Chapter 14. Analyzing Classful IPv4 Networks
This chapter covers the following exam topics:
1.0 Network Fundamentals
1.8 Configure, verify, and troubleshoot IPv4 addressing and subnetting
1.9 Compare and contrast IPv4 address types
1.9.a Unicast
1.9.b Broadcast
When operating a network, you often start investigating a problem based on an IP address and mask. Based on the IP address alone, you should be able to determine several facts about the Class A, B, or C network in which the IP address resides. These facts can be useful when troubleshooting some networking problems.
This chapter lists the key facts about classful IP networks and explains how to discover these facts. Following that, this chapter lists some practice problems. Before moving to the next chapter, you should practice until you can consistently determine all these facts, quickly and confidently, based on an IP address.
“Do I Know This Already?” Quiz
Take the quiz (either here, or use the PTP software) if you want to use the score to help you decide how much time to spend on this chapter. The answers are at the bottom of the page following the quiz, and the explanations are in DVD Appendix C and in the PTP software.
1. Which of the following are not valid Class A network IDs? (Choose two answers.)
a. 1.0.0.0
b. 130.0.0.0
c. 127.0.0.0
d. 9.0.0.0
2. Which of the following are not valid Class B network IDs?
a. 130.0.0.0
b. 191.255.0.0
c. 128.0.0.0
d. 150.255.0.0
e. All are valid Class B network IDs.
3. Which of the following are true about IP address 172.16.99.45’s IP network? (Choose two answers.)
a. The network ID is 172.0.0.0.
b. The network is a Class B network.
c. The default mask for the network is 255.255.255.0.
d. The number of host bits in the unsubnetted network is 16.
4. Which of the following are true about IP address 192.168.6.7’s IP network? (Choose two answers.)
a. The network ID is 192.168.6.0.
b. The network is a Class B network.
c. The default mask for the network is 255.255.255.0.
d. The number of host bits in the unsubnetted network is 16.
5. Which of the following is a network broadcast address?
a. 10.1.255.255
b. 192.168.255.1
c. 224.1.1.255
d. 172.30.255.255
Answers to the “Do I Know This Already?” quiz:
Foundation Topics
Classful Network Concepts
Imagine that you have a job interview for your first IT job. As part of the interview, you’re given an IPv4 address and mask: 10.4.5.99, 255.255.255.0. What can you tell the interviewer about the classful network (in this case, the Class A network) in which the IP address resides?
This section, the first of two major sections in this chapter, reviews the concepts of classful IP networks (in other words, Class A, B, and C networks). In particular, this chapter examines how to begin with a single IP address and then determine the following facts:
Class (A, B, or C)
Default mask
Number of network octets/bits
Number of host octets/bits
Number of host addresses in the network
Network ID
First and last usable address in the network
IPv4 Network Classes and Related Facts
IP version 4 (IPv4) defines five address classes. Three of the classes, Classes A, B, and C, consist of unicast IP addresses. Unicast addresses identify a single host or interface so that the address uniquely identifies the device. Class D addresses serve as multicast addresses, so that one packet sent to a Class D multicast IPv4 address can actually be delivered to multiple hosts. Finally, Class E addresses were originally intended for experimentation, but were changed to simply be reserved for future use. The class can be identified based on the value of the first octet of the address, as shown in Table 14-2.
After you identify the class as either A, B, or C, many other related facts can be derived just through memorization. Table 14-3 lists that information for reference and later study; each of these concepts is described in this chapter.
At times, some people today look back and wonder, “Are there 128 class A networks, with two reserved networks, or are there truly only 126 class A networks?” Frankly, the difference is unimportant, and the wording is just two ways to state the same idea. The important fact to know is that Class A network 0.0.0.0 and network 127.0.0.0 are reserved. In fact, they have been reserved since the creation of Class A networks, as listed in RFC 791 (published in 1981).
Although it may be a bit of a tangent, what is more interesting today is that over time, other newer RFCs have also reserved small pieces of the Class A, B, and C address space. So, tables like Table 14-3, with the count of the numbers of Class A, B, and C networks, are a good place to get a sense of the size of the number; however, the number of reserved networks does change slightly over time (albeit slowly) based on these other reserved address ranges.
Note
If you are interested in seeing all the reserved IPv4 address ranges, just do an Internet search on “IANA IPv4 special-purpose address registry.”
The Number and Size of the Class A, B, and C Networks
Table 14-3 lists the range of Class A, B, and C network numbers; however, some key points can be lost just referencing a table of information. This section examines the Class A, B, and C network numbers, focusing on the more important points and the exceptions and unusual cases.
First, the number of networks from each class significantly differs. Only 126 Class A networks exist: network 1.0.0.0, 2.0.0.0, 3.0.0.0, and so on, up through network 126.0.0.0. However, 16,384 Class B networks exist, with more than 2 million Class C networks.
Next, note that the size of networks from each class also significantly differs. Each Class A network is relatively large—over 16 million host IP addresses per network—so they were originally intended to be used by the largest companies and organizations. Class B networks are smaller, with over 65,000 hosts per network. Finally, Class C networks, intended for small organizations, have 254 hosts in each network. Figure 14-1 summarizes those facts.
Address Formats
In some cases, an engineer might need to think about a Class A, B, or C network as if the network has not been subdivided through the subnetting process. In such a case, the addresses in the classful network have a structure with two parts: the network part (sometimes called the prefix) and the host part. Then, comparing any two IP addresses in one network, the following observations can be made:
The addresses in the same network have the same values in the network part.
The addresses in the same network have different values in the host part.
For example, in Class A network 10.0.0.0, by definition, the network part consists of the first octet. As a result, all addresses have an equal value in the network part, namely a 10 in the first octet. If you then compare any two addresses in the network, the addresses have a different value in the last three octets (the host octets). For example, IP addresses 10.1.1.1 and 10.1.1.2 have the same value (10) in the network part, but different values in the host part.
Figure 14-2 shows the format and sizes (in number of bits) of the network and host parts of IP addresses in Class A, B, and C networks, before any subnetting has been applied.
Default Masks
Although we humans can easily understand the concepts behind Figure 14-2, computers prefer numbers. To communicate those same ideas to computers, each network class has an associated default mask that defines the size of the network and host parts of an unsubnetted Class A, B, and C network. To do so, the mask lists binary 1s for the bits considered to be in the network part and binary 0s for the bits considered to be in the host part.
For example, Class A network 10.0.0.0 has a network part of the first single octet (8 bits) and a host part of last three octets (24 bits). As a result, the Class A default mask is 255.0.0.0, which in binary is
11111111 00000000 00000000 00000000
Figure 14-3 shows default masks for each network class, both in binary and dotted-decimal format.
Note
Decimal 255 converts to the binary value 11111111. Decimal 0, converted to 8-bit binary, is 00000000. See Appendix A, “Numeric Reference Tables,” for a conversion table.
Number of Hosts per Network
Calculating the number of hosts per network requires some basic binary math. First, consider a case where you have a single binary digit. How many unique values are there? There are, of course, two values: 0 and 1. With 2 bits, you can make four combinations: 00, 01, 10, and 11. As it turns out, the total combination of unique values you can make with N bits is 2N.
Host addresses—the IP addresses assigned to hosts—must be unique. The host bits exist for the purpose of giving each host a unique IP address by virtue of having a different value in the host part of the addresses. So, with H host bits, 2H unique combinations exist.
However, the number of hosts in a network is not 2H; instead, it is 2H – 2. Each network reserves two numbers that would have otherwise been useful as host addresses, but have instead been reserved for special use: one for the network ID and one for the network broadcast address. As a result, the formula to calculate the number of host addresses per Class A, B, or C network is
2H – 2
where H is the number of host bits.
Deriving the Network ID and Related Numbers
Each classful network has four key numbers that describe the network. You can derive these four numbers if you start with just one IP address in the network. The numbers are as follows:
Network number
First (numerically lowest) usable address
Last (numerically highest) usable address
Network broadcast address
First, consider both the network number and first usable IP address. The network number, also called the network ID or network address, identifies the network. By definition, the network number is the numerically lowest number in the network. However, to prevent any ambiguity, the people that made up IP addressing added the restriction that the network number cannot be assigned as an IP address. So, the lowest number in the network is the network ID. Then, the first (numerically lowest) host IP address is one larger than the network number.
Next, consider the network broadcast address along with the last (numerically highest) usable IP address. The TCP/IP RFCs define a network broadcast address as a special address in each network. This broadcast address could be used as the destination address in a packet, and the routers would forward a copy of that one packet to all hosts in that classful network. Numerically, a network broadcast address is always the highest (last) number in the network. As a result, the highest (last) number usable as an IP address is the address that is simply one less than the network broadcast address.
Simply put, if you can find the network number and network broadcast address, finding the first and last usable IP addresses in the network is easy. For the exam, you should be able to find all four values with ease; the process is as follows:
Step 1. Determine the class (A, B, or C) based on the first octet.
Step 2. Mentally divide the network and host octets based on the class.
Step 3. To find the network number, change the IP address’s host octets to 0.
Step 4. To find the first address, add 1 to the fourth octet of the network ID.
Step 5. To find the broadcast address, change the network ID’s host octets to 255.
Step 6. To find the last address, subtract 1 from the fourth octet of the network broadcast address.
The written process actually looks harder than it is. Figure 14-4 shows an example of the process, using Class A IP address 10.17.18.21, with the circled numbers matching the process.
Figure 14-4 shows the identification of the class as Class A (Step 1) and the number of network/host octets as 1 and 3, respectively. So, to find the network ID at Step 3, the figure copies only the first octet, setting the last three (host) octets to 0. At Step 4, just copy the network ID and add 1 to the fourth octet. Similarly, to find the broadcast address at Step 5, copy the network octets, but set the host octets to 255. Then, at Step 6, subtract 1 from the fourth octet to find the last (numerically highest) usable IP address.
Just to show an alternative example, consider IP address 172.16.8.9. Figure 14-5 shows the process applied to this IP address.
Figure 14-5 shows the identification of the class as Class B (Step 1) and the number of network/host octets as 2 and 2, respectively. So, to find the network ID at Step 3, the figure copies only the first two octets, setting the last two (host) octets to 0. Similarly, Step 5 shows the same action, but with the last two (host) octets being set to 255.
Unusual Network IDs and Network Broadcast Addresses
Some of the more unusual numbers in and around the range of Class A, B, and C network numbers can cause some confusion. This section lists some examples of numbers that make many people make the wrong assumptions about the meaning of the number.
For Class A, the first odd fact is that the range of values in the first octet omits the numbers 0 and 127. As it turns out, what would be Class A network 0.0.0.0 was originally reserved for some broadcasting requirements, so all addresses that begin with 0 in the first octet are reserved. What would be Class A network 127.0.0.0 is still reserved because of a special address used in software testing, called the loopback address (127.0.0.1).
For Class B (and C), some of the network numbers can look odd, particularly if you fall into a habit of thinking that 0s at the end means the number is a network ID, and 255s at the end means it’s a network broadcast address. First, Class B network numbers range from 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.0.0, for a total of 214 networks. However, even the very first (lowest number) Class B network number (128.0.0.0) looks a little like a Class A network number, because it ends with three 0s. However, the first octet is 128, making it a Class B network with a two-octet network part (128.0).
For another Class B example, the high end of the Class B range also might look strange at first glance (191.255.0.0), but this is indeed the numerically highest of the valid Class B network numbers. This network’s broadcast address, 191.255.255.255, might look a little like a Class A broadcast address because of the three 255s at the end, but it is indeed the broadcast address of a Class B network.
Similarly to Class B networks, some of the valid Class C network numbers do look strange. For example, Class C network 192.0.0.0 looks a little like a Class A network because of the last three octets being 0, but because it is a Class C network, it consists of all addresses that begin with three octets equal to 192.0.0. Similarly, Class C network 223.255.255.0, another valid Class C network, consists of all addresses that begin with 223.255.255.
Practice with Classful Networks
As with all areas of IP addressing and subnetting, you need to practice to be ready for the CCENT and CCNA Routing and Switching exams. You should practice some while reading this chapter to make sure that you understand the processes. At that point, you can use your notes and this book as a reference, with a goal of understanding the process. After that, keep practicing this and all the other subnetting processes. Before you take the exam, you should be able to always get the right answer, and with speed. Table 14-4 summarizes the key concepts and suggestions for this two-phase approach.
Practice Deriving Key Facts Based on an IP Address
Practice finding the various facts that can be derived from an IP address, as discussed throughout this chapter. To do so, complete Table 14-5.
The answers are listed in the section “Answers to Earlier Practice Problems,” later in this chapter.
Practice Remembering the Details of Address Classes
Tables 14-2 and 14-3, shown earlier in this chapter, summarized some key information about IPv4 address classes. Tables 14-6 and 14-7 show sparse versions of these same tables. To practice recalling those key facts, particularly the range of values in the first octet that identifies the address class, complete these tables. Then, refer to Tables 14-2 and 14-3 to check your answers. Repeat this process until you can recall all the information in the tables.
Table 14-6 Sparse Study Table Version of Table 14-2
Table 14-7 Sparse Study Table Version of Table 14-3
Chapter Review
One key to doing well on the exams is to perform repetitive spaced review sessions. Review this chapter’s material using either the tools in the book, DVD, or interactive tools for the same material found on the book’s companion website. Refer to the “Your Study Plan” element for more details. Table 14-8 outlines the key review elements and where you can find them. To better track your study progress, record when you completed these activities in the second column.
Additional Practice for This Chapter’s Processes
For additional practice with analyzing classful networks, you may do the same set of practice problems using your choice of tools:
Application: Use the Analyzing Classful IPv4 Networks application on the DVD or companion website.
PDF: Alternatively, practice the same problems using DVD Appendix D, “Practice for Chapter 14: Analyzing Classful IPv4 Networks.”
Answers to Earlier Practice Problems
Table 14-5, shown earlier, listed several practice problems. Table 14-10 lists the answers.
The class, number of network octets, and number of host octets all require you to look at the first octet of the IP address to determine the class. If a value is between 1 and 126, inclusive, the address is a Class A address, with one network and three host octets. If a value is between 128 and 191 inclusive, the address is a Class B address, with two network and two host octets. If a value is between 192 and 223, inclusive, it is a Class C address, with three network octets and one host octet.
The last two columns can be found based on Table 14-3, specifically the number of network and host octets along with the IP address. To find the network ID, copy the IP address, but change the host octets to 0. Similarly, to find the network broadcast address, copy the IP address, but change the host octets to 255.
The last three problems can be confusing, and were included on purpose so that you could see an example of these unusual cases, as follows.
Answers to Practice Problem 7 (from Table 14-5)
Consider IP address 192.0.0.1. First, 192 is on the lower edge of the first octet range for Class C; as such, this address has three network and one host octet. To find the network ID, copy the address, but change the single host octet (the fourth octet) to 0, for a network ID of 192.0.0.0. It looks strange, but it is indeed the network ID.
The network broadcast address choice for problem 7 can also look strange. To find the broadcast address, copy the IP address (192.0.0.1), but change the last octet (the only host octet) to 255, for a broadcast address of 192.0.0.255. In particular, if you decide that the broadcast should be 192.255.255.255, you might have fallen into the trap of logic, like “Change all 0s in the network ID to 255s,” which is not the correct logic. Instead, change all host octets in the IP address (or network ID) to 255s.
Answers to Practice Problem 8 (from Table 14-5)
The first octet of problem 8 (191.255.1.47) sits on the upper edge of the Class B range for the first octet (128–191). As such, to find the network ID, change the last two octets (host octets) to 0, for a network ID of 191.255.0.0. This value sometimes gives people problems, because they are used to thinking that 255 somehow means the number is a broadcast address.
The broadcast address, found by changing the two host octets to 255, means that the broadcast address is 191.255.255.255. It looks more like a broadcast address for a Class A network, but it is actually the broadcast address for Class B network 191.255.0.0.
Answers to Practice Problem 9 (from Table 14-5)
Problem 9, with IP address 223.223.0.1, is near the high end of the Class C range. As a result, only the last (host) octet is changed to 0 to form the network ID 223.223.0.0. It looks a little like a Class B network number at first glance, because it ends in two octets of 0. However, it is indeed a Class C network ID (based on the value in the first octet).