INDEX

Air-to-air communications, 7, 12

Amateur radio, 2, 9, 12, 236

Ampere's law, 31, 32

Anisotropy, 21, 27, 54, 247

Antenna, 56

aperture, 64

dissipated power, 58

effective aperture, 65

effective length, 63

efficiency, 58

gain, 61, 62

impedance, 57, 63

isotropic, 61, 62, 77

loss resistance, 58

omnidirectional, 77

parameters, 57

pattern measurements, 60

polarization, 59, 65

power pattern, 59

radiation resistance, 58

receive properties, 62

temperature, 70

wire, 62, 64

Antenna-to-medium coupling factor, 79, 285

Appleton-Hartree equation, 241, 246, 247

Atmosferics, 73

Atmosphere, 4, 7, 10, 11

density, 217

gas attenuation, 80

loss, 78

nomenclature, 227

path attenuation, 82, 84

slant, 83

vertical, 82

properties, 217

standard refractive conditions, 127

Attachment, 224, 225

Bandwidth

coherence, 185

correlation, 186

of a medium, 41

signal, 185

Barometric law, 82, 215, 219

Basic maximum usable frequency (BMUF), 263

Blackbody, 70

Boltzmann's constant, 66, 216

Bottom-side sounder, 228, 250

Boundary conditions, 18, 108, 111

Breit and Tuve's theorem, 260

Brewster angle, 117

Brightness, 68, 70

temperature, 70

sky, 75

Cellular communications, 1, 8, 161

Channel equalization, 42, 185

adaptive, 185

Channel sounding, 185

Chapman's theory, 214, 218

Characteristic impedance, 240

Characteristic polarizations, 241, 246, 248

Characteristic times, 22

Charge conservation, 19

Charge continuity equations, 17–19

Coherence bandwidth, 185

Coherence time, 186

Committee on Space Research, 229

Common volume, 284

Communication systems design, 2

Compact range, 60

Complex propagation constant, 52

Complex susceptibility, 25, 27

Conductive behavior, 30

Conductivity, 30–32

effective, 31, 46

ground, 32

Constitutive relations, 19, 23

Coronal mass ejection, 230

Correlation bandwidth, 186

COST-231 Hata model, 162, 166

COST231-Walfish-Ikegami model, 168

Critical angle, 118

Critical frequency, 253

Cross-polarization discrimination, 90

Cumulative distribution function, 172

Current density, 18, 30

D'Alembert's solution, 37, 39, 41

D-layer, 12, 228

Delay

dry, 289

spread, 185, 186

tropospheric, 288

wet, 289

Demodulation, 41

Deviative absorption, 270

Dielectric, 20

behavior, 20

constant, 24, 25, 31, 32

complex, 25, 26

hysteresis loss, 25, 26

loss, 25

properties, 21, 22

Diffraction, 8

knife edge, 152

smooth sphere, 152

terrain, 135

Dipole moment

average, 20

Direct plus reflected propagation, 135, 163

modified, 154

Direct propagation, 6, 12, 14, 76

Direction cosines, 44

Directional gain, 60, 61, 77

Directivity, 61

Dispersion, 21, 51

Dispersion curve, 26, 248

Dispersive, 21

medium, 23

Displacement current, 3

Diversity

combiner, 184

for multipath fade mitigation, 184

gain, 100

improvement, 100

site, 99

Doppler spread, 186

Drop size distribution, 87

Marshall-Palmer, 87

Ducts, 7, 14, 128–132

elevated, 130

evaporation, 130

surface-based, 130

E-layer, 12, 228, 230, 255

Earth “bulge”, 145

Earth curvature, 145, 279

Earth magnetic field, 11, 21, 230, 232, 242

Earth radius, 124

Earth reflections, 7

Earth-to-space paths, 10, 272

Effective aperture, 65

Effective Earth radius, 125, 197

EHF, 5

Electric dipole, 20

Electric field intensity, 18, 20–23, 28

at unit distance, unattenuated, 137

Electric flux density, 18, 22

Electric susceptibility, 22

Electromagnetic theory, 17

Electromagnetic waves, 1, 12, 36

Electron

charge, 237

collision frequency, 238

density, 215, 223, 227

mass, 238

Electrostatic representation, 24

Envelope, 50

Equivalent vertical frequency, 258

Equivalent virtual heights, 261

Error function, 175

Evanescent wave, 118

Expected value, 173

Extinction, 89

Extraordinary wave (x-wave), 247

F-layer, 12, 229–230, 254

Fading, 8, 162, 170

and link reliability, 181

example analyses, 183

fast, 170, 176

flat, 176, 185

frequency selective, 185

narrowband, 176, 185

slow, 170, 172, 174

wideband, 185

Far-field conditions, 57

Faraday rotation, 249, 271, 273

Fast fading, 170, 176

Federal Communications Commission (FCC), 15

Ferroelectric materials, 20

Flat Earth-effective ray curvature model, 126

Fraunhofer region, 57

Freezing height, 92

Frequency of optimum transmission (FOT), 264

Frequency scaling, 97

Frequency selective fading, 185, 249

Fresnel zones, 141, 152

Friis transmission formula, 76

Gain

antenna, 61

Geomagnetic phenomena, 4

Geomagnetic storms, 232

Geostationary satellites, 103

Global navigation satellite systems, 1, 274, 279, 288

Global Positioning System, 1, 7, 275, 279, 288

Goos-Hanchen phase shift, 119

Ground-to-air communications, 7, 12, 14

Groundwave, 6, 8, 12, 14, 189

approximate calculations, 199

attenuation curves, 190, 206–210

elevated antennas, 194

example calculation, 201, 203

excess loss, 192, 198

mixed paths, 205

planar Earth, 190

spherical Earth, 197

Group velocity, 49, 51, 252

GRWAVE, 190, 213

Guglielmo Marconi, 3

Gyrofrequency, 244, 249

Half-wavelength dipole, 65

Height-gain curve, 140, 148

obstructed region, 151

reflection region, 154

Height-gain function, 195, 198

Heinrich Hertz, 3

Helmholtz theorem, 19

Hertzian dipole, 61

Heterosphere, 218

HF, 2, 5, 12, 14, 189, 236

High-angle ray, 263, 265

Homogeneous material, 22

Homosphere, 218

Horizon distance, 149, 151

Hoyt distribution, 182

Hydrometeors, 85

attenuation by, 85

ICEPAC, 267

IEEE frequency bands, 4, 5

Impedance

antenna, 57, 63

characteristic, 40

intrinsic, 40

mismatch factor, 65

of a lossy medium, 48

of free space, 62

wave, 40

Impulse response, 23

Index of refraction, Refractive index, 112

Indoor picocell pathloss model, 162, 168

Inhomogeneous material, 22

Institute for Telecommunications Sciences, 15

Interference, 2, 7, 68

constructive, 140, 144

destructive, 139, 140, 147

International Reference Ionosphere (IRI), 227, 229

International Telecommunication Union (ITU), 14

International Union of Radio Science, 229

Intersymbol interference, 42, 186

IONCAP, 267

Ionized medium, 237

Ionograms, 249, 251, 253, 254, 263

Ionosonde, 250

Ionosphere, 2, 5, 9, 10, 12, 29–30

absorption, 268

bandwidth, 42

characteristics, 214

dispersion, 262, 266, 273

group delay, 273, 288

layers, 228

propagation, 3, 235, 249

propagation prediction tools, 267

reflection, 5, 6, 9, 11, 15

scaling laws, 219, 226

scatter mechanism, 11, 12

scintillation, 275

sounding, 250

storms, 232

structure, 226

variability, 229

Isotropic antenna, 77

Isotropic medium, 21, 23

James Clerk Maxwell, 3

Kramers-Kronig relations, 26

Lee model, 162, 167

LF, 5, 12, 14

Lightning, 11, 73

Line of sight, 8, 10, 148, 150

Linear media, 21

Lognormal distribution, 176

Loss tangent, 32

Lossless medium, 43

Low noise amplifier, 67

Luxembourg effect, 29

Macrocell, 162

Macroscopic field, 20

Magnetic field intensity, 18

Magnetic flux density, 18

Magnetic storms, 232

Magnetoionic medium, 240

Magnetosphere, 232

Mapping functions, 289

Marcum function, 180

Marshall-Palmer distribution, 88

Martyn's theorem, 261

Material properties, 19, 21

Maximum observed frequency (MOF), 264

Maximum usable frequency (MUF), 249, 263

Maxwell's equations, 3, 18, 20, 22, 23, 29, 37

Metamaterials, 29

Meteor, 11

burst communications, 287

scatter mechanism, 11, 12, 286

trails, 11

Method of moments, 159

MF, 3, 5, 6, 12, 14, 236

Microscopic phenomena, 24

Microwave radiometer, 75

Mie theory, 90

Modulation, 41

Moisture content, 1

Multipath, 14, 135, 139

atmospheric, 102

environment, 8, 12

Multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO), 185

N-units, 127

Nakagami-m distribution, 182

Nakagami-q distribution, 182

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), 15

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 15, 217

National Telecommunications and Information Administration, 15

Near-field, 194

NeQuick, 229

Noise, 56, 66

bandwidth, 69

brightness, 68

excess, 67

external, 68, 71

factor, 66

figure, 66

internal, 66

power, 66

temperature, 66

Nondeviative absorption, 270

Nondispersive, 21

Nonlinear media, 28

Nonlinearity, 21

Notation

Overbar, 18

Underbar, 25

Numerical antenna heights, 194

Numerical distance, 191

Numerical methods, 158

Obstructed paths, 148, 151

Ohmic loss, 31

Oil and gas exploration, 1, 11

Okumura-Hata model, 162, 164

Operational MUF, 264

Optical depth, 219, 220

Optimum transmission frequency (OTF), 264

Optimum working frequency (OWF), 264

Ordinary wave (o-wave), 247

Outage probability, 181

Overdense trails, 286

Oxygen, 81

Parabolic equation, 159, 168

Path clearance, 145, 147, 151

Path loss

empirical model, 161, 162, 164

examples, 169

fast fading, 176

flat Earth, 163

free space, 163

median, 162, 164

slow fading, 172, 174

Path profile, 145

Pedersen ray, 263

Penetration depth, 48

Period, 43

Permeability, 19

of free space, 30

Permittivity, 19

Personal communications, 1

Phase constant, 49

Phase matching, 111

Phase velocity, 49, 51

Phasor representation, 24, 25, 43, 46

Picocell, 162

Planck's law, 70

Plane of incidence, 109

Plane waves, 17, 36, 41, 43, 45, 54

in lossy media, 48

nonuniform, 44

Planetary atmospheres, 11

Plasma

frequency, 238, 244

magnetized permittivity, 240

non-magnetized permittivity, 240

Point-to-area communications, 160

Point-to-point communications, 1, 8, 9, 12, 135, 147

examples, 154

Polar cap absorption, 233

Polarization

antenna, 65

circular, 53

elliptical, 53

function, 24

horizontal, 110

linear, 53

material, 20, 21, 23, 24

mismatch factor, 65

parallel, 109

perpendicular, 109, 110

ratio, 54, 241, 242

rotation, 10

vertical, 110

wave, 52

Power density, 44

Poynting vector, 44, 48, 58

Predicted MUF, 264

Pressure broadening, 81

Probability density function, 172

Probability scaling, 97

Probability theory, 162, 172

Propagation, 12

non-atmospheric, 11

over a planar Earth, 141, 144

Propagation mechanism, 5, 6, 12, 14, 282

unusual, 10

Propagation media, 17, 19

Quasi-longitudinal (Q_L) propagation, 248

Quasi-static representation, 24

Quasi-transverse (Q_T) propagation, 248

Radar, 1, 6, 12, 291

bistatic, 292

Radar cross section, 291

Radar equation, 292

Radar frequency bands, 4

Radiated power, 58

Radiation efficiency, 58

Radiation resistance, 58

Radio and television broadcasting, 1, 6, 9, 12

Rain

attenuation, 85

distribution, 85

effective path length, 93

margin, 85

example calculation, 98

path attenuation, 92, 96

rate, 87

effective, 93

specific attenuation, 89, 90

effective, 93

statistics, 88

Random variables, 172

exponential, 178

Gaussian, 174

lognormal, 176

normal, 174

Rayleigh, 177

Rician, 178

Ray model of ionospheric propagation, 10

Ray-tracing, 132, 168, 267

Rayleigh approximation, 90

Rayleigh channel, 177

REC533, 267

Receiving aperture, 65

Recombination, 224, 225

Reflection, 8, 106

coefficient

normal incidence, 107

parallel, 115, 116

perpendicular, 113, 116

law of, 112

normal incidence, 106

oblique incidence, 108, 111, 114

total, 118

Refraction, 106, 112

equivalent models for, 126

in Earth's atmosphere, 127

planar stratified medium, 120

spherically stratified medium, 122

Refractive index, 112

magnetized plasma, 246

modified, 129

Relative dielectric constant, 22, 31, 32

Relaxation time, 21, 23, 24, 26

Rician channel, 176, 178

Rough surface, 143

Satellite communications, 2, 6, 12, 249, 271

Scale height, 82, 217

Scintillation

index, 276, 277

ionospheric, 10, 275, 277

tropospheric, 102

Secant law, 257

Selective fading

ionospheric, 249

Sensors, 1

Sferics, 73

SHF, 4, 5, 14

Short-wave band, 9, 14, 236

Signal-to-noise ratio, 68

Simple medium, 22, 41

Site specific methods, 135

examples, 154

Skin depth, 48

Skip distance, 249, 262, 266

Skip zone, 266

Skywave mode, 6, 12, 14, 236

Slow fading, 170, 172, 174

Snell's law, 111, 112

for a spherical Earth, 122

SNOTEL, 287

Solar

activity, 4, 230

flares, 230, 232

flux, 219, 230

forecasting, 233

prominences, 232

radiation, 215

storms, 232

wind, 232, 233

Sommerfeld, 190

Specific attenuation, 79, 80

Specific extinction coefficient, 78, 79

Spherical divergence factor, 154

Spherical wave, 59

Sporadic-E, 230, 255

Spread-F, 230, 255

Standard atmosphere, 217

Standard deviation, 173

Stochastic process, 185

Submarine communications, 48, 236

Subrefractive, 128

Sudden ionospheric disturbances, 233

Sunspots, 230

Superrefractive, 128

Surface wave, 8, 119, 120

Susceptibility matrix, 28

Suzuki distribution, 182

System loss, 79, 163

System reliability, 85

Terrain diffraction, 8, 14, 135

Terrestrial communications, 6

Time-harmonic fields, 24, 42

Time-invariant media, 22

Top-side sounder, 228, 251

Topographic datasets, 160

Total electron content (TEC), 273, 279

Total internal reflection, 133

Trans-Atlantic transmissions, 3

Trans-ionospheric

attenuation, 277

propagation, 271

refraction, 278

Trans-ionospheric propagation, 229

Transmission coefficient

normal incidence, 107

parallel, 115

perpendicular, 113

Transmission curves, 249, 258, 263

Transverse electric (TE), 110

Transverse electromagnetic (TEM) waves, 41

Transverse magnetic (TM), 110

Trapping gradients, 128, 130

Traveling waves, 39, 44

Troposphere, 10

bandwidth, 42

delay, 288

inhomogeneities, 22

refraction, 7, 127

scatter fading, 285

scatter geometry, 283

scatter mechanism, 2, 10, 12, 14, 22, 282

scatter path loss model, 285

scintillation, 102

UHF, 3–5, 7, 12, 14

Underdense trails, 286

Underground objects, 11

Underwater communications, 4

Urban areas, 8, 12, 162, 205

Vacuum, permittivity of, 20

Van der Pol and Bremmer, 190

Variance, 176

VHF, 5, 7, 11, 12, 14, 236

Virtual height, 251

VLF, 4, 5, 12, 14, 235

VOACAP, 267

Volume density of free charge, 18

Wait time for MBC, 287

Water vapor, 80, 82

Watson transformation, 196

Wave equation, 37, 46

Wave velocity, 40

Waveguide modes, 10, 12, 14, 235

Wavelength, 43, 49

Wavenumber, 48

Weibull distribution, 182

Whistlers, 11

White Alice system, 2, 11

Wideband channels, 185

Wireless telegraphy, 1

Wireless telephony, 1

Z wave, 252

Zero degree isotherm height, 92