava, “The Role of Affect in Attitude Formation: A Classical Conditioning Approach,” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, vol. 26, no. 2 (1998), 143–152.

17  Harry Edwards, The Sociology of Sport (Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press, 1973).

18  Elizabeth Moore-Shay and Britto Berchmans, “The Role of the Family Environment in the Development of Shared Consumption Values: An Intergenerational Study,” in Advances in Consumer Research, vol. 23. Kim Corfman and John G. Lunch, Jr., eds. (Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 1996), 484–490.

19  Kristy Meyer, “Core American Values Incorporated into Everyday Life,” Content.com (March 30, 2009).

20  “Something to Wish for: Time to Relax,” US News and World Report (November 11, 1996), 17.

21  Diane Crispell, “Targeting Hunters,” American Demographics, vol. 16, no. 1 (1994), 94. Available from: www.demographics.com/publications/ad/94_ad/9401_ad/ad508.htm.

22  Russell Belk, “Situational Variables and Consumer Behavior,” Journal of Consumer Research, vol. 2, no. 3 (1975), 157–163.