Quality Management
Abstract
This chapter gives a history of and explains the need for quality management. The quality management definitions are first listed and then described in detail. A diagram shows the issuing sequence of the quality-related documentation. Other diagrams include a cause and effect diagram, a Pareto chart, and a quality failure table. Sample formats for quality assurance approval documents and compliance requests are included.
Keywords
Quality management; quality assurance; quality plan; total quality management (TQM); quality control; quality audit; Pareto chart; cause and effect diagram
‘Quality is remembered long after the price is forgotten’.
Gucci
Chapter Outline
Quality Management Definitions
Quality Systems (Quality Management Systems) (QMS)
Total Quality Management (TQM)
Explanation of the Definitions
Quality (or performance) forms the third corner of the time–cost–quality triangle, which is the basis of project management.
A project may be completed on time and within the set budget, but if it does not meet the specified quality or performance criteria it will at best attract criticism and at worst be considered a failure. Striking a balance between meeting the three essential criteria of time, cost, and quality is one of the most onerous tasks of a project manager, but in practice usually one will be paramount. Where quality is synonymous with safety, as with aircraft or nuclear design, there is no question which point of the project management triangle is the most important. However, even if the choice is not so obvious, a failure in quality can be expensive and dangerous and can destroy an organization’s reputation far quicker than it took to build up.
Quality management is therefore an essential part of project management, and as with any other attribute, it does not just happen without a systematic approach. To ensure a quality product it has to be defined, planned, designed, specified, manufactured, constructed (or erected), and commissioned to an agreed set of standards that involve every department of the organization from top management to dispatch.
It is not possible to build quality into a product. If a product meets the specified performance criteria for a specified minimum time, it can be said to be a quality product. Whether the cost of achieving these criteria is high or low is immaterial, but to ensure that the criteria are met will almost certainly require additional expenditure. If these costs are then added to the normal production costs, a quality assured product will normally cost more than an equivalent one that has not gone through a quality control process.
Quality is an attitude of mind, and to be most effective, every level of an organization should be involved and be committed to achieving the required performance standards by setting and operating procedures and systems which ensure this. It should permeate right through an organization from the board of directors down to the operatives on the shop floor.
Ideally everyone should be responsible for ensuring that his or her work meets the quality standards set down by management. To ensure that these standards are met, quality assurance requires checks and audits to be carried out on a regular basis.
However, producing a product that has not undergone a series of quality checks and tests and therefore not met customers’ expectations could be very much more expensive, since there will be more returns of faulty goods and fewer returns of customers. In other words, quality assurance is good business. It is far better to get it right first time, every time, than to have a second attempt or carry out a repair.
To enable this consistency of performance to be obtained (and guaranteed), the quality assurance, control, review, and audit procedures have to be carried out in an organised manner and the following functions and actions implemented:
1. The quality standards have been defined;
2. The quality requirements have been disseminated;
3. The correct equipment has been set up;
4. The staff and operatives have been trained;
5. The materials have been tested and checked for conformity;
6. Adequate control points have been set up;
7. The designated components have been checked at predetermined stages and intervals;
8. A feedback and rectification process has been set up;
9. Regular quality audits and reviews are carried out;
10. All these steps, which make up quality control, are enshrined in the quality manual together with the quality policy, quality plan, and quality programme.
History
The first quality standards were produced in the USA for the military as MIL-STD and subsequently used by NATO.
In the 1970s, the MOD issued the Defence Standard series 05 to 20 (Def Std) based on the American MIL-Q-9858A, but it was then superseded by 15 parts of the Allied Quality Assurance Publication (AQAP).
Defence contractors and other large companies adopted the MOD system until in 1979 BSI produced the BS 5750 series of Quality Systems. These were updated in 1987 and then became an international standard (ISO), the ISO 9000:1987 series, which also covers the European standard E 29000 series.
To understand the subject, it is vital that the definitions of the various quality functions are understood. These are summarized in the following list and explained more fully in the subsequent sections.
Quality Management Definitions
Quality
The totality of features and characteristics of a product, service, or facility that bear on its ability to satisfy a given need.
Quality Policy
The overall quality intentions and direction of an organization as regards quality, as formally expressed by top management.
Quality Management
That aspect of overall quality functions that determines and implements the quality policy.
Quality Assurance (QA)
All the planned and systematic actions necessary to provide confidence that an item, service, or facility will meet the defined requirements.
Quality Systems (Quality Management Systems) (QMS)
The organizational structures, responsibilities, procedures, processes, and resources for implementing quality management.
Quality Control (QC)
Those quality assurance actions that provide a means of control and measure the characteristics of an item, process, or facility to established requirements.
Quality Manual
A set of documents that communicates the organization’s quality policy, procedures, and requirements.
Quality Programme
A contract (project)-specific document that defines the quality requirements, responsibilities, procedures, and actions to be applied at various stages of the contract.
Quality Plan
A contract (project)-specific document defining the actions and processes to be undertaken together with the hold points for reviews and inspections. It also defines the control document, applicable standards, inspection methods, and inspection authority. This authority may be internal and/or may include the client’s inspectors or an independent/statutory inspection authority.
Quality Audit
A periodic check that the quality procedures set out in the quality plan have been carried out.
Quality Reviews
Periodic reviews of the quality standards, procedures, and processes to ensure their applicability to current requirements.
Total Quality Management (TQM)
The company-wide approach to quality beyond the prescriptive requirements of a quality management standard such as ISO 9001.
Explanation of the Definitions
Quality Policy
The quality policy has to be set by top management and issued to the whole organization, so that everyone is aware what the aims of management regarding quality are. The quality policy might be to produce a component that lasts a specific period of time under normal use, withstands a set number of reversing cycles before cracking, withstands a defined load or pressure, or, on the opposite scale, lasts only a limited number of years so that a later model can be produced to replace it. A firm of house builders might have a quality policy to build all their houses to the highest standards in only the most desirable locations, or the top management of a car manufacturer might dictate to their design engineers to design a car using components that will not fail for at least five years. There is clearly a cost and marketing implication in any quality policy that must be taken into account.
Quality Management
Quality management can be divided into two main areas: quality assurance (QA) and quality control (QC). All the quality functions, such as the procedures, methods, techniques, programmes, plans, controls, reviews, and audits, make up the science of quality management.
It also includes all the necessary documentation and its distribution, the implementation of the procedures, and the training and appointment of quality managers, testers, checkers, auditors, and other staff involved in quality management.
Quality Assurance
Quality assurance (QA) is the process that ensures that adequate quality systems, processes, and procedures are in place. It is the term given to a set of documents that give evidence of how and when the different quality procedures and systems are actually being implemented. These documents give proof that quality systems are in place and adequate controls have been set up to ensure compliance with the quality policy. To satisfy him- or herself that the quality of a product he or she needs is to the required standard, the buyer may well ask all tenderers or suppliers to produce their quality assurance documents with their quotations or tenders.
Guidelines for quality management and quality assurance standards are published by various national and international institutions including the British Standards Institution, which publishes the following quality standards:
| ISO 9000 | Quality Management and Quality Assurance Standards |
| ISO 9001 | Quality Systems – Model for Quality Assurance in design and development, production, installation and servicing |
| ISO 9002 | Quality Systems – Model for Quality Assurance in Production and Installation |
| ISO 9003 | Quality Systems – Model for Quality Assurance in Inspection and Testing |
| ISO 9004 | Guide to Quality Management and Quality Systems Elements |
| ISO 10006 | Guidelines for quality in project management |
| ISO 10007 | Guidelines for configuration management |
Quality Systems
Quality systems or quality management systems, as they are often called, are the structured procedures that in effect enable quality control to be realized. The systems required include the levels of responsibility for quality control, such as hierarchical diagrams (family trees) showing who is responsible to whom and for which part of the quality spectrum they are accountable for as well as the procedures for recruiting and training staff and operatives. Other systems cover the different quality procedures and processes that may be common for all as well as all components or specifics for particular ones.
Quality systems also include the procurement, installation, operation, and maintenance of equipment for carrying out quality checks. These cover such equipment as measuring tools, testing bays, non-destructive testing equipment for radiography (X-rays), magnetic particle scans, ultrasonic inspection, and all the different techniques being developed for testing purposes.
Documentation plays an important role in ensuring that the tests and checks have been carried out as planned and the results accurately recorded and forwarded to the specified authority. Suitable action plans for recovering from deviations of set criteria will also form part of the quality systems. The sequence of generating the related quality documentation is shown in Figure 16.1.
Quality Control
The means to control and measure characteristics of a component and the methods employed for monitoring and measuring a process or facility are part of quality control. Control covers the actions to be taken by the different staff and operators employed in the quality environment and the availability of the necessary tools to enable this work to be done. Again, the provision of the right documentation to the operatives and their correct, accurate, and timely completion has to be controlled. This control covers the design, material specification, manufacture, assembly, and distribution stages. The performance criteria are often set by the feedback from market research and customer requirements and confirmed by top management.
Quality Manual
The quality manual is in effect the ‘bible’ of quality management. It is primarily a communication document which, between its covers, contains the organization’s quality policy, the different quality procedures, the quality systems to be used, and the list of personnel involved in implementing the quality policy. The manual will also contain the various test certificates required for certain operatives such as welders, the types of tests to be carried out on different materials and components, and the sourcing trails required for specified materials.
Quality Programme
This is a document written specifically for the project in hand and contains all the requirements for that project. The different levels and stages for quality checks or tests will be listed together with the names of the staff and operatives required at each stage. Included also will be the reporting procedures and the names or organizations authorised to approve or reject results and instruct what remedial action (if required) has to be taken, especially when concessions for non-compliance have been requested.
Quality Plan
This is also a contract-specific document that can vary in content and size greatly from company to company. As a general rule it defines in great detail:
1. The processes to be employed;
2. The hold points of each production process;
3. The tests to be carried out for different materials and components, including:
• dimensional checks and weight checks
• material tests (physical and chemical)
• non-destructive tests (radiography, ultrasonic, magnetic particle, etc.)
• electrical tests (voltage, current, resistance, continuity, etc.)
• qualification and capability tests for operatives;
4. The control documents including reports and concession requests.
5. The standards to be applied for the different components;
7. The percentage of items or processes (such as welds) to be checked;
8. The inspection authorities, whether internal, external, or statutory; and
Most organizations have their own standards and test procedures but may additionally be required to comply with the client’s quality standards. A sample quality plan of components of a boiler is shown in Figure 16.2.
The quality plan is part of the project management plan and because of its size is usually attached as an appendix.
Quality Audit
To ensure that the various procedures are implemented correctly, regular quality audits must be carried out across the whole spectrum of the quality systems. These audits vary in scope and depth and can be carried out by internal members of staff or external authorities. Where an organization is officially registered as being in compliance with a specific quality standard such as ISO 9000, an annual audit by an independent inspection authority may be carried out to ensure that the standards are still being met.
Quality Reviews
As manufacturing or distribution processes change, a periodic review must be carried out to ensure that the quality procedures are still relevant and applicable in light of the changed conditions. Statutory standards may also have been updated, and these reviews check that the latest versions have been incorporated.
As part of the reviewing process, existing, proposed, or new suppliers and contractors have to confirm their compliance with quality assurance procedures. Figure 16.3 shows the type of letter that should be sent periodically to all vendors.
All the above procedures are sometimes described as the ‘tools’ of quality management to which can be added the following techniques:
Failure Mode Analysis (Cause and Effect Analysis)
This technique involves selecting certain (usually critical) items and identifying all the possible modes of failure that could occur during its life cycle. The probability, causes, and impact of such a failure are then assessed and the necessary controls and rectification processes put in place. Clearly, as with risk analysis, the earlier in the project this process is carried out, the more opportunity there is to anticipate a problem and, if necessary, change the design to ‘engineer’ it out.
The following example illustrates how this technique can be applied to find the main causes affecting the operability of a domestic vacuum cleaner.
The first step is to list all the main causes that are generally experienced when using such a machine. These causes (or quality shortcomings), which may require a brainstorming session to generate them, are:
The second step is drawing a cause and effect diagram as shown in Figure 16.4, which is also known as an Ishikawa or fishbone diagram, from which it is possible to see clearly how these causes affect the operation of the vacuum cleaner.
The third step requires all the sub-causes (or reasons) of a main cause to be written against the tributary lines (or fishbones) of each cause. For example, the sub-causes of electrical failure are the lead being too short, thus pulling the plug out of the socket, or hauling the cleaner by the lead and causing a break in the cable.
The last step involves an assessment of the number of times over a measured period each cause has resulted in a failure. However, it is highly advantageous to concentrate on those causes that are responsible for the most complaints, and when this has been completed and assessed by applying the next technique, Pareto analysis, appropriate action can be taken to resolve any problem or rectify any error.
Pareto Analysis
In the nineteenth century, Vilfredo Pareto discovered that in Italy 90% of income was earned by 10% of the population. Further study showed that this distribution was also true for many other situations from political power to industrial problems. He therefore formulated Pareto’s law, which states that ‘In any series of elements to be controlled, a small fraction in terms of the number of elements always account for a large fraction in terms of effect’.
In the case of the vacuum cleaner, this is clearly shown in the Pareto chart in Figure 16.5, which plots the impact Y in terms of percentage of problems encountered against the number of causes X identified. The survey of faults shows that of the four main causes examined, inadequate dust collection is responsible for 76% (nearly 80%) of the failures or complaints. This is why Pareto’s law is sometimes called the 80/20 rule.
The percentage figure can be calculated by tabulating the causes and the number of times they resulted in a failure over a given period, say 1 year, and then converting these into a percentage of the total number of failures. This is shown in Figure 16.6. Clearly such ratios are only approximate and can vary widely, but in general only a relatively small number of causes are responsible for the most serious effects. Anyone who is involved in club committee activities will know that there are always a few keen members who have the greatest influence.
Trend Analysis
Part of the quality control process is to issue regular reports that log non-conformance, accepted or non-accepted variances, delays, cost overruns, or other problems. If these reports are reviewed on a regular basis, trends may be discerned which, if considered to be adverse, can then be addressed by taking appropriate corrective action. At the same time the opportunity can be taken to check whether there has been a deficiency in the procedures or documents and whether other components could be affected. Most importantly, the cause and source of a failure has to be identified, which may require a review of all the suppliers and subcontractors involved.