Subject Index
A
Accumulator-type systems, 41
Acidification, 279
Active carbon
classical adsorption materials, 352
Adapting complex, 534
Ad hoc meshed network system, 79
Adiabatic compressed air energy storage (A-CAES), 143
Adsorption
dependency of heat, 351
equilibrium, 348
isotherms, of water vapor, 350
schematic representation of, 349
Advanced concrete technology, 63
advantages of, 81
cost, 81
large-scale load shifting and power quality services, 81
siting and permitting, 81
competitive storage technologies, 73
green energy storage for green energy, 69–86
intermittent generation, 71
introduction, 69–70
technical characteristics of, 84
Nevada regulation energy management facility, 83
operational control system, 79–80
performance statistics, 80
pilot and first commercial project, 82–85
Nevada project-system description, 83–85
power components of, 81
power system, 78–79
rail, 77–78
ability to handle traffic volume, 78
adaptability to various sites, 78
maintainability and sustainability, 78
rail and track design, 77
SCADA system, 80
shuttle trains, 84
shuttle units, 78
shuttle vehicle, 75–77
efficiency of, 76
powered units of, 75
Southwestern United States
potential sites in, 81–82
storage need for renewable energy, 71–72
Tehachapi pilot project vehicle, 82
utility-scale energy storage, market for, 70–71
value and storage market, 72–73
Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E) program, 504
Advanced RISC machine, 216
AEE-Intec, 365
Aging model, 454
Air compressors, 514
varieties of, 87
Air cooling system, built-in skewness, 210
Air density, 150
Air lift bags, 140
Air liquefaction, 167
and power recovery processes, 167
subsystem, 175
Air pressure, 156
Air separation unit (ASU), 172
Air-to-water heat exchanger, 368
Air-water barrier, 138
Alberta Saskatchewan Intertie Storage project (ASISt), 128
Alkaline electrolysis cells (AEC), 376
characteristics of, 377
Alkaline water electrolyzer, 322
AlPOs, See Aluminophosphate (AlPOs)
Alternating current (AC)
AC-DC-AC power conversion, 79
overhead power transmission lines, 78
traction motors, 75
Alternative energy storage technologies
development and deployment of, 501
Alternative gaseous energy carrier, 383
Alternative storage technologies, 375
Aluminophosphate (AlPOs), 353
Aluminosilicate minerals, 12
Aluminum conductor steel reinforced (ACSR), 445
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA), 503
Analog-to-digital (AD) converter, 213
Anchorage ratio, 141
market, 441
9,10-Anthraquinone-2,7-disulfonic acid (AQDS), 242
Aquatic ecosystem, 28
Aqueous electrolyte, 233
Aquifers, 514
advantage of, 423
formations, See Water-bearing reservoirs
storage, 422
facilities, 404
TES, 308
Arrhenius law, 351
Artificial solar pond, concept of, 274
Aspen Environmental Group, 81
Asset classification, 439
Australia, 437
Automated rail network, 74
Automotive industry, 383
Auxiliary equipment, 514
Auxiliary heating systems, 164
B
Backup energy supply systems, 375
Backup power plants, 414
exception of, 413
Balanced power exchange control strategy (BPECS), 449
Balance-of-system costs, 490
Balancing services, 19
Ball bearing theory, 188
Battery
applications, 483–484
degradation, 472
efficiency, 470
model, 468
storage backup system, 494
technologies, 480–483
lead-acid batteries, 480–482
lithium-ion batteries, 482
sodium-sulfur batteries, 482–483
vanadium redox flow batteries, 483
technology, drawback with, 482
Battery energy storage system (BESS), 453
connection, 468
control algorithm, 468
Battery management system (BMS), 212
battery management system, 216
management functions of, 213
modular concept, 213
single-cell control unit (SCU), 216
single central concept, 215
state-of-charge estimation, 217
resampling, 218
state transition, 217
weighting, 217
state-of-health estimation, 220
validation, 221
Battery storage, physical fundamentals of, 206
lead-acid battery, 206–207
lithium-ion battery, 207
Battery systems, 221
integration
communication infrastructure, 223
configuration, 221–223
Bayes theorem, 217
Beacon Power LLC, 192
BEWAG plant, 518
Bio-based materials, 11
Biogas plant operator, 382
Boreholes, 307
Borehole thermal energy storage (BTES), 306
Brayton cycle, 174
Brine displacement, 396
crude oil cavern with, 397
Bulk hydrogen storage
importance of, 428
Bulk power systems, 478
Bulk-scale energy storage, 441
Buoyancy
force, 138
load, 138
Bureau of Land Management (BLM), 81
Burggraf-Bernsdorf salt mine, 126
Burggraf-Bernsdorf storage facility, 419
Business-as-usual scenario, 488
Business model, 440
for storage, 507
C
California ISO (CAISO) transmission system, 84
Californian ISO automatic generation control (CAISO AGC) signal, 85
Carbon capture and storage (CCS), 72
biogenic sources of, 378
methanation parameters of, 380
use of, 381
Catalytic process, 379
Cauchy-Lorentz distribution, 218–220
Cavendish apparatus
for isolation of hydrogen gas, 327
Caverns storing liquids
disadvantage of, 397
operation of, 396
cc value, 415
CEAS power plants, 415
Cell voltage, 523
Centrifuge technology, 188
dual circuit, 338
hydrogen production, 339
Ce-V flow battery, See Cerium-vanadium (Ce-V) flow battery
Charging process, 167
Chemical plants, 417
Chemical reactions, 482
Chemical storages, 249
volumetric energy storage capacity of, 415
China, 437
Electric Power Research Institute, 517
flywheel projects in, 518
lead-acid battery projects in, 519
lithium-ion batteries projects in, 522
sodium-sulfur battery projects in, 521
storing energy in, 509–525
imperativeness and applications, 510–511
introduction, 509–510
summary and prospects, 524–525
technical and development status, 511–523
compressed air energy storage, 514–515
flow battery, 522–523
flywheel energy storage, 515–518
lead-acid battery, 518–519
lithium-ion batteries, 520–522
pumped hydroelectric storage, 511–512
sodium-sulfur battery, 519–520
Chinese electricity sector, 437
Chloro-oxo complex, 234
CiA 454 “energy management systems”, 223
Close contact melting (CCM), 265
“Closed-loop” systems, 25
Coal, 393–394
storage, types of, 394
trade, 393
Cold release process, 175
Cold storage process, 175
Cold thermal energy storage, 300–302
media storage energy density capacity of, 302
Cold vessel storing thermal energy, 9
Combined-cycle gas turbines (CCGTs), 4
Combined storage and generation processes, 74
Commercial and regulatory barriers, 434
Completed piston storage projects, 48
Complete flywheel system
cost for, 190
Complex system, 414
Composite rotor
performance of, 187
Composite salt, 356
use of, 113
adiabatic power plant
diagram of, 116
adiabatic process, 115
adiabatic system, 102
disadvantage of, 108
air containment for, 95–102
case for underground or underwater storage, 101–102
isobaric air containment, 96–98
isochoric air containment, 98–100
in tanks, 100–101
in China, 516
classifications within, 102
components of, 514
concepts, performance metrics of, 121
concerns with, 87
diabatic power plant
diagram of, 115
diabatic system, 102
with recuperator, 104
temperature-pressure plot for, 104
facilities, 155
introduction, 87–89
literal interpretation of, 88
modes of operation and basic principles, 89–95
basic equations governing, 89–93
electrical energy, work, and heat in, 93–95
opportunities for integrating with either electricity generation or consumption, 109–110
construction of, 129
storage space for, 115
principle of, 514
simple notional system, 88
storage layout diagram, 116
system configurations and plant concepts, 102–108
adiabatic concepts, 105–108
diabatic concepts, 103–105
performance metrics, 108–109
techniques, 63
technology, 156
thermal storage in conjunction with, 106
in underground formations, 113–129
introduction, 113–114
mode of operation, 114–117
plant concept, 117–120
underground storage, 120–129
varieties of, 88
Compressed air pumped hydroelectric storage (PHES), 35
Compressed air pumped hydro system, 35
Compressed air storage projects, 120
Compressed air storage with humidification (CASH), 515
isothermal, See Isothermal compression process
Compressor, 90
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation program, 210
COMTES See Combined Development of Compact Thermal Energy Storage Technologies (COMTES) project
Concentrated solar power (CSP) plants, 174
Concrete pressure vessels, 63
Constant pressure pumped hydro combined with compressed air energy storage system
schematic diagram of, 159
Constrained energy systems, 17
Constructing gas caverns, 423
Containment system, 516
Contemporary energy systems, 12
Continuous coal production, 393
primary function, 468
Controller area network (CAN), 215
Control moment gyros (CMGs), 198
Conventional electricity generation industries, 510
Conventional gas turbine
compression and expansion cycle of, 514
Conventional hydropower stations, 36
Conventional mining techniques, 124
Conventional natural gas, 384
Conventional pumped hydroelectric storage (PHES), 39
Conversion efficiencies, 93
Converter model, 466
Coordinated control system, 452
Core control algorithm, 456
Corliss centennial engine, 186
Cost-structure evolution, 489–491
developing a national policy for NAS batteries, case of Japan, 491–492
developing microgrid with racks of lead-acid batteries, Akkan (Morocco), 491
example of new microgrid project in West, 492
microgrid at Ft. Bliss, 492
microgrid demonstration project by general electric and powersteam inc. in Canada’s ontario province, 492
US navy smart microgrid, 492
off-grid projects in villages, 493
off-grid projects on islands, 493–494
Alcatraz Island, San Francisco, California, 493
Apolima Island (Samoa), 493–494
Bonaire (Venezuela), 494
Haiti, 493
progress and real growth in Africa, 492–493
Coupled energy storage technologies, 179
Crude oil
commercial operating storage facilities for, 397
Crude Oil Storage Association, 398
Cryocompression, 329
Cryogenic energy
extraction unit, 178
storage, 9
Cumulative installed commercial storage capacity, 73
Current energy prospective scenarios, 489
Current policies, 439
EES demonstrations, 460
energy storage in, 458–461
outcomes, 460
trial results, 460
CWS project
external cross-flow reactor, 369
D
Day-ahead markets, 55–56
Day-ahead storage, 41
Deadweights, See Gravity base anchors (GBAs)
Decentralized clean energy markets, 478
Decentralized services, 478
Decision-making process, 447
Deckel-Maho-Gildemeister (DMG), 227
Deep underground geological formations, 120
Demand curve, 451
Demand for energy, 391
Demand-side response (DSR) technologies, 6
application of, 438
command, 451
use of, 452
Energy Storage Program, 504
fiber-resin composite, 328
hydrogen storage targets, 328
Depleted oil and gas
use of, 422
Desorption, schematic representation of, 349
DG operators, 440
Diabatic compressed air energy storage power plant
construction of, 127
Diesel generators, 516
Diesel rotary uninterruptible power supplies (DRUPS), 196
Differential pressure load, 138
Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) thermogram, 252
Dinorwig pumped storage, 136
Direct contact membrane distillation (DCMD), 284
Dispatchable generation, 6
Dispatch models
advantages of, 16
Distributed energy resource (DER) system, 511
installed capacity of, 511
Distributed energy storage, 72
Distributed storage systems, 441
Distribution network operators (DNOs), 441
benefits to, 442
Dodecanoic acid, melting of, 265
Dominant energy storage technology, 34
Dual inverter/rectifier units, 79
Dual-particle filter approach, 221
Dump load during system, 487
Dwindling resources
exploitation of, 529
Dynamic energy storage, 455
Dynamic frequency response service, 463
E
Economic and political model, 529
Economic viability, 276
Ecosystem, signs of, 533
chemical storage of, 373
form of, 413
grid-scale storage of, 392
long-term storage of, 375
production of, 381
ability of, 446
applications of, 525
converter power, 449
current status of, 509
evaluations, in-depth review of, 484
integration of, 434
national programs on, 509
network integration of, 433
operation of, 456
potential impact of, 444
research and application of, 509
SOC of, 457
utilization of, 443
voltage control strategies, 449
Electrically powered mass transit systems, 516
Electrical storage, market for, 70
Electricity dispatch models, 16
Electricity distribution networks, 434
Electricity grid, 413
Electricity industry, 433
Electricity market, 440
liquidity, 434
Electricity network
models, 17
stakeholders, 435
Electricity storage, 3
challenge for, 5
supply system, 413
proportion of, 501
transmission and distribution systems, 510
Electric networks
operation of, 477
Electric power-generating capacity, 70
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), 155
Electric vehicles (EVs), 451
Electrochemical cells
group of, 483
Electrolysis, 317
energy demand, 325
technologies, 373
challenges for, 377
development of, 378
Electrolyte, 518
efficiency and life expectancy of, 377
hybrids, 338–339
Electromagnetic aircraft launch system (EMALS), 194
linear synchronous motor of, 195
Electro-motive diesels, 75
Electron-coupled proton buffer (ECPB), 336
hydrogen from oxygen, 337
mediated electrolysis, 337
redox waves, 336
reduction potentials with water electrolysis potentials, 337
Electrostatic double-layer capacitance, 10
Empire State Building, 42
Energy
analysis, 161–162
arbitrage, 484
consuming nations, 537
costs, 52–53
demand, 488
discharging process, 348
gigawatt-class system, 54
intensive equipment, 536
losses, 61
policy approaches, 486
services, 531
sources, 486
storage zone, 275
stored by liquid water, 251
supply and demand technologies, 18
supply and water management, 44
utilization proportion of, 162
Energy bags, See Flexible vessels
EnergyBus, 223
CiA 454 protocol, 224
Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007, 438
Energy membrane-underground pumped hydro storage (EM-UPHS), 57–61
design parameters, 59
efficiency and economic performance, 61
energy losses due to soil deformation, 59
energy membrane concept, 57–59
membrane and water cavity, 60
soil migration, 59–60
Energy policy and markets, 434–441
background, 435
business models for using energy storage, 435–436
electricity market, 435
regulation, 435
regulation, electricity markets, and their impact on storage implementation, 438–441
review of national policies, regulation, and electricity market arrangements supporting storage, 436–438
Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands (ECN), 367
attractive resource for, 63
availability, 453
challenges for, 13–19
adapting energy markets to realize the value of, 19
finding most appropriate roles for, 18–19
innovation to reduce technology costs, 17–18
integrating into low-carbon energy systems, 14–17
analyzing energy storage integration using models, 15–17
generation-integrated energy storage, 14–15
public acceptance, 18
challenges of, 477–478
commercialization of, 192
current global implementation of, 433
deployment, 6
development of, 502
economic framework of, 478
efficiency, 173
within electricity systems, 501
form of, See Ancillary services
hydrogen
storage by chemisorption, 329
storage by physisorption, 329
in island contexts, 487–488
island of Bonaire (The Netherlands), 487
island of Eigg (Scotland), 488
island of Miyakojima (Japan), 487
promotion of, 375
roadmaps for, 19
solution, 191
use of, 441
value of, 19
Energy storage integration, 431–473
demonstration projects, 454–464
energy storage in customer-led network revolution, 458–461
Hemsby energy storage, 454–458
smarter network storage, 461–464
outcomes, 463–464
trial results, 463
energy policy and markets, 434–441
background, 435
business models for using energy storage, 435–436
electricity market, 435
regulation, 435
regulation, electricity markets, and their impact on storage implementation, 438–441
review of national policies, regulation, and electricity market arrangements supporting storage, 436–438
integrated modeling approach, 464–473
introduction, 433–434
operation, 447–454
balanced and unbalanced power exchange strategies, 448–450
combining energy storage and demand response, 450–452
coordination of multiple energy storage units, 452–454
summary, 454
planning, 441–447
heuristic techniques, 442–443
probabilistic techniques, 443–444
peak shaving (PS), 443–444
for security of supply, 444–447
case study, 445–446
electrical energy storage system size, effect of, 446–447
potential impact of electrical energy storage, 446
studies, 17
Energy Storage Niederrhein project, 128
Energy storage operation strategies, 448
asset classification, 439
in China, 524
energy losses of, 473
implementation of, 435
owners and providers, 436
types of, 436
power-to-gas form of, 373
ratings, 74
state of charge (SOC) of, 439
use of, 440
list of, 8
power-regenerating unit of, 179
program, 503
Energy storage worldwide, 499–508
barriers to development and deployment, 501–502
capacity, 502
cost, 502
deployability, 502
case studies, 502–506
situation in Germany, 505–506
situation in Japan, 502–503
situation in United States, 503–505
challenge, 501
lessons for development of storage, 506–507
market and regulatory developments, 506–507
overcoming technological barriers, 506
strategic framework, 507
advantage of supplying power in, 392
benefits for, 380
models, 15
EnStorage, 245
Equilibrium solar pond, 281
ESCAR system, 518
EscoVale’s GBES (ground-breaking energy storage), 42
Ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM) rubber, 232
Europe, 436
European Commission (EC), 436
European Gas Research Group (GERG) study, 386
European Industrial Revolution, 530
European Union (EU), 113
energy technology policy, 436
Event-driven algorithms, 456
Exergy, 94
analysis, 162
density, 168
of liquid air and compression, 169
destruction, 298
efficiency, 162
recoverable from air stores, quantities of, 99
Exhaust gas, 103
Exploration, 403
F
Fabric air lift bags, 137
Faradaic efficiency, 320
Faraday’s constant, 319
Far-offshore plant, 145
Fast-response energy storage, 83
challenge for, 438
Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety, 505
Fermentation processes, 378
Finance cost, 52
First law of thermodynamics, 160
Fischer-Tropsch synthesis, 379
Fixed-speed PHES, 35
Fixed volume containment, 97
characteristics of, 151
Fixed volume high-pressure air store, 97
Fixed volume underground compressed air energy storage systems, 143
Fixed volume underground store, 153
Flat land electricity storage (FLES) system, 62
Flexible coal and nuclear power plants, 114
Flexible electricity generation technologies, 4
Flexible generation, 14
Flexible generators, 4
Flexible power-to-gas system, 384
Flexible vessels, 137
Floating platform, 144
types of, 483
Fluoroelastomeric materials, 232
advantage of, 516
applications for, 191–198
grid-connected power management, 191–193
frequency regulation, 192
ramping of, 193
industrial and commercial power management, 193–194
mining, 194
transit, 193–194
mobiles, 196–198
materials handling, 196–197
motorsport, 197–198
spacecraft, 198
pulsed power, 194–195
electromagnetic aircraft launch system, 194–195
research facilities, 195
roller coaster launch, 195
uninterruptible power supplies, 196
bearings, types of, 188
as component in machinery, 183
cost and comparison with other technologies, 189–191
cycle, 183
discharge time, 186
efficiency of, 516
energy storage systems, 517
rotors used in, 187
high-cycling capability of, 190
history, 185–186
installed in rubber-tired gantry cranes, 197
modern
design of, 186–189
bearings, 188
motor/generator, 189
rotor design, 187–188
elements of, 187
motor, 189
physics, 183–185
power management system, 186
projects in China, 518
requency regulation plant, 192
rotors, 184
bearings support, 188
mechanism for, 516
storage device, components, 516
system energy of, 515
use of, 198
based energy system, 129
combustion of, 378
consumption, 284
form of, 12
power plants, 414
production of, 374
usage, 56
Fossil generation, 3
Fossil plant, 56
Four-stage compression process
temperature-pressure plot for, 91
Francis pump turbines, 45
Frequency regulation, 192
Friction wheel drive system, 195
Fuel conversion efficiency, 5
G
Gamebird switch station, 85
Gas caverns, 423
completion of, 406
construction, 423
dimensions, 407
investment costs, 408
Gas compression processes, 93
Gas constant, 90
Gas diffusion layer (GDL), 324
Gases and liquid hydrocarbons, 123
Gas grid, 413
Gas industry, 419
Gas infrastructures
development of, 400
Gas network operator, 381
Gas pipeline networks, 385
Gas production string, 405
Gas storage
in aquifer formations
advantages and disadvantages of, 407
in depleted gas reservoir, 421
disadvantages of, 402
facilities, 421
operator, 382
in salt caverns
advantages and disadvantages of, 409
Gas turbine (GT), 173
exhaust gas, 118
power station, 117
Gauge pressure, 136
General Electric’s (GE) microgrid control system, 492
Generation-based support mechanisms, 439
advantages, 14
instances of, 15
schematic of, 16
Genetic algorithm, 442
Geological piston storage, 47
German electricity generation, 6
German Energy Act (EnWG), 505
German engineering companies, 50
German grid, 113
German policy, 505
German Renewable Sources Act, 505
German Society for Petroleum and Coal Science Technology, 386
Germany, 436
Gibbs energy equation, 319
Gigawatt-class piston storage systems, 49
Gigawatt-class seabed storage, 44
Gigawatt-class systems, 47
Gigawatt-scale concepts, 54
Gigawatt-scale wind farms, 55
Global and local search methods, 442
Global Energy Storage Database, 28
Global food production system, 533
Global positioning system (GPS), 80
Glycol solutions, 301
Golden Valley Electric Association (GVEA) grid, 194
Government-funded feed-in tariffs, 535
Graphite, 231
Grapzow electrolyzer, 333
Gravitational schemes, 9
Gravitational storage, 39
Gravity assists, 48
Gravity base anchors (GBAs), 142
Gravity power (GP), 44
Green energy storage
for green energy, 69–86
Green hydrogen
breakthrough for, 411
bulk storage of, 417
use of, 412
Greentech Media (GTM), 72
Grid-connected energy management, 183
Grid-connected power management, 191
flywheels applications in, 191–193
frequency regulation, 192
ramping of, 193
Grid connection, 48
Grid operators, 501
Grid-scale power-to-power storage, 16
Grid-scale storage, 6
Grid-scale systems, 48
Grid support services, 439
Grid upgrade, 414
features, 51
Groundwater, 307
H
Heap stockpile, 394
Heat exchanger styles, 293
Heat exchanger units, 105
Heat extraction methods
in solar pond technology, 280
Heating value of hydrogen (HHV), 320
Heat losses, 292
Heat pumps (HPs), 451
Heat recovery processes, 173
Heat transfer fluid (HTF), 264
cold-temperature, 264
heat transfer enhancement methods, 256
Heat transfer processes, 170
Heavy-duty material, 149
Heavy inertia, 79
Heindl energy (HE), 44
Hemsby energy storage, 454–458
automatic control, 456
energy storage system, 456
outcomes, 458
trial results and validation, 456–458
High-dam hydro plants, 512
High-energy storage, 56
High-latitude countries, 6
High-level control algorithm, 464
High-performance carbon composite rotors, 184
High-performance steel rotors, 184
pressure-volume characteristics of, 96
High-pressure air tanks, 100
High-pressure reservoir, 92
High-pressure vessel, 162
High-priced noble metal catalysts, 377
High-reliability communications network, 453
High-temperature nuclear power plants, 15
Highview power storage, 167
Hot-water store, 354
Household food waste, 536
Human civilizations
political component of, 529
Huntorf compressed air energy storage power plant, 117
Hybrid flow batteries, 242
copper/copper flow battery, 244
hydrogen-bromine battery, 244–245
iron/iron flow battery, 244
zinc-bromine flow battery, 242–243
zinc-cerium flow battery, 243
Hybrid flow battery, 242
Hybrid microgrid, 491
Hybrid off-grid system, 488
Hybrid propulsion systems, 197
Hybrid systems, 485
Hydrated protons, 230
Hydraulic accumulators, 41
Hydraulic machinery, 158
high-power density of, 158
Hydrocarbons, 401
gas, 425
residual quantities of, 122
Hydrodynamic containment, 399
Hydrodynamic technology, 125
Hydroelectric energy, 40
Hydroelectric power stations, 433
Hydroelectric schemes, 433
Hydroelectric storage, 375
Hydrogen, 411
based renewable energy storage
block diagram of, 332
caverns, 427
metrics of, 426
operation of, 425
chemical storage of, 416
deployment, 412
economy, 411
as energy storage medium
renewable energy storage, 333–335
system engineering, 332
fuel cells, 406
gas generation
electron-coupled proton buffers and decoupling, 335–337
ion permeable polymer membrane, 522
methane mixture, 334
molecules, 330
production chain, 379
properties, 327
service, 382
storage demonstration plants, 335
underground cavern storage of, 11
Hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), 244
Hydrogen, from water electrolysis, 315
alkaline water electrolysis, 321
cryocompressed hydrogen storage, 329
cryogenic liquid hydrogen storage, 329
efficiency comparisons, 321
electrochemistry/thermodynamics, 319–320
energy storage, 315
energy vector, 317
basic principles, 317
gaseous hydrogen storage, 327–328
history of, 318
power-to-gas, 331
proton exchange membrane electrolysis, 323–324
renewable power, 315
solid oxide water electrolysis, 324–325
storage by chemisorption, 329
storage by physisorption, 329
strategies for storing energy, 326
properties of, 326–327
water electrolysis, 321
Hydrogen reduction reaction (HRR), 244
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S), 425
Hydronium-ion, See Hydrated protons
Hydropower, 62
Hydrostatic pressure, 135
I
IceBank, 254
Ice-based thermal storage system, 302
Ideal gas law, 89
Independent system operators (ISOs), 72
Industrial and commercial power management
flywheels applications in, 193–194
mining, 194
transit, 193–194
Industrial plant, 382
Infinitesimal heat transfer process, 169
Initial compression process, 159
Injection and withdrawal cycles, 123
Innovative business models, 478
Installation concepts, 115
Installation technique
with gravity base anchor, 142
Institute of Electrical Engineering, 517
Institute of Engineering Thermophysics (Chinese Academy of Sciences) (IET-CAS), 515
Institute of Thermodynamics and Thermal Engineering (ITW)
external reactor design, 368
Insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) inverter/rectifiers, 79
Integrated electrothermochemical modeling methodology, 464
block diagram of, 465
methodology, 465–468
converter model, 466
lithium-ion battery model, 465
network model and control algorithm, 466–468
BESS control algorithm, 468
results and discussions, 468–473
Integrated storage technologies, 486
conventional mode, 175
energy release mode, 175
energy storage mode, 175
Integrating renewable energy, 448
Intercooling, 91
Interfacial Engineering and Biotechnology (IGB), 364
Intermittent renewable, 3
energy sources, 374
International gas industry, 418
International Gas Union (IGU) report, 385
International power-to-gas pilot plants, 374
International storage system, 124
Inverter system, 488
Investment dilemma, 439
Investor-owned utilities (IOUs), 72
Iowa Stored Energy Park project (ISEP), 129
Iron chloride (FeCl3), 227
Iron-chromium flow battery (ICB), 240
Island grid operators, 193
Isobaric air storage, 96
Isobaric air stores, 97
Isochoric air storage, 95
Isothermal concept, 119
Italy, 437
J
Japan, 438
pumped hydroelectric storage (PHES) in, 25
Japanese legal framework, 491
Joint European Torus (JET), 195
Joule-Thomson effect, 89
K
Kinetic energy
of rotating object, 183
Knock-on effect, 424
K-rails, 77
L
Larger megawatt-scale systems, 10
hydrogen in chemical industry, 417
hydrogen industry-from original idea to today’s concept, 411–413
options for underground gas storage, 418–424
aquifer storage, 422–423
comparison of storage options, 423
depleted oil and gas fields, 421–422
overview, 418–421
salt caverns, 423
underground storage in, 424–428
special criteria for storage operations with focus on fluctuating injection, 424–427
experience from underground storage of town gas, 425
standard engineering practice for hydrogen caverns, 425–427
use to compensate for fluctuating renewables, 413–417
estimate of future storage demand, 414
storage demand at various timescales, 413
which storage technologies support capacity in high gigawatt-hour range, 414–417
Large-scale compressed air storage concept, 113
Large-scale electricity storage system
load profile of, 510
Large-scale energy storage
installation of, 454
Large-scale seasonal heat storage, 11
Large-scale stationary batteries, 491
Large storage systems, 395
Large-volume storage technology, 375
Latent heat storage, 11
projects in China, 519
storage, 524
Leakage, 49
Least developed countries (LDCs), 488
Levitation system, 188
Liberalized electricity market, 440
Light hydrocarbons
trapping of, 403
Liquefaction process, 174
Liquefied natural gas (LNG)
carriers, 400
regasification plants, 179
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), 123
applications through integration, 172–179
integration with concentrated solar power plants, 174–175
integration with gas turbine-based peaking plants, 172–174
integration with liquefied natural gas regasification process, 179
integration with nuclear power plants, 175–178
comparison with energy storage technologies, 179–180
economic comparison, 180
technical comparison, 179–180
energy and exergy densities of, 168–170
integration of, 172
liquid air as both storage medium and working fluid, 170–171
roundtrip efficiency of, 178
with solar power system, 174
technology, schematic illustration of, 168
turbine, 179
Liquid electrolyte, 207
Liquid energy sources
importance of, 384
Liquid fuel generator, 487
battery technologies, comparison, 206
development of, 521
electrochemical reaction of, 482
model, 465
module, 212
open-circuit voltage, 219
overview of, 205
projects in China, 522
development of, 207
efficiencies, 212
parameters of, 209
for residential photovoltaic applications, 208
stationary applications
battery modules/systems design, 208
market-available battery inverter, 222
for residential photovoltaic applications, 208
Lithium-ion cells
aluminum cooling plates, for simulation of thermal behavior, 210
battery module, temperature profile, 211
Lithium ion exchanges, 482
Lithium-ion storage, 461
Lithium metal oxide, 520
Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (LiNMC) batteries, 205
Lithium-polymer cells, 465
Loading process, 77
Load-integrated energy storage (LIES) systems, 14
Load-leveling systems, 480
Local network
simplified diagram of, 459
Local power systems
management of, 479
Logarithmic scale, 73
Long-duration markets, 57
Long-term storage systems, 116
Louisiana Offshore Oil Project (LOOP), 397
Low-carbon electricity system
development of, 506
comparing storage systems, 12–13
energy storage, challenges for, 13–19
adapting energy markets to realize the value of, 19
finding most appropriate roles for, 18–19
innovation to reduce technology costs, 17–18
integrating into low-carbon energy systems, 14–17
analyzing energy storage integration using models, 15–17
generation-integrated energy storage, 14–15
public acceptance, 18
energy storage in, 7
introduction, 3–4
performance of, 88
storage, need for new types, 4–8
electricity system imbalances, strategies to cope with, 6–8
generation imbalances, impact of demands on, 5–6
storage technologies, 8–12
chemical, 11–12
electrochemical, 10–11
gravitational/mechanical/thermomechanical, 9–10
thermal, 11
Lower convective zone (LCZ), 275
Low-head hydraulic turbines, 64
Low-variance resampling, 219
Low/zero-emission technologies, 375
LV feeder-located energy storage unit, 460
LV network, 441
M
Magnesium hydroxide, 347
Magnesium sulfate (MgSO4), 354
equilibrium curves, 355
Mantle tank storage systems, 293
Market-based economic optimization models, 15
Market liquidity
lack of, 440
Market operation requirements, 440
Market operations
value assessment from, 440
Market price control mechanisms, 440
Market signals, 502
Markov chain, 217
Mechanical-based energy storage technologies, 172
Mechanical-based technologies, 180
Mechanical renewable energy devices, 15
Medium-voltage/low-voltage (MV/LV) transformer, 483
Medium-voltage (MV) smart grid, 442
Membrane management, 60
Membrane-stratified solar ponds, 282
Metal-organic framework (MOFs), 354
Methanation, of hydrogen, 331
Methanation process, 378
of power-to-gas system, 379
Methane
methane storage for, 415
synthesis, used for, 379
Microflow systems, 300
Microgrid demonstration system, 492
Microporous ion exclusion membranes, 231
Mined rock caverns, 398
Minigrids and microgrids, emergence of, 486–487
Minigrids integrating storage technologies, 487
Mobiles
flywheels applications in, 196–198
materials handling, 196–197
motorsport, 197–198
spacecraft, 198
Mobile Utilities Support Equipment (MUSE), 492
Model hydrogen cavern
data for, 427
Module management system, 214
Multiple energy storage units
coordinated control of, 453
Multiregion dispatch models, 16
Multisource power systems, 487
Multistage flash (MSF) desalination system, 285
MW array system, 517
MW pilot plant, 127
N
National Development and Reform Commission, 29
National industry regulator, 444
National Wind-Solar Energy Storage Demonstration Project, 523
Natural ecosystem, 533
burning, 400
hydrogen production, 317
industry, 412
large-scale storage options for, 420
steam reforming of, 378
stockpiles of, 392
aquifer storage, 403–404
depleted oil and gas fields, 401–402
key tasks of, 408
salt caverns, 404–409
storage in depleted gas reservoir, 401
storage operations, 402
Natural gas combined cycle (NGCC), 173
NATURALHY project, 386
Natural reservoirs, 400
Natural storage space, 421
Natural water-bearing horizons, 419
Nearest-to-ideal energy storage system, 94
Near-isobaric containment, 98
Near-isothermal compression, 145
Near-shore lagoon storage, 65
Near-shore plants, 150
Near-shore UWCAES plant, 145
Neunberg Plant-DI Water tank, 334
New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO), 503
New industrialized countries (NICs), 532
Nickel-cadmium (NiCd) battery, 205
Nickel-iron battery, 244
Node, time-temperature history of, 295
Nonconvective zone (NCZ), 275
Noneconomic barriers, 490
Nonpressurized thermal storage, 108
Northern power grid distribution network, 458
North German salt dome
oil storage cavern in, 398
Novel energy storage technologies
potential importance of, 14
Novel hydroelectric storage concepts, 39–66
categories, 41
constraints, 39–41
energy membrane-underground pumped hydro storage, 57–61
efficiency and economic performance, 61
energy losses due to soil deformation, 59
energy membrane concept, 57–59
membrane and water cavity, 60
soil migration, 59–60
future applications and markets, 41–42
novel land-based and seabed pumped hydro configurations, 61–63
background, 61
seabed hydroelectric storage, 62–63
subterranean reservoir systems, 62
surface reservoir systems, 61–62
offshore lagoon and island storage systems, 63–66
background, 63–64
deeper water energy island storage, 65–66
shallow-water lagoon energy storage, 64–65
piston-in-cylinder electrical energy storage, 42–57
background and operating principle, 42–45
markets and competition for piston storage, 54–57
day-ahead markets, 55–56
long-duration markets, 57
short-duration markets, 55
size, 54–55
week-ahead markets, 56–57
piston storage economic performance, 50–54
capital cost, 50–52
energy costs, 52–53
finance cost, 52
operation and maintenance (O&M) costs, 52
overall storage costs, 53–54
piston vs. PHES, 45–50
asymmetric charging, 47–48
location, location, location, 45
no energy limitations, 46–47
no power limitations, 47
other performance characteristics, 48–49
pressure by design, 45–46
wrong possibility, 49–50
scope and purpose, 39
Novel land-based and seabed pumped hydro configurations, 61–63
background, 61
seabed hydroelectric storage, 62–63
subterranean reservoir systems, 62
surface reservoir systems, 61–62
Nuclear power generation
combination of, 178
Nuenberg vorm Wald plant, 334
Numerous energy storage technologies, 3
O
Offgrid and tied-grid services, 484
Off-grid energy, 478–480
Off-grid energy storage, 477–494
battery applications, 483–484
battery technologies, 480–483
lead-acid batteries, 480–482
lithium-ion batteries, 482
sodium-sulfur batteries, 482–483
vanadium redox flow batteries, 483
bring clean energy to the poor, 488–489
cost-structure evolution, 489–491
developing a national policy for NAS batteries, case of Japan, 491–492
developing microgrid with racks of lead-acid batteries, Akkan (Morocco), 491
example of new microgrid project in West, 492
microgrid at Ft. Bliss, 492
microgrid demonstration project by general electric and powersteam inc. in Canada’s ontario province, 492
US navy smart microgrid, 492
off-grid projects in villages, 493
off-grid projects on islands, 493–494
Alcatraz Island, San Francisco, California, 493
Apolima Island (Samoa), 493–494
Bonaire (Venezuela), 494
Haiti, 493
progress and real growth in Africa, 492–493
dealing with renewable variability, 485–486
energy storage
challenges of, 477–478
in island contexts, 487–488
island of Bonaire (The Netherlands), 487
island of Eigg (Scotland), 488
island of Miyakojima (Japan), 487
minigrids and microgrids, emergence of, 486–487
off-grid energy important, 478–480
Off-grid projects
on islands, 493–494
Alcatraz Island, San Francisco, California, 493
Apolima Island (Samoa), 493–494
Bonaire (Venezuela), 494
Haiti, 493
pilot projects, 491
in villages, 493
Off-grid RE technologies, 478
Off-grid storage, 490
Off-peak energy prices, 440
Off-peak/surplus grid power, 65
Offshore adiabatic compressed air energy storage system, 146
Offshore flexible vessel, 149
Offshore lagoon and island storage systems, 63–66
background, 63–64
deeper water energy island storage, 65–66
shallow-water lagoon energy storage, 64–65
Oil, 394–400
rock caverns, 398–400
salt caverns, 396–398
storage facilities, features of, 395
Open-based flexible vessel, 141
Open compression process, 92
Open-cycle gas turbines (OCGTs), 4
Operating strategy, 447
Operational control system, 79–80
Operation and maintenance (O&M) costs, 52
Optimum natural energy, 12
Organic Rankine cycle (ORC), 285
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 437
Overall storage costs, 53–54
Overhead conductor system (OCS), 84
Oxygen
high reactivity of, 120
injection system, 28
Oxygen evolution reaction (OER), 233
P
Pacific Gas & Electric Company (PG&E), 72
Packaging, 536
Particle filter algorithm, 218
Peak converter power, 446
Peak demand reduction, 463
“Peaker” plants, 477
Peak load period, 117
Peak shaving (PS), 442–444
algorithm, effect of, 456
Permanent magnet machine
types of, 189
buried and bermed tanks, 261
conventional PCM groupings, 267
cooling projects, 254
enthalpy-temperature profile of, 262
gaps in knowledge, 266–267
heat storage
at ambient temperature, 256–257
at high temperatures, 262
concentrated solar power: Andasol, 263
industrial heat scavenging, 263
at moderate temperatures
moderate-temperature PCMs, 257–259
at subambient temperatures, 254–255
heat transfer in pcm-based thermal storage systems, 264–265
hydrates, 257
LiF/CaF2 eutectic, 262
lifecycle analysis, 253
long-term application, 252
mechanical agitation and mixing, 257
moderate-temperature phase change materials, applications
seasonal heat storage, 260–261
solar thermal hot water, 259–260
nitrates and nitrites, 262
octadecane wax, 257
onset temperature for melting and latent heat, 259
organic paraffinic and fatty acid, 258
phase transition temperature, 256
properties of, 251–253
subambient transition temperature, 255
subcooling/undercooling/supersaturation, 252
sustainability, 253
temperature-moderating effect, 256
thermal energy storage, 249–250
use of, 268
validated methodologies, 267
Photovoltaic (PV), 249
applications, 207
current profile, 221
generation system, 449
solar energy, production of, 71
system, 493
technologies, 485
Physics-based battery, 464
Physisorption media, 330
Pilot and first commercial project, 82–85
Nevada project-system description, 83–85
Pilot project, 58
Pipe masses, 150
Piston
integrity, 49
speed, 48
attribute of, 45
capital cost estimates, 51
storage projects, 47
storage sector, 57
background and operating principle, 42–45
markets and competition for piston storage, 54–57
day-ahead markets, 55–56
long-duration markets, 57
short-duration markets, 55
size, 54–55
week-ahead markets, 56–57
piston storage economic performance, 50–54
capital cost, 50–52
energy costs, 52–53
finance cost, 52
operation and maintenance (O&M) costs, 52
overall storage costs, 53–54
piston vs. PHES, 45–50
asymmetric charging, 47–48
location, location, location, 45
no energy limitations, 46–47
no power limitations, 47
other performance characteristics, 48–49
pressure by design, 45–46
wrong possibility, 49–50
Plant concept, 117–120
diabatic concept, 117–118
advantages, 117
efficiency of, 118
multistage adiabatic concept, 119–120
performance metrics, 120
single-stage adiabatic concept, 118–119
Point of common coupling (PCC), 458
Poisson ratio, 184
Policy framework in California, 504
Polysulfide bromine (PSB) redox flow battery, 241
Pore size, classification of, 352
Pore storage, 422
Portable devices, 509
Positive displacement-type compressors, 88
Post-industrial revolution capitalist model, 537
Power backup system, 492
Power cell/reactor, 522
Power conversion and control system, 516
Power converter models, 464
Power electronic interfaces, 464
Power/energy spectrum, 54
Power generation, 113
capacity utilization rate of, 510
Power generators
kinds of, 27
Power grid, 89
operator, 381
Power management products, 193
Power plants, 413
Power quality, 479
sensitive customers, 516
services, 484
Power recovery processes, 167
Power reliability, 479
Power sector
challenges, 478
economic challenges, 478
regulatory challenges, 478
technical challenges, 478
PowerSouth Energy Cooperative in Alabama, 103
Power storage, 413
electrical ESS in, 434
electrical load of, 477
Power-to-gas concept, 412
Power-to-gas system, 373–386
applications/process chains of, 373
CO2 sources for utilization in, 379
development of, 383
dynamic electrolyzer as core part of plants, 376–378
feature of, 380
hydrogen over synthetic methane, advantages of, 383
implementation of, 373
introduction, 373–376
methanation processes within, 378–380
multifunctional applications of, 380–385
process chain of, 374
synthetic methane over hydrogen, advantages of, 384
underground gas storage in, 385–387
advantages, 375
Power-to-power energy storage technology, 9
“Power-to-X” systems, 56
Practical storage systems
all-in costs of, 50
Preceding cooling process, 115
Pressure
drop, 149
relief devices, 137
vessel, 156
Pressurized air
isobaric containments for, 96
isochoric containments for, 98
Pressurized system
heat stored within, 107
Primary energy sources
production of, 392
Primary peak-shaving function, 463
Problem heuristic approaches, 442
Proton-conducting membrane, 323
Proton exchange membrane (PEM)
cell layout diagram for, 323
characteristics of, 377
power sizes of, 377
Proton exchange membrane electrolysis cells (PEMEC), 376
Proton exchange membrane water electrolysis, 324
Public sector, 383
Public transportation fleet, 383
Public water supply reservoir, 43
Pulsed power
flywheels applications in, 194–195
electromagnetic aircraft launch system, 194–195
research facilities, 195
roller coaster launch, 195
Pumped hydro combined with compressed air energy (PHCA) system, 155–165
advantages, 158
characteristics of, 157–158
drawbacks, 158
energy analysis, 161–162
exergy analysis, 162
novel constant pressure energy storage system, 158–160
physical model of, 156
schematic diagram of, 157
simulation analysis, 162–165
storage system, 156–157
vs. PHES system, 158
work density, influences of, 160
Pumped hydro concepts, 41
ability of, 46
adoption of, 28
buildup of, 29
in China, 32
regulatory regime for, 29
consists of, 511
development of, 28
dominant design for, 28
drawback of, 512
efficiency of, 25
energy rating of, 46
facilities, 155
function, 64
historical development, 28–34
installations, 34
introduction, 25–27
in Japan, 30
market dominance of, 39
net electricity output of, 29
operating pressure, 45
plant, 62
principle of, 512
pros and cons, 27–28
prospects, 34–37
alternative and novel designs, 35–36
conventional, revival of, 34–35
retrofits of existing and conventional hydropower stations, 36
regulations and financing of, 29
several drawbacks to, 27
stations in Japan, 30
storage period of, 512
type reservoirs, 61
types of facilities, 25
Underground, See Underground pumped hydroelectric storage (PHES)
in United States, 33
variable-speed, See Variable-speed pumped hydroelectric storage (PHES)
Pumped hydro power plants, 414
Pumped hydro techniques, 41
Pumping water, 59
Pump storage function, 64
“Pure” energy storage system, 118
Q
Quarry Battery, 35
Quarry Battery Company (QBC), 62
Quattro grid inverters, 493
R
Rail, 77–78
ability to handle traffic volume, 78
adaptability to various sites, 78
maintainability and sustainability, 78
Rail-based energy storage technology, 69
Rail-based, traction drive technology, 74
Railroad technology
durability and efficiency of, 85
Rail traction industry, 516
Rankine cycle, 174
Rapid charge/discharge cycles, 10
R&D programs, 18
funding and regulatory reform, 507
Reaction wheels, 198
Reactive power exchanges, 458
Reactor systems
two-phase/three-phase systems, 380
Real-time thermal ratings (RTTR), 443
Rechargeable battery, 10
type of, 10
Recoverable exergy, 99
applications, 236
Fraunhofer UMSICHT, 237
numbering up vs. scale up, 237
operation worldwide, 238
Redox flow technology, 228
electrochemical, 230
filed patents, 229
Reduced instruction set computer (RISC) microcontroller
low-power, 213
Regenerator stores, 167
Regulated business model, 436
Regulated network operators, 440
Regulation services, 484
Remotely operated underwater vehicles (ROVs), 153
Renewable electricity system, 493
based electricity generation systems
inherent characteristics of, 511
benefits of, 488
commercialization of, 490
community, 417
economic framework for, 490
generation, 382
incorporation of, 532
asset, 483
intermittent nature of, 155
rapid penetration of, 477
scenario integration, 490
use of, 487
storage need for, 71–72
technology, 535
underground storage of, 385
Renewable energy sector (RES-E), 437
deployments, 435
Renewable generation, 6
large-scale deployment of, 506
Renewable integration policies, 438
Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS), 504
Renewable resources
combustion of, 378
use of, 71
Renewable sources
balancing, 478
Research, development, and demonstration (RD&D) activities, 436
Reserve and regulation services, 55
Reservoir, 402
Residual gas, 400
Resources
continued linear exploitation of, 535
Revenue, incentives, innovation, and outputs (RIIO), 441
Reversible endothermic chemical reactions, 12
Rigid storage
vessel incorporating ballast, 141
design of, 141
resist loads, 140
Ritter’s electrolysis apparatus, 318
Riverbank Power’s gigawatt-scale Aquabank concept, 62
Rock-bed thermal storage systems, 308
Rock caverns, 398–400
compressed air storage in, 125
Rock salt, 423
properties of, 404
Roller coaster launch systems, 195
Rotary systems, 196
Rotor material
properties, 184
Roundtrip
RTD framework programme, 507
Rubber-tired gantry (RTG) cranes, 196
Rural electrification projects, 482
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