S
Sabatier process, 379
Saline groundwater-filled nondrinking water aquifers, 403
Saline low-head hydroelectric equipment, 63
Salinity gradient, 274
redistribution method, 278
solar ponds, 274
solar pond scheme, 275
characteristic of, 396
important oil storage facilities realized in, 397–398
operation of oil storage, 396–397
solution mining of, 405
Salt formations
classification of, 407
San Diego Gas & Electric Company (SDG&E)-issued requests for offers (RFOs), 72
SCADA system, 79–81
Scale flywheel system, 190
Scandinavia, 436
Seabed pumped hydro, 63
Seal subsystem, 49
Seasonal electricity storage, 42
Seasonal storage, 302
applications, 303
operations, 402
storage methods, 304
aquifers, 307–308
borehole thermal energy storage (BTES), 306–307
large-scale tanks, 304–305
rock-bed thermal energy storage, 308
tanks, 305
Seawater
pumped hydroelectric storage (PHES), 35
Second law of thermodynamics, 157
Self-contained system, 383
Semiconductor datasheet information, 466
Sensors, 80
Sequential quadratic programming approach, 442
Service scheduling system, 462
Service station operator, 382
Shallow solar pond (SSP), 282
Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, 520
ShangHai NaS Company, 520
Shift energy consumption, 300
Ship’s electrical system, 195
Shore-based and platform-based machinery, 144
Short-duration markets, 55
Shuttle units, 79
Shuttle vehicle, 75–77
Silica gel, 352
advantage of, 353
classical adsorption materials, 352
crystalline structure, 353
NaY-type, 353
thermochemical storage materials, 353
Silicoaluminophosphate (SAPOs), 353
Simple solar hot water-heating system, 299
Simulation network
low-voltage section of, 449
Single-cell control unit (SCU), 216
Single-particle model (SPM), 465
Single redox flow cell, 232
Single-stage adiabatic compressed air energy storage concept, 119
Single-stage adiabatic compression, 145
Single-stage adiabatic concept, 118
Single-stage compression, 94
Site-specific vehicle commands, 79
Small-scale compressors, 88
Smarter network storage (SNS), 461
project, 463
Sodium bromide (NaBr), 522
Sodium polysulfides, 519
drawback of, 520
projects in China, 521
units, 503
Sodium-sulfur (NaS) cells, 520
Sodium-sulfur (NaS) grid stabilization battery system, 487
Sodium-sulfur (NaS) technology, 482
SOEC electrolysis technology, 377
Soil migration, 60
Solar energy, 273
collection efficiency, 282
plants, 414
Solar fraction, 365
Solar generation
self-consumption of, 505
Solar panels, 424
growth rate of, 478
applications of, 284
aquaculture and biotechnology, 287
buildings and domestic heating, 287
chemicals, production of, 287
desalination, 284–285
electrical power production, 285–286
industrial process heating, 284
salinity mitigation, 286
artificial solar pond, concept of, 274
climate change and depletion of fossil fuels, 273
construction, 276
investment/operational cost, 283–284
powered desalination, 284
saturated solar ponds, 281
shallow solar pond (SSP), 282
solar gel/membrane ponds, 281–282
types of, 274
control and maintenance, 278–279
design and construction, 276
heat extraction, 279
salinity gradient solar pond, 275
settling, salinity gradient, 277
Solar power plants, 15
Solar radiation vaporizes, 286
Solar thermal energy storage systems, 299–300
Solar thermal heating system
open sorption store, 366
Solar thermal systems, 303
Solid beta alumina ceramic electrolyte, 519
Solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI), 464
Solid flywheel rotors, 188
Solid oxide electrolysis, 324
Solid oxide electrolysis cells (SOEC), 376
Solid oxide electrolyzer (SOE), 326
water electrolysis, 325
Solid-solid PCMs, 250
SolSpaces building, 366
SolSpaces segmented open sorption store, 367
Solution-mining process, 408
Sorption storage, 365
Southern California Edison (SCE), 72
Southwestern United States
potential sites in, 81–82
Spain, 437
SPEEK membranes, 231
Spinning mass
angular momentum of, 515
Standalone energy storage device, 196
Standalone flywheel module, 189
Standard flexible electricity generation, 5
Standard hydroelectric pump motor/turbine generator packages, 45
Standard PHES arrangement, 61
State of charge (SOC), 209
battery terminal voltage estimation technique, 456
Kalman filters, 217
Markov chain, 217
parallel particle filter, 220
process model, 218
vs. open-circuit voltage (OCV), 219
defined, 220
lithium iron phosphate/graphite battery, 222
low-variance resampling step, 220
State-of-the-art railroad technology, 75
Stationary battery storage, 206
Stationary steam engines, 185
Steady-state voltage limits, 451
Steam-driven pump, 41
Steam reformer plant, 418
Steel flywheel rotor, 191
Steep adsorption, 353
Stockpiles
capacity of, 394
Stockpiling, 393
Stodola hub, 187
Storage
algorithm, 295
alternative forms of, 501
caverns, investment costs for, 408
market design barriers, 439–441
materials, comparison of, 357
need for new types, 4–8
electricity system imbalances, strategies to cope with, 6–8
generation imbalances, impact of demands on, 5–6
operations, special feature of, 400
pressure, 399
process, 420
regulatory barriers, 438–439
sector, 66
service costing, 54
true value of, 502
comparing, 12–13
eligibility of, 505
assessment of, 489
chemical, 11–12
electrochemical, 10–11
gravitational/mechanical/thermomechanical, 9–10
thermal, 11
flexible vessels, 137–140
rigid vessels, 140–141
Stored energy, 47
Store fossil fuels, 123
Storing electricity dominant method, 41
Strategic petroleum reserve (SPR), 398
Strategic storage, 42
Strategy Energy Technology Plan (SET-Plan), 436
Sugar alcohols, 259
Suitability criteria, 122
Sumitomo Electric Industries (SEI), 523
Sun’s energy, 299
Supercapacitors, 10
bridge, 10
Supercooling
schematic representation of, 253
Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system, 79
Supplementary energy, 444
Supply circuits
schematic of, 445
Surface-based pipework, 150
Surface tank farms, 396
Surface turbulence, 279
Surplus water storage capacity, 64
policy, 532
literature on, 532
technical resources, 534
Sustainable energy systems, 531
circular economy, 536–537
component of, 534
global implications, 535–536
implications for investment in, 533–534
introduction, 529–531
policy and politics, 531–533
politics of investing in, 529–537
technology selection, 534–535
transition, 535
Synthetic methane
production of, 384
storage of, 384
Synthetic natural gas (SNG), 386
System balancing, 435
System charges
transmission and distribution use of, 438
System costs, 50
System efficiency, 161
variation of, 164
T
Tank farm, 395
Taum Sauk PHES station, 28
Technology-specific approach, 506
Telescope-like arrangement, 404
Test network, 467
Texas Dispatchable Wind Project, 129
Textiles, 536
Thermal camera
climate chamber, 211
Thermal conductivity, 252
challenging specifications, 119
materials, 249
mechanism classification of, 346
modeling, of sensible heat storage, 294
number of assumptions, 297
stratified thermal energy storage, 295–298
phase change materials (PCM), 291
reversible solid/gas reaction for, 347
second law analysis of, 298
thermal stratification, 292
destratification in storage tanks, 294
heat exchangers, 293
Thermal fluids, 175
Thermal management system, 518
Thermal performance, of water-based storage devices, 300
Thermal storage, 11
closed adsorption storage systems, 362–365
closed-system operation mode, 358–360
high-temperature heat storage systems, 346
hot water/sorption store, 348–351
integrated and external reactor concept, 361
low-temperature, 345
materials, 353
material transportation, 362
MODESTORE project, drawing of prototype, 363
open adsorption storage systems, 365–368
open- and closed-system concept, 358
open-system operation mode, 360
external reactor concept, 362
integrated reactor concept, 361–362
physical fundamentals of, 346
reaction, 346–347
solar space heating, thermochemical storage for, 362
storage materials, 351
adsorption materials, 352–354
composite materials, 356
salt hydrates, 354–356
Thermochemical energy store, 368
Thermocline-type packed bed heat store, 107
Thermodynamic calculations, 90
Thermodynamic inefficiencies
source of, 162
Thermodynamic process, 94
Thermomechanical storage technologies, 9
Three-phase catenary system, 84
Tidal power
generation lagoon, 64
plant, 65
Tied-grid energy storage technologies, 477
Titanium chloride (TiCl2), 227
Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO), 520
Track layout scheme, 78
Traditional bulk energy storage, 391–409
coal, 393–394
introduction, 391–393
natural gas storage, 400–409
oil, 394–400
rock caverns, 398–400
salt caverns, 396–398
Traditional central network storage systems, 55
Traditional fossil energy sources, 155
Traditional hydrogen market
players, 417
Traditional power grids, 479
Transcritical cycles, 170
Transformer current, 460
Transient stability services, 484
Transitioning
economic and political challenges of, 535
Transit systems, 193
operators, 440
Transmission networks, 381
Transmission system operator (TSO), 437
Transmission system operators, 82
Transmitting power, 144
Transport chain, 391
Traps, 401
TRNSYS simulation package, 294
Turbine inlet temperature (TIT), 173
Two-stage topology, 466
U
UET-Uni Energy Technologies, 228
Ultracapacitors, 189
Ultrahigh-energy strategic storage, 46
Unbalanced power exchange control strategy (UPECS), 449
Unbundled electricity system, 434
Underground energy storage facilities, 408
Underground engineering projects, 427
facilities, 385
key properties of, 423
operation of, 400
options, compilation of key properties, 424
Underground high-voltage distribution system, 488
Underground natural gas and oil storage, 391–409
coal, 393–394
introduction, 391–393
natural gas storage, 400–409
oil, 394–400
rock caverns, 398–400
salt caverns, 396–398
Underground pumped hydroelectric storage (PHES), 35
Underground reservoir
properties, 421
Underground salt deposits
worldwide map of, 124
abandoned mines, 125–126
aquifers, 122–123
conclusions, 126
depleted oil and gas fields, 122
existing and proposed plants, 126–129
Alberta (Canada)-in planning, 128
Bakersfield, California (United States)-in planning, 127
Cheshire (United Kingdom)-in planning, 128
Columbia Hills, Washington (United States)-status unclear, 129
Donbas (Russia)-construction abandoned, 129
Gaines, Texas (United States)-status unclear, 129
Huntorf (Germany)-in operation, 126
Iowa (United States)-planning suspended, 129
Larne (United Kingdom)-under construction, 127
McIntosh, Alabama (United States)-in operation, 127
Millard County, Utah (United States)-in planning, 128
Norton, Ohio (United States)-in planning, 128
Pollegio (Switzerland)-under construction, 127
Selah, Washington (United States)-status unclear, 129
Sesta (Italy)-shut down, 127
Staßfurt (Germany)-in planning, 128
Tennessee Colony, Texas (United States)-in planning, 127
Wesel (Germany)-in planning, 128
rock caverns, 124–125
salt caverns, 123–124
Underwater compressed air energy storage (UWCAES), 135–153
advantage, 151
anchorage and installation, 142–143
cost and efficiency, 148–152
energy density available in, 136
introduction, 135–136
isobaric characteristic of, 151
locations, 146–148
plant, roundtrip efficiency of, 148
state of development, 152–153
storage vessels for, 136–141
advantages and disadvantages, 136
flexible vessels, 137–140
rigid vessels, 140–141
system
configurations, 143–145
design life of, 151
technology, commercialisation of, 152
vessels for, 142
Underwater salvage operations, 137
flywheels applications for, 196
systems, global market for, 196
United Kingdom, 436
distribution networks, 454
Electricity Networks Strategy Group (ENSG), 434
funded realising energy storage technologies in low-carbon energy systems (RESTLESS) project, 12
United States, 438
energy peak shifting, 72
smoothing renewable generation, 71
voltage and frequency support, 71
electricity sector in, 503
hydrogen caverns, 426
Northwest Power Pool (NPPW) system, 484
policy makers, 503
University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 167
University of New South Wales (UNSW), 523
Unlined rock caverns, 125
Upper convective zone (UCZ), 275
Urenco Power Technologies (UPT), 516
User convenience, 294
“Utility death spiral” scenario, 54
Utility-scale energy storage, 70
market for, 70–71
UV radiation, 276
V
Valley Electric Association (VEA), 85
Value and storage market, 72–73
Valve-regulated lead-acid battery, 207
Vanadium-based electrolyte, 233
Vanadium bromide (VBr), 522
advantage of, 234
all-organic redox flow battery, 242
application of, 235
current large-scale applications, 237–238
battery types, 235
criticality and vulnerability, 240
electrolytes of, 233–234
flow batteries, electrolyte for, 240
iron-chromium flow battery (ICB), 240–241
polysulfide bromine (PSB) redox flow battery, 241–242
function of, 230–233
historic development, 227
hybrid flow batteries, 242
copper/copper flow battery, 244
hydrogen-bromine battery, 244–245
iron/iron flow battery, 244
zinc-bromine flow battery, 242–243
zinc-cerium flow battery, 243
mobile applications, 234
recycling, environment, safety, and availability, 239–240
vs. other battery types, 234–235
power, 227
principle of, 522
Van der Waals forces, or electrostatic forces, 349
Variable-speed pumped hydroelectric storage (PHES), 35
Vehicle-to-grid technologies, 6
Ventilation shaft, 63
Viable business model, 435
Volatile generation sources, 383
Volatile production sources, 375
Voltage control, 452
Voltage sensitivity factor (VSF), 453
Volt-ampere reactive (VAR), 79
VOLTERION
electrolyte, 239
stack for home applications, 239
Volumetric energy storage
capacity, 416
densities, 392
density, 367
Volumetric exergy density, 168
W
Water-air volume ratio, 160–162
Water-bearing reservoirs, 400
Water-bearing underground rock layers, 122
Water cavity, 60
Water electrolysis methods, 318
comparison of, 322
Water-filled reservoir, 422
Water-gas shift reaction, 317
Water injection process, 165
for energy storage, 159
Water uptake values, 354
Week-ahead markets, 56–57
Week-ahead storage, 42
Week-ahead systems, 57
Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic (WEIRD), 534
Wheel rotation sensors, 80
Whole energy system approach, 20
Wholesale electricity markets, 435
Wholesale energy market, 436
Williams Hybrid Power (WHP), 197
Wind and solar power generators, 414
Wind/photovoltaic system operator, 382
advantage of, 382
Wind turbines, 477
Work density, 160
variation of, 161
Working gas, 420
World Endurance Championship (WEC), 197
World Energy Council (WEC), 532
World Energy Outlook, 488
Y
Yokohama Landmark Tower, 255
Young-Laplace equation, 138
Yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ), 325
Z
classical adsorption materials, 352
ZeoSys, 364
Zero-carbon energy carrier, 11
flow battery, 242
Zinc-cerium battery, 243
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