Problems may arise because different cultures have different customs, etiquettes and trading practices. In some instances, where two countries use the same language, a particular word may have a totally different meaning. This occurs not only between England and America but, for example, also between Germany and Austria, who are, as some cynics might say, all ‘divided by a common language’.

Where stakeholders of a project are located in different offices or sites, good electronic transmission equipment is essential. The necessary equipment must be correctly installed, regularly checked and properly maintained. Generally, it is worthwhile to install the latest updates, especially if these increase the speed of transmission, even if they do not reduce the often high-operating and high-transmission costs. Where persons in countries with different time zones have to be contacted, care must be taken to take these into consideration. A person, from whom one wants a favour, will not be very cooperative if woken up at four o’clock in the morning!

Senders and receivers of communications are human beings and are therefore prone to prejudice, bias, tiredness and other failings, often related to their mood or health at the time. Misunderstandings can occur due to bad hearing or eyesight, or because there was not sufficient time to properly read and digest the message. Cases are known where, because the receiver did not like or trust the sender, the transmitted information was perceived as being unimportant or not relevant and was therefore not been acted upon with the urgency it actually required. The receiver may believe the sender to have a hidden agenda or indeed have his/her own agenda, and may therefore deliberately not cooperate with a request. To avoid these pitfalls, all parties must be told in no uncertain manner that the project has priority over their personal opinions. It also helps to arrange for occasional face-to-face meetings to take place.

Instructions, whether verbal or written, must be clear and unambiguous. They should also be as short as possible as the receiver’s as well as the sender’s time is often costly. Winston Churchill required all important documents to be condensed onto ‘one sheet of foolscap paper’ (approximately the size of an A4 sheet). Time is money, and the higher one is in the hierarchy, the more expensive time becomes. As with instructions, objectives must also be set out clearly and unequivocally. It is often advantageous to add simple sketches to written communications. These are often more explicit than long descriptions.

Meetings are an essential part of project management, as they enable two or more stakeholders to communicate and discuss issues in such a way that quick decisions can be made and implemented. The meeting may be face to face or via video link, teleconference or other virtual system.