CHAPTER	5

Understanding spectators as consumers

In Chapter 4, we examined participants as consumers. This chapter examines another group of consumers of great importance to sports marketers – spectators. Before we turn to our discussion of spectator consumption, two key points need to be addressed. First, the model of participant consumption behavior discussed in Chapter 4 can also be applied to spectator consumption. Think for a moment about your decision to attend sporting events. Certainly, there are sociological factors that influence your decision. For instance, reference groups such as friends and family may play a major role in influencing your decision to attend sporting events. Psychological factors, such as personality, perception, and attitudes, also affect your decision to attend sporting events or which sporting events to attend. For example, the more ambitious and aspiring you are, the more likely you may be to attend sporting events. In addition, situational factors can affect your decision to attend sporting events. Maybe you were given tickets to the game as a birthday gift (e.g., task definition).

As you can see, the factors that influence participant decision making are also applicable to spectator decisions. However, the focus of this chapter is to understand why people attend sporting events and to examine what additional factors relate to game attendance. Rather than using the framework for participant consumption behavior, however, we concentrate on the wants and needs of spectators. Understanding the consumer’s needs and wants, in turn, is important when developing an effective marketing mix for spectators.

Photo 5.1 Soccer crowd. Group of happy Brazilian soccer fans commemorating victory, with the flag of Brazil swinging in the air

Source: Shutterstock.com

Figure 5.1 Relationship between spectator and participant markets

The second key point addresses the basis for considering spectators and participants as two separate markets. Many people who watch and attend sporting events also participate in sports and vice versa. For example, you may watch March Madness and also play basketball on a recreational basis. Research has shown, however, that two different consumer segments exist.¹ In fact, marketing to “either participants or spectators would miss a large proportion of the other group.” Let us look at Figure 5.1 to illustrate the differences between spectators and participants.

Each diagram in Figure 5.1 depicts the potential relationship between spectator and consumer markets for golf, basketball, NASCAR, and running. Golf (see Figure 5.1a) represents a sport in which there is a large crossover between participants and spectators. A study conducted by Milne, Sutton, and McDonald supports this notion, finding that 84 percent of the golf participant market overlaps the golf spectator market.² In another study, it was found that 87.3 percent of the spectators in attendance at an LPGA event also participated in golf.³

A similar pattern is shown for basketball (see Figure 5.1b). The results of the study indicated an 81 percent overlap between basketball participation and watching pro basketball. Surprisingly, this same relationship did not exist for college basketball spectators. In that case, the overlap in the participation market and the college basketball spectator market was only 43 percent. The study also found that there was only a 36 percent overlap between spectators of professional basketball and spectators of college basketball – evidence that there are not only differences in spectators and participants, but also among spectators at different levels of the same sport.⁴

Web 5.1 Richard Petty Driving Experience: Allowing NASCAR fans to feel racing thrills

Source: Richard Petty Driving Experience; http://www.drivepetty.com/

The other two sports shown in Figure 5.1, NASCAR racing and running, demonstrate more extreme differences in the spectator and participant markets. There is virtually no overlap between the spectators and participants of NASCAR (see Figure 5.1c). Obviously, the NASCAR participant market is virtually nonexistent. However, new “fantasy camps” are springing up across the United States for spectators who want to try racing. For example, participants can enroll in classes at the Richard Petty Driving Experience. The “Rookie Experience” is designed for the “layperson who has a strong desire to experience the thrill of driving a Winston Cup race car.” For prices starting at $440 and ranging to over $2,009, racing enthusiasts can begin to experience driving around the track at speeds up to 145 mph. Top speeds vary according to driver ability, track location, and program. Race fans can also experience a heart-pounding ride around one of the tracks with a professional instructor. Prices for the ride start at $99.00 and speeds will reach up to 165 mph. There are very few requirements, and participants soon will feel like their favorite racecar driver.⁵

Figure 5.1d depicts the potential participant and spectator markets for running. As opposed to the previous examples, the participant running market is much larger than the spectator running market. In addition to the size of the markets, there are also differences in motivations for spectators and participants. Participants, for instance, may be motivated to run for reasons of personal improvement. However, spectators are likely to watch to provide support to a family member or friend.

In addition to looking at the overlap (or lack thereof) between participants and spectators on a sport-by-sport basis, other research has explored the differences between these two groups for sports in general. Table 5.1 summarizes the findings of a study conducted by Burnett, Menon, and Smart,⁶ which examined spectator and participant socioeconomic characteristics and media habits. Based on the results of this and other studies, sports participants and sports spectators seem to represent two distinct markets that should be examined separately by sports marketers.

Before we explore spectators in greater detail, it is important to note that this market can be differentiated into two groups on the basis of consumer behavior. The first group consists of spectators who attend the sporting event. The second group of spectators consumes the sporting event through some medium (e.g., television, radio, or Internet). This chapter is primarily concerned with understanding why consumers attend sporting events and what factors influence attendance. Let us begin by looking at some of the major factors that influence the decision to attend sporting events rather than watch them from the comfort of home.

Photo 5.2 The sport of bullfighting depicts a “lack of overlap” between sports participants and sports spectators, for very few have the courage and/or the skills to master the ring

Source: Shutterstock.com

Table 5.1 Differences between spectators and participants

•  Spectator and participant markets differ from each other with respect to socioeconomic characteristics and media habits.

•  Consumers categorized as heavy participants were more likely to be male, better-educated, white-collar workers, minorities, and young, compared with the heavy spectator group.

•  Consumers categorized as heavy participants also differ from heavy spectators with respect to media usage. Heavy participants are more likely to use business news-reporting media. In addition, heavy participants are more likely to watch intellectually appealing programming.

•  Compared with male participants, male spectators exhibit an interest in a wider variety of media, especially television.

•  Heavy participants and heavy spectators are different with respect to how they can be reached by advertising and how they perceive advertising.

Source: Adapted from John Burnett, Anil Menon, and Denise T. Smart, 1993, “Sports Marketing: A New Ball Game with New Rules,” Journal of Advertising Research (September–October 1993) 21–33.

Factors influencing attendance

It is opening day in New York and the hometown Yankees are set to take on their rival the Boston Red Sox. Fred has gone to the traditional opening day parade and then attended the ball game for the past five years. The game promises to be a great one because the Yankees are returning from last year’s winning season and playing the rival Red Sox. Fred will be joined at the game by his eight-year-old son and a potential business client.

As this hypothetical scenario illustrates, there are a variety of factors influencing Fred’s decision to attend the season opener. He wants to experience the new stadium and watch the team that he has identified with since his childhood. As a businessman, Fred views the game as an opportunity to build a relationship with a potential client. As a father, Fred views the game as a way to bond with his son. In addition to these factors, Fred is prone to gambling and has placed a $50 bet on the home team. Finally, Fred thinks of opening day as an entertaining event that brings the whole community together and, as a lifelong resident, he wants to feel that sense of belonging.

Certainly, the interaction of the factors mentioned affected Fred’s decision to attend the game. Sports marketers must attempt to understand all the influences on game attendance to market effectively to Fred and other fans like him.

A variety of studies have examined some of the major issues related to game attendance. A study conducted by Ferreira and Armstrong⁷ found that eight distinct factors influence game attendance. Factor 1 had eight significant loadings: crowd density, crowd noise, popularity of sport, opportunity to watch game on TV, player’s popularity, amount of advertising, rivalry, and pace. All variables loading on Factor 1 included items related to the overall popularity of sport and were collectively labeled popularity of sport. Factor 2 outlined items related to overall game attractiveness, including opposing team quality, home team quality, strategy displayed, athleticism, and skill displayed. The third factor was based on free offerings and promotions, such as offerings of free T-shirts, prizes, free tickets, and promotions on concessions (e.g., dime-a-dog). Factor 4 denoted pregame and in-game entertainment items such as band, music, and pregame activities. Factor 5, labeled physical contact, conveyed the degree of physical contact displayed. Factor 6 included items that related to convenience and accessibility, such as seating arrangement, seat location/sightlines, location convenience, and parking. Factor 7, facility, signified items of facility newness and niceness. Finally, Factor 8 was labeled cost and referenced items related to ticket prices.

Other research has shown that that weather, parking and security,^8,9,10 ticket cost,^11,12 promotional events,^13,14 team success,^15,16 attributions for team success,^17,18 and the presence of star players,^19,20 all play a role in sport consumption decisions.

Let’s delve deeper into some of these critical drivers of game attendance, such as fan motivation factors, game attractiveness, economic factors, competitive factors, demographic factors, stadium factors, value of sport to the community, sports involvement, and fan identification.

Fan motivation factors

The foundation of any strategic sports marketing process is understanding why spectators attend sporting events, or fan motivation factors. Based on an extensive literature review, Trail et al.²¹ proposed that nine different motives explain why individuals consume sport or are sport fans. Most of these motives are based on social and psychological needs: vicarious achievement, acquisition of knowledge, aesthetics, social interaction, drama/excitement, escape (relation), family, physical attractiveness of participants, and quality of physical skill of the participants. Trail and his colleagues also suggested that spectators attend games due to one or a combination of these motives.

Additional research by Wann has found eight basic motives for watching sport. The motives are categorized as self-esteem enhancement, diversion from everyday life, entertainment value, eustress, economic value, aesthetic value, need for affiliation, and family ties. It is important to note that these fundamental motives represent the most basic needs of fans. Because of this, the eight motives are often related to other factors, such as sports involvement and fan identification, which are discussed later in the chapter. Let us now examine the eight underlying motives of fans identified in a study conducted by Wann.²²

  Self-esteem enhancement – Fans are rewarded with feelings of accomplishment when their favorite players or teams are winning. These fans more commonly are called “fair weather fans”; their association with the team is likely to increase when the team is winning and decrease when the team is doing poorly.

The phenomenon of enhancing or maintaining self-esteem through associating with winning teams has been called BIRGing, or basking in reflected glory.²³ When BIRGing, spectators are motivated by a desire to associate with a winner and, thus, present themselves in a positive light and enhance their self-esteem. Madrigal developed a model to explain why BIRGing might occur. He found that the three antecedent conditions that are related to BIRGing are expectancy disconfirmation, team identification, and quality of the opponent. In other words, BIRGing increases when the team does much better than expected, when the fan has high levels of association with the team, and when the team upsets stronger opponents.²⁴

Spectators who dissociate themselves from losing teams because that negatively affects self-esteem accomplish this through CORFing, or cutting off reflected failure. The BIRGing and CORFing behaviors even have a high-tech influence on fans. A recent study found that fans are more likely to visit their team’s Web site after a victory and less likely to visit the site after a defeat.²⁵

A new construct has been posited to explain why some fans, although it may sound crazy, don’t want to associate themselves with a winner. In this instance, although a team might have a winning record, fans may actually dissociate themselves from the team.

Reasons for such behavior, known as CORSing (cutting off reflected success), may include rebelliousness, jealousy, loyalty (to an earlier era, a previous style of play, prior coaching/management, etc.), a need for individuality (informally seen as a need to stand apart from the crowd), and possibly a fear of success (e.g., to ascend to new heights implies a chance for a greater fall). The CORSing fans do not want to be associated with the new era of winning; rather, they prefer to stay linked to the past. By CORSing the fans are managing their self-image through an expression of individualism.²⁶

  Diversion from everyday life – Watching sports is seen as a means of getting away from it all. Most people think of sports as a novel diversion from the normal routines of everyday life. In a recent article, University of Nebraska Cornhusker fans were cited as having intense emotional ties to the team, and it was stated that football served as a diversion from everyday life in Nebraska. “For several hours on a Saturday afternoon the struggling farmers of rural Nebraska – the inspiration for the school’s nickname – can put aside their own problems and focus on someone else’s.”²⁷

In a recent example, there was great debate about whether and when Oklahoma State, undefeated at the time, should play their football game scheduled against Iowa State after a tragic plane crashed took the life of members of their coaching fraternity, the head and assistant woman’s basketball coach. The game was played but ended up in an overtime upset win in favor of Iowa State. In another more national example, Major League Baseball and other sports dealt with uncertainty of when they would resume their schedules after the events of September 11. Ultimately, it was decided that play should go on to serve as diversion and to ensure that the American way of life was not disrupted.

  Entertainment value – Entertainment is closely related to the previous motive for attendance. Sports serve as a form of entertainment to millions of people. As discussed in previous chapters, sports marketers are keenly aware of the heightened entertainment value of sports. In fact, one of the unique aspects of attending a sporting event is the uncertainty associated with the outcome. The drama associated with this uncertainty adds to the entertainment value of sports. Among spectators, the entertainment value of sports is believed to be the most highly motivating of all factors. In fact, Harris Interactive Company states that “contrary to popular belief, lowering ticket prices is not the best way – or even the most profitable way – to get people into seats. Creating an entertainment experience with flexible season tickets, VIP perks, etc., is a far better alternative. In short, people want to have fun, and for an increasing number of sports attendees this may have very little to do with the actual competition.”²⁸ A number of sports are attempting to find interesting and innovative ways to increase their entertainment value for the fans on the field of play by changing the rules of the game. College football officials felt they needed to do something to keep fans involved and entertained because five of the six major conferences averaged game times of more than 3.5 hours. Here’s what the conferences have done to speed up the pace of play.²⁹

First, the clock will start on kickoffs when the ball is kicked instead of when the receiving team touches the ball. This is not a big change and should have very little impact on the outcome of the game. But coaches will have to adjust, and this could shave around three or four plays off each contest.

Second, on changes of possession, the clock will start when the referee starts the 25-second play clock. This will have more of an impact on the games since 25 seconds will be able to run off the clock and teams will have to utilize their timeouts in a different fashion. Essentially, a team will be able to run the time off the clock four times during a set of downs instead of three. With teams being given only three timeouts each half, there will be one occasion when they will not be able to stop the clock.

Others feel that college football should consider adopting NFL rules to shorten game times. This includes shortening halftime to 15 minutes and not stopping the clock on first downs, which is too much of an advantage for the offensive team and allows them numerous built-in timeouts.

The NHL has also taken strides to improve the entertainment of the game through rule changes.³⁰ For starters, the dimensions of goaltender equipment will be reduced by more than 10 percent. In addition to a one-inch reduction (to 11 inches) in the width of leg pads, the blocking glove, upper-body protector, pants, and jersey will also be reduced. This should increase scoring and therefore increase fan entertainment.

The NHL also altered rink dimensions to increase offensive firepower. They made adjustments to the neutral-zone edges of the blue lines to position the line 64 feet from the attacking goal line and 75 feet from the end boards in the attacking zone. In addition, they added four feet in each of the offensive zones to encourage more offensive play, particularly on power plays. The NHL positioned goal lines 11 feet from the end boards, two feet closer to the end boards than before. Finally, they reduced the size of the neutral zone from 54 to 50 feet.

As the article on page 184 indicates, sometimes having a solid product on the field of play or court still doesn’t translate into game attendance.

  Eustress – Sports provide fans with positive levels of arousal. In other words, sports are enjoyable because they stimulate fans and are exciting to the senses. For example, imagine the excitement felt by Indy fans when the announcer says, “Gentlemen, start your engines” or the anticipation surrounding the opening kickoff for fans at the Super Bowl.

  Economic value – A subset of sports fans are motivated by the potential economic gains associated with gambling on sporting events. Their enjoyment stems from having a vested interest in the games as they watch. Because this motive is only present for a small group of spectators, the economic factor is the least motivating of all factors. However, the number of spectators who gamble on sports continues to rise, especially among college students. Keith Whyte, executive director for the National Council on Problem Gambling, says, “college campuses bring together a lot of Internet access, a propensity for sports wagering, and most students have credit cards. We are seeing signs that it is becoming a problem.”

As Giuseppe Partucci noted, sport gambling has remained a popular pastime of sports fans everywhere, even despite the prolonged recent economic downturn. People turn to sports betting for a variety of reasons; some of them do it to escape their problems and relax.³¹ He added that others bet on sports for a significant part of their income, so a slow down in the economy will not affect the amount they wager. In fact, according to Partucci, legal sports books in Nevada report that the volume of wagers has not declined during the recession, although the amount wagered is slightly lower. They have estimated that the total “handle” on bets they receive has declined by about 5 percent, hardly enough to cause concern.³²

  Aesthetic value – Sports are seen by many as a pure art form. Basketball games have been compared with ballets, and many fans derive great pleasure from the beauty of athletic performances (e.g., gymnastics and figure skating).

  Need for affiliation – The need for belonging is satisfied by being a fan. Research has shown that reference groups, such as friends, family, and the community, influence game attendance. The more an individual’s reference group favors going to a game, the more likely the person will attend games in the future. Additionally, individuals who become fans of a team later in life (adolescence and adulthood) are more likely to be influenced by friends in forming an attachment with a particular team.³³

In addition to influencing game attendance, one study found that reference groups can also affect other game-related experiences, such as perceived quality of the stadium, perceived quality of the food service, overall satisfaction with the stadium, and perceived ticket value.³⁴ For instance, individuals who perceive their reference group as opposing going to games will also have less satisfaction with the stadium environment.

  Family ties – Some sports spectators believe attending sporting events is a means for fostering family togetherness. The entire family can spend time together and lines of communication may be opened through sports. Interestingly, women are more motivated than men to attend sporting events to promote family togetherness.³⁵ Research has also shown that “fathers” are the persons who have the greatest influence in becoming a fan of a specific team. This is especially true for individuals who became fans early in life (preteen years). In fact, brand identification in sport often occurs at an early age and is significantly linked to family influences. In the majority of these instances sport consumers become exclusive consumers, often consumers for life. These allegiances last a lifetime and these findings have important implications for sports marketers in creating opportunities for fathers to interact with children in team-related activities.³⁶

Game attractiveness

Another factor related to game attendance is the perceived attractiveness of each game. Game attractiveness is a situational factor that varies from game to game and week to week. The perceived quality of a single game or event is based on the skill level of the individuals participating in the contest (i.e., the presence of any star athletes), team records, and league standings. In addition to these game-attraction variables, if the game is a special event (opening day, bowl game, or all-star game), game attractiveness is heightened. The more attractive the game, the more likely attendance will increase.

Economic factors

Both the controllable and uncontrollable economic factors can affect game attendance. The controllable economic factors include aspects of the sports marketing environment that can be altered by sports marketers, such as the price of tickets and the perceived value of the sports product. The uncontrollable economic factors are things such as the average income of the population and the economic health of the country.

Generally, the greater the perceived value of the game and the greater the income of the population, the greater the game attendance. Surprisingly, one study found that attendance has no relationship to increased ticket prices.³⁷ In other words, raising ticket prices does not negatively affect game attendance. Other researchers, however, have found just the opposite.³⁸

Competitive factors

As discussed in Chapter 2, competition for sporting event attendance can be thought of as either direct (other sports) or indirect (other forms of entertainment). Ordinarily, the lesser the competition for spectators’ time and money, the more likely they will be to attend your sporting event.

One form of direct competition of interest to sports marketers is the televised game. Television continues to be used by almost all fans to follow sports. However, according to Kantar’s 2013 Global Sports Media Consumption Report well over half (59 percent) of sports fans state that their sports consumption has changed in some way in the last two years.³⁹ Whether it be consumption via high definition, consumption online (which now surpasses print alternatives), or the use of digital access in the use of social networking platforms, the trends of use of traditional media consumption are changing. Some of the underlying trends can only be good news to the industry. In fact, fans in the U.S. spend an average of 8 hours a week watching sport content and fans in most markets are spending more time consuming sports than ever before. The era of digital and second screen usage garners opportunity and according to Kantar’s Editor Frank Dunne, whoever said the pie doesn’t get any bigger, was wrong.⁴⁰ In fact, more and more fans are consuming sport on Internet connected devices without – crucially – taking away viewers from television. Dunne noted that digital has added new layers to the experience offering more ways of viewing and discovering the alchemy, which turns digital into dollars, is the holy grail for sports rights-holders and brands. We are in an era where primary and second screen choices, as well as digital choices, continue to develop; however, many in the industry are still trying to map out a strategy and are not alive to its true potential. Sports marketers need to understand spectators’ media habits and motivations to appeal to these growing segments. In addition, sports marketers want to learn whether to treat the viewing audience as a separate segment or whether it overlaps with spectators who attend games.

Some of these issues were addressed in a series of studies conducted to understand consumers’ motivations for watching televised sports. Overall, the excitement, enthusiasm, and entertainment value associated with the telecasts are the primary motivating factors.⁴¹ Interestingly, the need for watching televised sports differed by gender. Women indicated they were more motivated to watch sports for the social value and the fact that friends and family were already doing so. Men, however, were motivated to watch sports on television because they enjoy the telecasts and find them entertaining.

With respect to their viewing behavior, men are more interested in watching sports on television, want more sports coverage, watch more sports coverage, and follow it up by watching news reports of the action more frequently than do their female counterparts. In short, men appear more highly involved in televised sports.

How does consuming the game via some alternative media such as radio, webcast, or television affect game attendance? One study examined the influence of television and radio broadcasting on the attendance at NBA games. The results indicated that television broadcasts of home games would have a negative impact on attendance, with more than 60 percent of the fans indicating they would watch the game on television rather than attend. However, watching televised sports can also have a positive impact on home game attendance. For instance, the more one watches away games on television, the more one attends home games. In addition, the more one listens to the radio (for both home and away games), the greater the likelihood of attending home games.⁴²

Demographic factors

Demographic factors or variables, such as population, age, gender, education, occupation, and ethnic background, are also found to be related to game attendance. Although the number of women attending sporting events is greater than ever before, males are still more likely to be in attendance. The sports that possess the male fan base include the NFL, college football, and Major League Baseball. The most avid female fans flock to figure skating, the NFL, and Major League Baseball.

In addition, male sport fans tend to be younger, more educated, and have higher incomes than that of the general population. With the exception of baseball, the majority of ticket holders at sporting events now have annual income levels of $80,000 or more. According to the most recent census data, only 15 percent of American households reach this level of income, a relatively small market segment.⁴³ Enthrallingly, the National Hockey League, PGA Tour, and ATP (tennis) have the greatest percentage of fans with household incomes over $50,000.⁴⁴

As you might imagine, it is very difficult to come up with the profile of the typical sports fan because of the varying nature of sport. However, it is important not to generalize and run the risk of neglecting a potentially huge market.⁴⁵ Table 5.2 presents the demographic profile of Americans who consider themselves sports fans.

Table 5.2 Who’s a sports fan?

Source: Americans to Rest of World: Soccer Not Really Our Thing, page 8; http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2006/06/14/americans-to-rest-of-world-soccer-not-really-our-thing/

Stadium factors

New stadiums are being built across the United States. Moreover, team owners who cannot justify or afford new stadiums are moving to cities that will build a new facility or attempt to renovate the existing stadium. Obviously, these stadium improvements are believed to affect the bottom line for team owners or for university presidents.

Stadium factors refer to variables such as the newness of the stadium, stadium access, aesthetics or beauty of the stadium, seat comfort, and cleanliness of the stadium. One study found that all these factors are positively related to game attendance. That is, the more favorable the fans’ attitude toward the stadium, the higher the attendance.⁴⁶

Similar results were found in a study conducted for Money magazine by IRC Survey Research Group.⁴⁷ This study looked at what 1,000 sports fans value when attending professional sporting events. The major findings, in order of importance, are:

  Parking that costs less than $8 and tickets under $25 each

  Adequate parking or convenient public transportation

  A safe, comfortable seat that you can buy just a week before the game

  Reasonably priced snack foods, such as a hot dog for $2 or less

  Home team with a winning record

  A close score

  A hometown star who is generally regarded as being among the sport’s 10 best players

  Reasonably priced souvenirs

  A game that ends in less than three hours

  A wide variety of snack foods.

Interestingly, the four most important things identified in the study were unrelated to the game itself. If you make people pay too much or work too hard, they would rather stay home. Apparently, only after you are seated in your comfortable chair with your inexpensive food do you begin to worry about rooting for the home team.

In addition, spectators were concerned about having a clean, comfortable stadium with a good atmosphere. Part of the positive atmosphere is having strict controls placed on rowdy fans and having the option of sitting in a nonalcohol section of the stadium. An emerging area of some importance to new stadium design, as well as to stadium rehabilitation, is the need to provide more and larger restrooms. Because stadium atmosphere seems to be so important to fans, let us examine it in greater detail.

Sportscape

As you might have noticed, stadium atmosphere appears to be a critical issue in game attendance. Recently, studies have been conducted in the area of stadium environment or “sportscape.”⁴⁸ Sportscape refers to the physical surroundings of the stadium that affect the spectator’s desire to stay at the stadium and ultimately return to the stadium. Figure 5.2 shows the relationship between these sportscape factors and spectator behavior.

Web 5.2 New sports facilities such as the Cowboys Stadium in Dallas influence attendance.

Source: dallascowboys.com

Figure 5.2 Model of sportscape

Source: K. L. Wakefield, J. G. Blodgett, and H. J. Sloan, 1996, “Measurement and Management of the Sportscape,” Journal of Sport Management, 10(1): 16.

As shown in Figure 5.2, sportscape factors include stadium access, facility aesthetics, scoreboard quality, seating comfort, and layout accessibility. Each sportscape factor serves as input to the spectator’s affective response or judgment of pleasure or displeasure with the stadium. The affective response, as we learned in Chapter 4, is the “feeling” component of attitudes. Similarly, the affective response with the sportscape is the feeling of perceived pleasure or displeasure the spectator has with the stadium. The perceptions of the stadium sportscape are linked to behavioral responses or actions of the spectator. In this case, the two behavioral responses are the desire to stay in the stadium and repatronage, or returning to the stadium for future events. Let us further examine the sportscape factors and their impact on spectators’ pleasure.

Stadium accessibility

Many of us have left sporting events early to avoid traffic hassles or walked long distances to get to a game because of limited parking. For example, I recently attended a game at Wrigley Field in Chicago and, because of limited parking spaces, had to walk over three miles to get to the game. By the time I reached my seat, it was the third inning! This experience certainly resulted in displeasure with the entire game experience.

Stadium access includes issues such as availability of parking, the ease of entering and exiting the parking areas, and the location of the parking relative to the stadium. From the spectator’s perspective, anything that can make it easier to get in and out of the stadium quicker will positively affect a return for future games.

Facility aesthetics

Facility aesthetics refers to the exterior and interior appearance of the stadium. The exterior appearance includes stadium architecture and age of the stadium. New stadiums, with unique architectural designs, are springing up across the United States. For example, the new Dallas Cowboys Stadium seats 80,000, making it the fourth largest stadium in the NFL by seating capacity. However, the seating capacity is expandable. The maximum capacity of the stadium, including standing room, is 110,000. The Party Pass sections are behind seats in each end zone and on a series of six elevated platforms connected by stairways. At the time of its development it was the largest domed stadium in the world, had the world’s largest column-free interior and the largest high definition video screen which hangs from 20 yard line to 20 yard line. Additionally, new innovative stadia are being built around the world. Construction began in 2010 on Spartak Stadium in Moscow. Scia Engineer developed an economic, elegant, and easy-to-build steel roof design to cope with Moscow’s extreme climate. Spartak Stadium is scheduled to open in 2014 and is included in Russia’s bid for the 2018 FIFA World Cup. For Beijing 2008, the Swiss architects Jacques Herzog and Pierre de Meuron designed an exquisite (and expensive) structure wrapped in a delicate-looking tangle of concrete columns. (The Chinese call it “the bird’s nest.”) It looks like no stadium you’ve ever seen and has the potential to be one of the most significant pieces of architecture built anywhere in the world.

Although the external beauty adds to the stadium aesthetics, the interior can also play a major role in fan satisfaction and attendance. The interior of the stadium includes factors such as color of the stadium walls, facades, and seats; the presence of sponsors’ signage; and the presence of symbols from the team’s past. For example, The Metrodome, the domed home of University of Minnesota football, was rated the poorest stadium in the Big Ten Conference because of its sterile game day atmosphere, hence its recent destruction. It was so bad that the university decided to build a standalone stadium on campus which opened in September 2009. TCF Bank Stadium, sometimes referred to as either “The Bank” or “The Gopher Hole,” is the football stadium for the Minnesota Golden Gophers college football team at the University of Minnesota in Minneapolis, Minnesota. The 50,805 seat on-campus “horseshoe” style stadium is designed to support future expansion to seat close to 80,000 people. TCF Bank Stadium, which cost 288.5 million, features 39 suites, 59 loge boxes, 1,000 outdoor club seats, 300 indoor club seats, a club lounge, a 20,000-square-foot facility for the marching band, and several locker rooms. The Stadium’s field is laid out in an east–west configuration, with the open end of the stadium facing campus. This layout, similar to that of Memorial Stadium, provides a view of downtown Minneapolis. Compare these design features with Fenway Park in Boston, one of the oldest and most unique stadiums in the United States and you can see how aesthetics can vary from one facility to the next. As former pitcher Bill Lee stated, “Fenway Park is a religious shrine. People go there to worship.”Obviously, professional sports franchises are not the only ones who care about facility aesthetics. University marketers and athletic departments are equally concerned with their venues. In a recent article, the top 10 college football venues were ranked based on atmosphere and aesthetics, tradition, and how well the team plays at home. The number one stadium in college sport was Tiger Stadium – Louisiana State University. The rest of the best in college facilities include the following: (2) Ohio Stadium – The Ohio State University (3) Beaver Stadium – Penn State University, (4) Stanford Stadium – University of Georgia, (5) Neyland Stadium – University of Tennessee, (6) Kyle Stadium – Texas A&M University, (7) Memorial – Clemson University, (8) Memorial Stadium – University of Nebraska, (9) Bryant-Denny Stadium – University of Alabama, and (10) Ben Hill Griffin Stadium, also known as the “Swamp,” at the University of Florida.⁴⁹

Scoreboard quality

One of the specific interior design considerations that represents a separate dimension of sportscape is scoreboard quality. In fact, the scoreboard in some stadiums is seen as the focal point of the interior. Throughout the game, fans continually monitor the stadium scoreboard for updates on scoring, player statistics, and other forms of entertainment, such as trivia contests, cartoon animation, and music videos. Examples of scoreboard quality range from the traditional scoreboard at Fenway Park, which is manually operated, to the NFL’s biggest scoreboard, at Dallas Cowboys Stadium.

Cowboys Stadium is home to the world’s largest outdoor digital display. The scoreboard at Cowboys Stadium is approximately 60 yards long. The 2,100 inch display weighs in at approximately 600 tons, spans over 25,670 square feet, features back-to-back high definition LED screens, and has two small screens at each end to accommodate the stadium endzone fans. Stadium scoreboards such as those at Cowboys Stadium, Heinz Field in Pittsburgh, and AT&T Park in San Francisco are designed to create pure entertainment. Most of the entertainment will be produced like a TV show and feature in-stand giveaways, trivia contests, features on players, and facts and figures about the field. Rick Fairbend, the executive producer/broadcast manager for the Steelers, said that “[the fans] will be amazed at the whole entertainment package from now on.”

Even smaller colleges like Coastal Carolina University are enjoying the benefits of custom scoreboards. Underscoring the importance of the scoreboard is Warren Koegel, athletic director at Coastal Carolina University, who believes that fans are used to high-definition TV and large-screen displays, so they made the decision to invest in top-of-the-line equipment.

Perceived crowding

As shown in Figure 5.2, seating comfort and layout accessibility are the two factors that were found to be determinants of spectators’ perceptions of crowding. Perceived crowding, in turn, is believed to have a negative influence on the spectator’s pleasure. In other words, spectator pleasure decreases as perceived crowding increases.

Perceived crowding not only has an impact on pleasure but also on spectator safety. For example, English football grounds are moving away from terraces (standing areas renowned for hooliganism and violence) and toward a requirement of all-seater facilities. There has been a great deal of debate about reintroducing terracing. However, based on a report that identified all-seating as the factor that contributes the most to spectator safety, the British government has no plans to bring back terraces at English football grounds.⁵⁰

Seating comfort

Seating comfort refers to the perceived comfort of the seating and the spacing of seats relative to each other. Anyone who has been forced to sit among the more than 110,000 fans at a University of Michigan football game can understand the influence of seating on the game experience. Likewise, those who have been fortunate enough to view a game from a luxury box or club seat also know the impact of seating on enjoyment of the game. Luxury boxes often offer top of the line amenities, while the club seats provide the customer with the padded seat luxuries of a private box without the privacy. Club-level seats commonly include climate-controlled lounges, multiple TV sets, buffets, parking benefits, concierge service, and more space between rows of seats.

Chris Bigelow, president of a facility management company, contends that more seating capacity in our stadiums will not guarantee financial success in the future. Less capacity with a higher level of comfort may be a much more profitable route to attracting fans. The trend should not be for more seats in a venue but for better seating. Bigelow states, “Our culture is willing to pay for comfort.”⁵¹

Layout accessibility

Layout accessibility refers to whether spectators can move freely about the stadium. More specifically, does the layout of the stadium make it easy for spectators to get in and out of their seats and reach the concession areas, restrooms, and so on? To facilitate access to these destinations, there must be proper signage to direct spectators and there must be adequate space allocation. Inadequate space and signage cause spectators to feel confused and crowded, leading to negative feelings about the game experience.

As stated previously, all the sportscape factors affect spectators’ feelings about the game experience. These positive or negative feelings experienced by spectators ultimately affect their desire to stay in the stadium and return for other games. Although all the sportscape factors are important, research has shown that perceived crowding is the most significant predictor of spectators having a pleasurable game experience. In addition, the aesthetic quality of the stadium was found to have a major impact on spectators’ pleasure with the game.⁵² The findings of the sportscape research present several implications for sports marketers and stadium or facilities managers. First, stadium management should consider reallocating or redesigning space to improve perceived crowding. This might include enlarging the seating areas, walkways, and the space in and around concession waiting areas. Second, before spending the money to do major renovations or even building a new stadium to improve aesthetic quality, focus on more inexpensive alternatives. For instance, painting and cleaning alone might significantly improve the aesthetic value of an aging stadium.

UCLA has moved the Pauley Pavilion renovation process forward and has expanded and improved the building that has been a campus landmark for more than 40 years and the home court of 38 NCAA championship teams. The goal was to dedicate the restored Pauley Pavilion on October 14, 2010, to honor Coach John Wooden on his 100th birthday; unfortunately the great Coach John Wooden lived a long life that fell a little more than four months short of his 100th birthday.

Among the many enhancements being considered were a new retractable seating system to bring spectators closer to the court and new concession areas, restrooms, and modern arena technology to enhance fan experience; new and expanded locker rooms, medical treatment and media rooms, and dedicated practice facilities; and a main lobby that would serve as a central entrance and celebrate UCLA’s illustrious athletic tradition. These types of changes have provided the Bruin faithful with a first-class facility that spectators feel good about, at a cost much lower than for new construction.⁵³

Based on the studies conducted by Wakefield and his colleagues, there seems to be no doubt that the stadium atmosphere, or sportscape, plays a pivotal role in spectator satisfaction and attendance. Moreover, the pleasure derived from the sportscape causes people to stay in the stadium for longer periods of time. Certainly, having spectators stay in the stadium is a plus for the team, who will profit from increased concession and merchandise sales. In describing the importance of the sportscape, Wakefield states, “Effective facility management may enable team owners to effectively compete for consumers’ entertainment dollars even when they may be unable to compete on the field.”⁵⁴

Value of sport to the community

Values, as you will recall, are widely held beliefs that affirm what is desirable. In this case, values refer to the beliefs about the impact of sport on the community. Based on the results of a recent study, spectators’ perceptions of the impact of professional sport on a community can be grouped into eight value dimensions (see Table 5.3 for a brief description of values).

As you might expect, each value is related to spectators’ game attendance and intentions to attend future games. For instance, spectators who believe sports enhance community solidarity are more likely to attend sporting events. Sport marketers should carefully consider these values and promote positive values when developing marketing strategy.

Table 5.3 Eight value dimensions of sport to the community

•  Community solidarity – Sport enhances the image of the community, enhances community harmony, generates a sense of belonging, and helps people to feel proud

•  Public behavior – Sport encourages sportsmanship, reinforces positive citizenship, encourages obedience to authority, and nurtures positive morality

•  Pastime ecstasy – Sport provides entertainment and brings excitement

•  Excellence pursuit – Sport encourages achievement and success, hardwork, and risk taking

•  Social equity – Sport increases racial and class equality and promotes gender equity

•  Health awareness – Sport eliminates drug abuse, encourages exercise, and promotes an active lifestyle

•  Individual quality – Sport promotes character building and encourages competitive traits

•  Business opportunity – Sport increases community commercial activities, attracts tourists, and helps community economic development

Source: James J. Zhang, Dale G. Pease, and Sai C. Hui, 1996, “Value Dimensions of Professional Sport as Viewed by Spectators,” Sports and Social Issues February 21: 78–94.

Sports involvement

In Chapter 4, involvement was examined in the context of sports participation. Measures of sports involvement have also been used to understand spectator behavior. From the spectator’s perspective, sport involvement is the perceived interest in and personal importance of sports to an individual attending sporting events or consuming sport through some other medium. What sports are people most interested in? Just 4 percent of adults in this country rate soccer as their favorite sport to watch, compared with 34 percent who say this about football, 14 percent about basketball, and 13 percent about baseball, according to a Pew Research Center study.⁵⁵ Fan interest and involvement in the remaining sports can be seen in Table 5.4.

Table 5.4 What’s your favorite sport? Favorite sports to watch by interest in sports news

	Follow Sports
	ALL Adults	Very/Some-what closely	Not very/Not at all closely
	%	%	%
Football	34	45	26
Basketball	14	18	11
Baseball	13	14	12
Soccer	4	6	2
Auto racing	4	4	4
Ice skating	3	1	5
Ice hockey	3	3	3
Golf	2	2	3
Tennis	2	2	2
Boxing	2	1	2
Westling	1	1	1
Other	5	2	8
None	12	1	20
Don’t know	1	*	1
	100	100	100
Number of respondents	2,250	1,029	1,216
			Pew Research Center

Source: Americans to Rest of World: Soccer Not Really Our Thing, page 9; http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2006/06/14/americans-to-rest-of-world-soccer-not-really-our-thing/

Detailed studies have looked at the involvement levels of golf spectators, baseball spectators, Division I women’s basketball spectators, and sports spectators in general.⁵⁶ In addition, a study has examined the cross-cultural differences in sport involvement (see Spotlight on International Sports Marketing). Generally, these studies have shown that higher levels of spectator involvement are related to the number of games attended, the likelihood of attending games in the future, and the likelihood of consuming sport through media, such as newspapers, television, and magazines. Also of importance, high-involvement spectators were more likely to correctly identify the sponsors of sporting events.

Fan identification

Sports involvement was previously defined as the level of interest in and importance of sport to consumers. A concept that extends this idea to a sports organization is fan identification. Two contrasting examples of fan identification were seen with the movement of NFL franchises. When the Cleveland Browns moved to Baltimore, Browns fans became irate, holding protests and filing lawsuits to try to stop the team’s move.⁵⁷ However, when the Houston Oilers moved to Nashville relatively little fan resistance was observed, indicating low levels of fan identification.

Sports marketers are interested in building and maintaining high levels of fan identification for organizations and their players. If high levels of identification are developed, a number of benefits can be realized by the sports organization. Before examining the benefits of fan identification, let us take a closer look at what it is. Fan identification is defined as the personal commitment and emotional involvement customers have with a sports organization.⁵⁸ A conceptual framework was developed by Sutton, McDonald, Milne, and Cimperman for understanding the antecedents and outcomes of fan identification.⁵⁹ The model is shown in Figure 5.3.

Managerial correlates are those things such as team characteristics, organizational characteristics, affiliation characteristics, and activity characteristics that directly contribute to the level of fan involvement. Team characteristics include, most notably, the success of the team. Typically, the more successful the team, the higher the level of fan identification – because people want to associate themselves with a winner (BIRGing). However, some fans see loyalty to the team to be more important than team success. For instance, the Chicago Cubs continue to have high levels of fan identification even though they have not won the World Series since early in the twentieth century.

Organizational characteristics also lead to varying levels of fan identification. In contrast to team characteristics, which pertain to athletic performance, organizational characteristics relate to “off-the-field” successes and failures. Is the team trying to build a winning franchise or just reduce the payroll? Is the team involved in the community and community relations? Is the team owner threatening to move to another city if a new stadium is not built with taxpayers’ monies? An example of the impact of team and organizational characteristics on fan identification was provided by the Florida Marlins. As soon as the team won the 1997 World Series (team characteristic that should foster high fan identification), the owner talked about selling the team, and the organization traded several of its star players (organizational characteristic that will diminish fan identification).

Figure 5.3 Model for fan identification

Source: William A. Sutton, Sport Marketing Quarterly

Affiliation characteristics refer to the sense of community that a fan builds as a result of a team. According to Sutton et al., “The community affiliation component is … defined as kinship, bond, or connection the fan has to a team. Community affiliation is derived from common symbols, shared goals, history, and a fan’s need to belong.”⁶⁰ As discussed in the study on the impact of sports on the community, the sports team provides fans with a way to feel connected to the community and fulfill the need for affiliation. In addition, the more a fan’s reference group (friends and family) favors going to games, the more the individual identifies with the team.⁶¹

Activity characteristics represent another antecedent to fan identification. In this case, activity refers to attending sporting events or being exposed to events via the media. As technology continues to advance, sports fans are afforded more opportunities to watch their favorite team via cable or pay-per-view, listen to games via radio, or link to broadcasts from anywhere via the Internet. With increased exposure, fan identification should be enhanced.

The interaction of the four preceding factors will influence the level of fan identification. An individual’s level of identification with a team or player can range from no identification to extremely high identification. However, for simplicity, Sutton et al. describe three distinct categories of fan identification.⁶²

Low identification

Fans who attend sporting events primarily for social interaction or for the entertainment benefit of the event characterize low-level identification. These “social fans” are attracted by the atmosphere of the game, promotions or events occurring during the competition, and the feelings of camaraderie that the game creates. Although this is the lowest level of fan identification, if fans are reinforced by the entertainment benefits of the game, then they may become more involved.

Medium identification

The next higher classification of fan involvement is called medium identification, or focused fans. The major distinguishing characteristic of these fans is that they identify with the team or player, but only for the short term. In other words, they may associate with the team, or player, if it is having an especially good year. However, when the team starts to slump or the player is traded, “focused” identification will fade. As with low-level identification, a fan that experiences medium levels of identification may move to higher levels.

High identification

The highest classification of fan involvement is based on a long-term commitment to the sport, team, or player. These vested fans often recruit other fans, follow the team loyally, and view the team as a vital part of the community. Fans classified as high involvement exhibit a number of concrete behavioral characteristics. Most important, high-identification fans are the most likely to return to sporting events. Moreover, high-involvement fans are more likely to attend home and away games, have been fans for a greater number of years, and invest more financially in being a fan.

Managerial benefits

The final portion of the fan identification model put forth by Sutton et al. describes the outcomes of creating and fostering vested fans. One outcome is that high-identification fans have decreased price sensitivity. Price sensitivity refers to the notion that small increases in ticket prices may produce great fluctuations in demand for tickets. Fans that stick with the team for the long run are more likely to be season ticket holders or purchase personal seat licenses to get the right to purchase permanent seats. Fans that exhibit low levels of identification may decide not to purchase tickets, even for small increases in ticket prices.

Another outcome of high levels of fan identification is decreased performance-outcome sensitivity. Stated simply, fans that are vested will be more tolerant of poor seasons or in-season slumps. Fans will be more likely to stick with the team and not give up prime ticket locations that may have taken generations to acquire.

Summary

In this chapter, we explored the spectator as a consumer of sport. Although there are many people who both participate in and observe sports, research suggests that there are two distinct segments of consumers.

There are a variety of factors that influence our decision to attend sporting events. These factors include fan motivation, game attractiveness, economic factors, competitive factors, demographic factors, stadium factors, value of sport to the community, sports involvement, and fan identification. Fan motivation factors are those underlying reasons or needs that are met by attending a sporting event. Researchers believe that some of the primary reasons fans attend sporting events are enhancement of self-esteem, diversion from everyday life, entertainment value, eustress (feelings of excitement), economic value (gambling on events), aesthetic value, need for affiliation, and time with family members.

Another factor that influences our decision to attend sporting events is game attractiveness. Game attractiveness refers to the perceived value and importance of the individual game based on which teams or athletes are playing (e.g., Is it the crosstown rival or is Ken Griffey, Jr. in town?), the significance of the event to the league standings, whether the event is postseason versus regular season competition, or whether the event is perceived to be of championship caliber (e.g., the four majors in golf or the NCAA Final Four). In general, the greater the perceived attractiveness of the game, the more likely we will want to attend.

Economic factors also play a role in our decision to attend sporting events. As we discussed briefly in Chapter 2, the economic factors that may affect game attendance can be at the microeconomic level (e.g., personal income) or macroeconomic level (e.g., state of the nation’s economy). Although these are uncontrollable factors, the sports organization can attempt to control the rising cost of ticket prices to make it easier for fans to attend sporting events.

Competition is another important factor that influences our decision to attend sporting events or observe them through another medium. Today, sports marketers must define the competition in broad terms – as other entertainment choices such as movies, plays, and theater compete with sporting events. Interestingly, sports organizations sometimes compete with themselves for fans. For example, one study found that televising home basketball games had a negative impact on game attendance. Demographic factors such as age, ethnic background, and income are also related to spectator behavior. There is no such thing as a profile of the typical spectator. However, spectators are more likely to be male, young, more educated, and have higher incomes than that of the general population.

Perhaps the most important factor that influences attendance is the consumer’s perception of the stadium. Stadium atmosphere appears to be a critical issue in attracting fans. The stadium atmosphere, or environment, has been referred to as the sportscape. The sportscape is the physical surroundings of the stadium that affect spectators’ desire to stay at the stadium and ultimately return to the stadium. The multiple dimensions of sportscape include stadium access, facility aesthetics, scoreboard quality, seating comfort, and layout accessibility.

Another factor influencing game attendance and the likelihood of attending sporting events in the future is the perceived value of sport to the community. A study found that the more value attributed to sport, the more likely people were to attend. The value dimensions of sport to the community include community solidarity (bringing the community together), public behavior, pastime ecstasy (entertainment), pursuit of excellence, social equity, health awareness, individual quality (builds character), and business opportunities.

As discussed in Chapter 4, sports involvement refers to the consumer’s perceived interest in and the importance of participating in sport. Sports involvement has a related definition for those observing sporting events. High-involvement spectators are more likely to attend sporting events, read sports magazines, and plan their entire day around attending a sporting event.

A final factor related to spectator behavior is fan identification. Fan identification is the personal commitment and emotional involvement customers have with the sports organization. The characteristics of the team, the characteristics of the organization, the affiliation characteristics (sense of community), and the activity characteristics (exposures to the team) all interact to influence the level of fan identification. The higher the level of fan identification, the more likely fans are to attend events.

Key terms

  aesthetic value

  demographic factors

  diversion from everyday life

  economic factors

  economic value

  entertainment value

  eustress

  facility aesthetics

  family ties

  fan identification

  fan motivation factors

  game attractiveness

  layout accessibility

  need for affiliation

  scoreboard quality

  seating comfort

  self-esteem enhancement

  signage

  space allocation

  sport involvement

  sportscape

  stadium access

  stadium factors

Review questions

1.  Describe the differences and 1. similarities between spectators and participants of sport.

2.  Discuss the spectators’ eight basic motives for attending sporting events. Which of these are similar to the motives for participating in sports?

3.  Provide two examples of how game attractiveness influences attendance.

4.  What are the economic factors that influence game attendance? Differentiate between the controllable and uncontrollable economic factors.

5.  Describe the typical profile of spectators of women’s sporting events. How would a sports marketer use this information in the strategic sports marketing process?

6.  Discuss, in detail, the sportscape model and how the sportscape factors affect game attendance.

7.  What are the value dimensions of professional sport to the community? How would sports marketers use these values in planning the strategic sports marketing process?

8.  Define sports involvement from the spectator perspective. Why is it important to understand the levels of involvement among spectators?

9.  Discuss, in detail, the model of fan identification and its implications for sports marketers.

10.  Explain the relationship among the eight basic fan motivation factors and the other factors that influence game attendance (i.e., game attractiveness, economic factors, competitive factors, demographic factors, stadium factors, value to the community, sports involvement, and fan identification).

Exercises

1.  Go to a high school sporting event, college sporting event, and professional sporting event. At each event, interview five spectators and ask them why they are attending the events and what benefits they are looking for from the event. Compare the different levels of competition. Do the motives for attending differ by level (i.e., high school, college, and professional)? Are there gender differences or age differences among respondents?

2.  Go to a sports bar and interview five people watching a televised sporting event. Determine their primary motivation for watching the sporting event. Describe other situations in which motives for watching sporting events vary.

3.  Attend a women’s sporting event and record the demographic profile of the spectators. What are your observations? Use these observations and suggest how you might segment, target, and position (market selection decisions) if you were to market the sport.

4.  Attend a collegiate or professional sporting event. Record and describe all the elements of sportscape. How do these affect your experience as a spectator?

5.  Ask 10 consumers about the value they believe a professional sports team would (or does) bring to the community. Then ask the same people about the value of college athletics to the community. Comment on how these values differ by level of competition.

6.  How will marketing play a role in revitalizing the following sports: baseball, tennis, and cricket? How has marketing played a role in the increased popularity in the following sports: golf, basketball, and soccer?

Internet exercises

1.  Find examples via the Internet of how sports marketers have attempted to make it easier for fans to attend sporting events.

2.  Locate two Web sites for the same sport – one for women and one for men (e.g., women’s basketball and men’s basketball). Comment on differences, if any, in how these sites market to spectators of the sport.

3.  Locate two Web sites for the same sport – one American and one international (e.g., Major League Soccer and British Premier League). Comment on differences, if any, in how these sites market to spectators of the sport.

Endnotes

1  John Burnett, Anil Menon, and Denise T. Smart, “Sports Marketing: A New Ball Game with New Rules,” Journal of Advertising Research (September–October 1993), 21–33.

2  George R. Milne, William A. Sutton, and Mark A. McDonald, “Niche Analysis: A Strategic Measurement Tool for Managers,” Sport Marketing Quarterly, vol. 5, no. 3 (1996), 17–22.

3  Ibid.

4  Ibid.

5  Richard Petty Driving Experience, http://www.1800bepetty.com/experience/Ride.aspx.

6  John Burnett, Anil Menon, and Denise T. Smart, “Sport Marketing: A New Game With New Rules,” Journal of Advertising Research, 33 (October 1993), 21–33.

7  Mauricio Ferreira and Ketra L. Armstrong, “An Exploratory Examination of Attributes Influencing Students’ Decisions to Attend College Sport Events,” Sport Marketing Quarterly, vol. 13 (2004), 194–208.

8  R. D. Hay and C. P. Rao, “Factors Affecting Attendance at Football Games,” in M. Etzel and J. Gaski (Eds.), Applying Marketing Technology to Spectator Sports (South Bend, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1982), 65–76.

9  Roger G. Noll, “Attendance and Price Setting,” in Roger G. Noll (Ed.), Government and the Sports Business (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institute, 1974), 115–157.

10  Dominic H. Rivers and Timothy D. DeSchiver, “Star Players, Payroll Distribution, and Major League Baseball Attendance,” Sport Marketing Quarterly, vol. 1 (2002), 164–173.

11  Hal Hansen and Roger Gauthier, “Factors Affecting Attendance at Professional Sport Events,” Journal of Sport Management, vol. 3, (1989), 15–32.

12  James J. Zhang, Dael G. Pease, Stanley C. Hui, and Thomas J. Michaud, “Variables Affecting the Spectator Decision to Attend NBA Games,” Sport Marketing Quarterly, vol. 4, no. 4 (1995), 29–39.

13  James R. Hill, Jeff Madura, and Richard A. Zuber, “The Short Run Demand for Major League Baseball,” Atlantic Economic Journal, vol. 10 (1982), 31–35.

14  Mark McDonald and Daniel Rascher, “Does Bat Day Make Cents? The Effect of Promotions on the Demand for Major League Baseball,” Journal of Sport Management, vol. 14 (2000), 8–27.

15  Robert A. Baade and Laura J. Tiehen, “An Analysis of Major League Baseball Attendance, 1969–1987,” Journal of Sport & Social Issues, vol. 14, no. 1 (1990), 14–32.

16  J. A. Schofield, “Performance and Attendance at Professional Team Sports,” Journal of Sport Behavior, vol. 6 (1983), 196–206.

17  S. E. Iso-Ahola, “Attributional Determinants of Decisions to Attend Football Games,” Scandinavian Journal of Sports Sciences, vol. 2 (1980), 39–46.

18  Daniel L. Wann, Angie Roberts, and Johnnie Tindall, “The Role of Team Performance, Team Identification, and Self-Esteem in Sport Spectators’ Game Preferences,” Perceptual & Motor Skills, vol. 89 (1999), 945–950.

19  Roger G. Noll, “Attendance and Price Setting,” in R. G. Noll (Ed.), Government and the Sports Business (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institute, 1974), 115–157.

20  J. Michael Schwartz, “Causes and Effects of Spectator Sports,” International Review of Sport Sociology, vol. 8 (1973), 25–45.

21  Galen Trail, Dean F. Anderson, and Janet Fink, “A Theoretical Model of Sport Spectator Consumption Behavior,” International Journal of Sport Management, vol. 1 (2000), 154–180.

22  Daniel L. Wann, “Preliminary Validation of the Sport Fan Motivation Scale,” Journal of Sport & Social Issues (November 1995), 337–396.

23  Robert B. Cialdini, Richard J. Borden, Avril Thorne, Marcus R. Walker, Stephen Freeman, and Lloyd R. Sloan, “Basking in Reflected Glory: Three (Football) Field Studies,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 34 (1976), 366–375.

24  Robert Madrigal, “Cognitive and Affective Determinants of Fan Satisfaction with Sporting Events,” Journal of Leisure Research, vol. 27 (Summer 1995), 205–228.

25  Filip Boen, Norbert Vanbeselaere, and Jos Feys, “Behavioral Consequences of Fluctuating Group Success: An Internet Study of Soccer-Team Fans,” The Journal of Social Psychology, vol. 142 (2002), 769–782.

26  Richard M. Campbell, Jr., Damon Aiken, and Aubrey Ken, “Beyond BIRGing and CORFing: Continuing the Exploration of Fan Behavior,” Sport Marketing Quarterly, vol. 13 (2004), 151–157, © 2004 West Virginia University.

27  Malcolm Moran, “For Nebraska, Football Is Personal,” USA Today (October 27, 2000).

28  “Get Them Out to the Ballpark – and Off of the Couch,” Harris Interactive, Sporttainment News, vol. 1, no. 3 (June 12, 2001).

29  “Rule Changes in College Football.” Available from: http://www.phoenixsports.com/list_articles.php?cappers_article_id123=459&show=articles.

30  “ESPN.com – NHL – Rules: Changes Are Widespread.” Available from: sports.espn. go.com/nhl/news/story?id=2114523.

31  “The True Statistics of Sports Gambling,” 2011, online sportsbetting picks, July 25. Available from: Online-sportsbetting-picks.com/the-true-statistics-of-sports-gambling, accessed December 9, 2013.

32  Ibid.

33  Richard Kolbe and Jeffrey James, “An Identification and Examination of Influences That Shape the Creation of Professional Team Fan,” International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, vol. 2 (2000), 23–38.

34  Daniel C. Funk, Lynn L. Ridinger, and Anita M. Moorman, “Exploring Origins of Involvement: Understanding the Relationship Between Consumer Motives and Involvement with Professional Sport Teams,” Leisure Science, vol. 26 (2004), 35–61.

35  Daniel L. Wann, “Preliminary Validation of the Sport Fan Motivation Scale,” Journal of Sport & Social Issues (November 1995), 337–396.

36  Richard Kolbe and Jeffrey James, “An Identification and Examination of Influences That Shape the Creation of Professional Team Fan,” International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, vol. 2 (2000), 23–38.

37  Robert A. Baade and Laura J. Tiechen, “An Analysis of Major League Baseball Attendance, 1969–1987,” Journal of Sport & Social Issues, vol. 14 (1990), 14–32.

38  Brad Edmondson, “When Athletes Turn Traitor,” American Demographics (September, 1997).

39  Kantar Media Sports, Global Sports Media Consumption Report 2013, PERFORM (May 2013).

40  Ibid.

41  Walter Gantz, “An Exploration of Viewing Motives and Behaviors Associated with Televised Sports,” Journal of Broadcasting, vol. 25, no. 3 (1981),) 263–275.

42  James Zhang and Dennis Smith, “Impact of Broadcasting on the Attendance of Professional Basketball Games,” Sport Marketing Quarterly, vol. 6, no. 1 (1997), 23–32.

43  Noel Paul, “High Cost of Pro-Sports Fandom May Ease Attendance at Most Major Events Drop – and Ticket Prices Are Expected to Follow,” Christian Science Monitor (November 19, 2001), p. 16.

44  “2003 ESPN Sports Fan Poll Is Now Available,” Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association.

45  Donna Lopiano, “Marketing Trends in Women’s Sports and Fitness,” Women’s Sports Foundation.

46  Kirk L. Wakefield and Hugh J. Sloan, “The Effects of Team Loyalty and Selected Stadium Factors on Spectator Attendance,” Journal of Sport Management, vol. 9, no. 2 (1995), 153–172.

47  Jillian Kasky, “The Best Ticket Buys for Sports Fans Today,” Money, vol. 24, no. 10 (October 1995), 146.

48  Kirk L. Wakefield, Jeffrey G. Blodgett, and Hugh J. Sloan, “Measurement and Management of the Sportscape,” Journal of Sport Management, vol. 10, no. 1 (1996), 15–31.

49  B Gall 2013, “Ranking the Top 25 College Football Stadiums,” AthalonSports. Available from: http://athlonsports.com/college-football/college-football-2013-ranking-nations-top-25-stadiums#, accessed June 17, 2014.

50  “British Sports Minister Says ‘The Terraces Are History’” (October 1997, www.nando.net/newsroom/sport…/feat/archive/102297/ssoc45127.html).

51  Bigelow, Chris, 2005, IAVM News, International Association of Assembly Managers, Coppell, TX, formerly http://www.iaam.org/facility_manager/pages/2005_Aug_Sep/STADIUMS.HTM.

52  Kirk L. Wakefield, Jeffrey G. Blodgett, and Hugh J. Sloan, “Measurement and Management of the Sportscape,” Journal of Sport Management, vol. 10, no. 1 (1996), 15–31.

53  Andy Hemmer, “Gardens Gets Skyboxes in Makeover,” Cincinnati Business Courier Inc., vol. 11, no. 48 (April 10, 1995), 1.

54  Kirk L. Wakefield, Jeffrey G. Blodgett, and Hugh J. Sloan, “Measurement and Management of the Sportscape,” Journal of Sport Management, vol. 10, no. 1 (1996), 15–31.

55  Pew Research Study, “Americans to the Rest of the World: Soccer Not Really Our Thing” (June 14, 2006).

56  Deborah L. Kerstetter and Georgia M. Kovich, “An Involvement Profile of Division I Women’s Basketball Spectators,” Journal of Sport Management, vol. 11 (1997), 234–249; Dana-Nicoleta Lascu, Thomas D. Giese, Cathy Toolan, Brian Guehring, and James Mercer, “Sport Involvement: A Relevant Individual Difference Factor in Spectator Sports,” Sport Marketing Quarterly, vol. 4, no. 4 (1995), 41–46.

57  Geoff Hobson, “Just Another Sunday,” The Cincinnati Enquirer (December 7, 1996).

58  William A. Sutton, Mark A. McDonald, George R. Milne, and John Cimperman, “Creating and Fostering Fan Identification in Professional Sports,” Sport Marketing Quarterly, vol. 6, no. 1 (1997), 15–22.

59  Ibid.

60  Ibid.

61  Ibid.

62  Ibid.