‘Note: Page numbers followed by “f” indicate figures and “t” indicate tables.’
Acetone, butanol, and ethanol (ABE),
245, 248Acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACCase),
678–680Acid-catalyzed reaction,
126Activated alumina catalysts,
406Agricultural biomass,
440Ammonia fiber explosion (AFEX),
241–242Anaerobic baffled reactor (ABR),
267, 637Anaerobic digestion (AD) process
efficiency enhancing, methods for
mechanical pretreatments,
271feedstock composition,
263pH/free ammonia and volatile fatty acids,
262–263volatile fatty acids (VFAs),
285–286continuous/batch mode of operation,
270continuous-stirred tank reactor (CSTR),
265digesting mixture, solid content of,
269sequential batch anaerobic composting (SEBAC) process,
269–270, 269fsmall/large-scale systems,
270temperature of operation,
268Annona methyl esters (AME),
99Annona oil for second-generation biodiesel (AOBD),
99Artificial neural network (ANN),
101–102Auxiliary energies,
91–92Benzene, toluene, and xylenes (BTX),
556–558Bioalcohol production
Bio-based heterogeneous catalysts,
97Biochar
biorefinery residues
rotary drum pyrolyzers,
664climate change mitigation,
656hydrothermal carbonization (HTC),
662–663Biochemical catalytic production
bioalcohols
bioethanol production, new technologies for
endogenous alpha-amylase, corn with,
247–248high fermentable corn (HFC) hybrids,
246, 247foil-producing sugarcane (lipidcane),
248fatty acid glycerol carbonate esters, oils and fats transesterification process,
183–184, 184fglycerol triacetate, oils and fats transesterification process,
182–183biomass, types of
enzymatic production
different sources, lipases from,
178–179enzymatic transesterification reaction, variables affecting,
174–177extracellular and intracellular lipases,
170–171novel immobilization techniques,
178enzyme-catalyzed transesterification,
180–181enzyme-catalyzed transesterification, ionic liquids,
180enzymes, industrial biodiesel production using,
189–192, 191fFatty Acids Methyl Ester (FAME),
165reaction optimization, statistical approaches for,
180granular starch hydrolyzing (GSH) enzymes,
249, 250fvegetable oils converting method,
165, 166fBiodiesel B5-based cat-fish fat,
721Biodiesel production
background
transesterification reaction,
126, 127f
homogeneously catalyzed biodiesel production,
123–124, 123foil feedstocks
first generation of,
large-scale ethanol production,
632–633new technologies for
endogenous alpha-amylase, corn with,
247–248high fermentable corn (HFC) hybrids,
246, 247foil-producing sugarcane (lipidcane),
248sustainable bioethanol production, challenges for,
108–109Biofuel conversion routes, biomass to,
50–53first-generation biofuels,
51second-generation biofuels,
51–52third- and fourth-generation biofuels,
52–53Biofuel production
assessing first- and next-generation biofuels,
64–71first-generation biofuels,
68–70radical, path-breaking innovations,
63thermochemical and biotechnological routes,
69–70food waste (FW)
two-stage combined hydrogen/methane fermentation,
643–644integrated biorefineries,
70–71policy actions and regulatory framework,
74–79incentive and regulatory systems, Brazil,
75–77incentive and regulatory systems, EU,
78–79incentive and regulatory systems, USA,
77socioeconomic issues,
71–72socio-environmental issues,
73–74socio-technical transition theory, insights from,
71–74Biofuels feedstock production,
20Biofuel thermochemical pretreatment,
55Biological conversion technologies
Biological/fermentative production
anoxygenic photosynthetic bacteria, photofermentation by,
313–314cell-free enzymatic systems,
319–320energy conversion efficiency,
321–323hydrogen production rate,
321microalgae and cyanobacteria, water biophotolysis by,
309–313
organic matters, dark fermentation of,
306–309Biological methane potential (BMP),
535Biomass, types of
entrained flow gasifiers,
460, 461ffixed bed/moving bed gasifiers,
452–458Biomass liquefaction products
catalytic processing methods,
598–599hydroprocessing
Biomass-to-liquids (BTL) process,
552biomass gasification
syngas cleaning and conditioning,
556–559environmental and economic considerations,
581–583final fuel products
Fischer–Tropsch catalysts
high-temperature Fischer–Tropsch (HTFT),
559low-temperature Fischer–Tropsch (LTFT),
559reactors and process conditions,
562upgrading
BTL wax to diesel, hydrocracking,
568–571carbon number distribution,
567, 567tBio-oil upgrading/refining,
597–598hydrodeoxygenation (HDO) processing,
595vs. hydrothermal liquefaction,
609 liquid fuel products
fuel properties, chemical analysis,
606–608vs. upgraded bio-oil and biocrude,
608–609 relevant petroleum processing technology,
597upgrading
vs. fast pyrolysis,
609Biorefinery
residues, biochar
rotary drum pyrolyzers,
664Bond dissociation energy (BDE),
403Brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC),
95Bubble column reactors,
346Carbonate-derived catalysts,
413Carbon/nitrogen (C/N) ratio,
633–636activated alumina catalysts,
406carbonate-derived catalysts,
413fluid catalytic cracking catalysts,
410–412transition metal catalysts,
412Catalytic fast pyrolysis
activated alumina catalysts,
406carbonate-derived catalysts,
413fluid catalytic cracking catalysts,
410–412transition metal catalysts,
412higher-value chemicals, production of,
401–402reactor setup
renewable energy sources,
391Catalytic hydrothermal processing,
516–517Cellulosic platform molecules
conversion, chemical routes for
conventional fuels, oxygenated biofuels blending effect with,
371–374, 372t5-HMF, oxygenated fuels via,
360–363oxygenated fuels, furan derivatives,
367–371γ-valerolactone catalytic conversion to liquid hydrocarbon fuels,
374–375, 374fChlorella zofingiensis,
680 Chlorocuccum littorale,
674 Circulating fluidized bed (CFB) gasifier,
459–460, 460fClean Development Mechanism (CDM),
29–30Climate-change mitigation policies,
29–30Closed photo bioreactors (PBRs),
684–685Clostridium acetobutylicum,
245 Coconut methyl ester (CME),
720Combustion engine study
experimental apparatus,
710flame temperature and soot distribution,
715–716spray combustion phenomena,
715–716Complementary assets,
63–64Complete mixed anaerobic digester,
268Compression ignition engines (CIE),
700Cottonseed methyl esters,
95Covered anaerobic lagoon,
268Cryptococcus curvatus,
209 Diacylglycerol acyltransferase (DGAT),
681–682Diesel engines, biofuel utilization,
728–729biodiesel B5-based cat-fish fat,
721combustion bomb study,
701combustion engine study
experimental apparatus,
710flame temperature and soot distribution,
715–716spray combustion phenomena,
715–716compression ignition engines (CIE),
700Dimethyl carbonate (DMC),
183Direct liquefaction products,
596–597Distiller’s Dried Grains with Solubles (DDGS),
8–9Ecodiesel production,
185Edible vegetable raw materials
rapeseed/canola seed,
88–90Efficiency enhancing methods
mechanical pretreatments,
271Elaeis guineensis,
92, 718 Emission reductions
land use and environmental impacts,
18–20Emission Trading System (ETS),
29–30Endogenous alpha-amylase, corn with,
247–248Energy from waste (EfW) conversion process,
440Energy Policy Act, 2005,
77Energy return on investment (EROI),
540Entrained flow gasifiers,
460, 461fEnvironmental premium,
74Enzymatic production
different sources, lipases from,
178–179enzymatic transesterification reaction, variables affecting,
174–177extracellular and intracellular lipases,
170–171novel immobilization techniques,
178Enzymatic transesterification reaction, variables affecting
improving lipase stability, pretreatment for,
177Equivalence ratio (ER),
447Ethanol concentrations,
246Ethyl tert-butyl ether (ETBE),
51Extracellular polymeric substance (EPS),
636Fatty acid ethyl ester (FAEE),
91Fermentative conversion, reactors for,
345–347bubble column reactors,
346continuous stirred-tank reactor (CSTR),
345–346First-generation biofuels,
86biomass-to-liquids (BTL),
552high-temperature Fischer–Tropsch (HTFT),
559low-temperature Fischer–Tropsch (LTFT),
559Fixed bed/moving bed gasifiers,
452–458conversion and product yields,
574fgasoline components, yields,
574fresearch octane number (RON),
573–575Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO),
617Food safety
biofuels production
two-stage combined hydrogen/methane fermentation,
643–644characteristics
management
foot and mouth disease (FMD),
622municipal solid waste (MSW),
622Foot and mouth disease (FMD),
622Ford Ranger WL81 2.499 L engine,
706–710Free fatty acid (FFA),
123C–C coupling reactions
furfuryl alcohol, esters and ethers from,
369agricultural biomass,
440improved biomass feedstock,
441–442lignocellulosic biomass,
436biomass gasification process
ash content and composition,
448gasifying agent and equivalence ratio,
447heating rate and residence time,
446microwave-assisted gasification,
451partial oxidation with air/oxygen,
442reactions and thermodynamics,
443–444Gasifiers
biomass-to-liquids (BTL) process
circulating fluidized bed (CFB),
553–554fast internally circulating fluidized bed (FICFB),
555–556Güssing Renewable Energy (GRE),
555–556Gate-to-grave analysis,
47Glycerol-3-phospate acyltransferase (GPAT),
681G-3-P acyltranferase (GAT),
217Green seed canola biodiesel (GSCB),
96–97Güssing Renewable Energy (GRE),
555–556Heterogeneous solid acids,
144Hierarchical macroporous–mesoporous solid acid and base materials,
148–149, 149f–150fHigh-biomass-sorghum,
108High fermentable corn (HFC) hybrids,
246, 247fHigh-temperature Fischer–Tropsch (HTFT),
559Hydraulic retention time (HRT),
630–631Hydrocracked BTL-FT wax
Hydrodeoxygenation (HDO) processing,
595anoxygenic photosynthetic bacteria, photofermentation by,
313–314cell-free enzymatic systems,
319–320energy conversion efficiency,
321–323hydrogen production rate,
321microalgae and cyanobacteria, water biophotolysis by,
309–313organic matters, dark fermentation of,
306–309Hydrogen production by reaction integrated novel gasification (HyPr-RING),
451Hydrophobic ionic liquids,
180Hydrothermal processing
catalytic hydrothermal processing,
516–517density and static dielectric constant,
512, 512fhydrothermal carbonization (HTC),
509hydrothermal gasification (HTG),
509, 520hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL),
509process water, composition
biological methane potential (BMP),
5355-HMF and furfural dominate,
533product distribution and properties,
524–535reactor systems, development
techno-economic analysis (TEA),
539–541Hydrothermal upgrading process (HTU
®),
510Hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF)
acetoxymethylfurfural (AMF),
3635-(ethoxymethyl)furfural (EMF),
362–363
Improved biomass policy,
79Indirect land use change (ILUC),
70–71, 74Integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC),
434, 435fInteresterification processes,
182International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA),
14International Sustainability and Carbon Certification (ISCC),
86Intracellular dissimilation,
219–220Jatropha curcas methyl-ester (JCME),
720 Lactic acid bacteria (LAB),
631–632Land use, emission reductions and environmental impacts,
18–20Large-scale biofuels,
24–25Levulinic acid
γ-valerolactone and valeric biofuels,
365–367biofuel conversion routes, biomass to,
50–53first-generation biofuels,
51second-generation biofuels,
51–52third- and fourth-generation biofuels,
52–53biofuel production,
53–56biofuel thermochemical pretreatment,
55solid biofuels upgrade,
54challenges
biofuel sustainability certification, scientific studies for,
44–45effective sustainability schemes,
43–44green biofuels, necessity for,
42–43, 42flife cycle impact assessment (LCIA),
49–50Lignocellulosic raw materials,
Lipase-catalyzed biodiesel production,
180Lipase immobilization
entrapment/encapsulation,
173ionic bonding
versus covalent bonding,
172–173Lipid accumulation biochemistry
hydrophobic materials fermentation, lipid production from,
218–220sugars fermentation, lipid accumulation from,
215–218, 218fLiquid–liquid extraction,
347Low-cost palm stearin,
93Low-temperature Fischer–Tropsch (LTFT),
559Lysophosphatidic acid acyltransferase (LPAAT),
681Mass transfer
Media composition, influence of,
338–341Metabolic engineering
anaerobic anaerobic digestion (AD),
639reactor configurations,
642Methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE),
244Microalgae
closed photo bioreactors (PBRs),
684–685heterotrophic and mixotrophic cultivation,
685techno-economic evaluation,
687oil biosynthesis
oil extraction and transesterification,
692fmechanical disruption,
690osmotic shock treatment,
690Microbial electrolysis cell
microorganisms and substrates,
315Microbial oil production
biodiesel properties,
222direct
versus indirect transesterification,
223–224biofuel production perspective,
224–225oleaginous microorganisms, lipid accumulation biochemistry in
hydrophobic materials fermentation, lipid production from,
218–220sugars fermentation, lipid accumulation from,
215–218, 218fbiodiesel industry by-products,
210industrial wastes and by-product streams,
212–214, 213ttechno-economic evaluation of,
224Microwave-assisted gasification,
451Monitoring/control, Anaerobic digestion (AD),
282–287, 284tvolatile fatty acids (VFAs),
285–286Multilevel perspective (MLP),
62–63Multiple objectives policies, biofuels production
climate-change mitigation policies,
29–30energy security and supply,
13–17
Municipal solid waste (MSW),
440, 622Myceliophthora thermophile,
630 National Renewable Energy Action Plan (NREAP),
26–28Net energy ratio (NER),
687Nitrogen dioxide emissions,
19Nonedible/low-cost raw materials,
96–104low-cost and renewable oil,
104Oil biosynthesis
Oil feedstocks
Oil-producing sugarcane (lipidcane),
248biodiesel industry by-products,
210hydrophobic materials fermentation, lipid production from,
218–220industrial wastes and by-product streams,
212–214, 213tsugars fermentation, lipid accumulation from,
215–218, 218fOxygenated fuels, furan derivatives,
367–371furfuryl alcohol, esters and ethers from,
369Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL),
595, 601–602Packed-bed reactors (PBR),
642Palm oil mill effluent (POME),
212–214Parameters effects, Syngas fermentation,
338–345media composition, influence of,
338–341pH value, influence of,
342syngas composition, influence of,
343–344temperature, influence of,
342trace metals, influence of,
342–343Phosphatidate phosphatase (PAP),
681–682Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs),
660–661Polytrimethylene terephthalate (PTT),
10Process integration
Process parameters, catalytic fast pyrolysis
residence time and heating rate,
416vapor residence time,
417
liquid–liquid extraction,
347Protein-coated microcrystals (PCMC),
178Pseudochlorococcum sp.,
675 Pure bioethanol (E100),
65–66Rapeseed/canola seed,
88–90continuous/batch mode of operation,
270continuous-stirred tank reactor (CSTR),
265digesting mixture, solid content of,
269sequential batch anaerobic composting (SEBAC) process,
269–270, 269fsmall/large-scale systems,
270temperature of operation,
268Reactor setup, fast pyrolysis
Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD),
29–30Renewable Energy Directive 2009/28/EC (RED),
78Renewable Fuels Standard (RFS),
15–16, 77Research and development (R&D),
70Rhodosporidium toruloides,
210, 224 Rotary drum pyrolyzers,
664Saccharomyces coreanus,
630 Second-generation biodiesel feedstocks,
128Second-generation biofuels,
25, 86–87SENECA Green Catalyst S.L.,
624Sequential batch anaerobic composting (SEBAC) process,
269–270, 269fShell Middle Distillate Synthesis (SMDS) process,
564Simultaneous liquefaction, saccharification, and fermentation (SLSF),
249, 250fSimultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF),
242, 627–631hierarchical macroporous–mesoporous solid acid and base materials,
148–149, 149f–150fStearoyl-ACP desaturase (SAD),
680Supercritical ethanol,
102Supercritical water gasification (SCWG),
509Sustainability transitions,
63–64Syngas fermentation
commercial/semicommercial processes,
348–350fermentative conversion, reactors for,
345–347bubble column reactors,
346continuous stirred-tank reactor (CSTR),
345–346
Fischer-Tropsch (FT) process,
335–336process parameters effects,
338–345media composition, influence of,
338–341pH value, influence of,
342syngas composition, influence of,
343–344temperature, influence of,
342trace metals, influence of,
342–343liquid–liquid extraction,
347syngas conversion, bacteria for,
338thermochemical process,
335upgrading technologies,
470falcohol and aldehyde production,
475–476synthetic natural gas,
475Synthetic single-use plastic waste,
104Tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS),
147Thermochemical/biotechnological routes,
69–70Transesterified biodiesel,
96Transition metal catalysts,
412Trimethylbenzene (TMB),
147Turnover frequency (TOF),
147Upflow anaerobic sludge bed reactor (UASBR),
266–267Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB),
637γ-Valerolactone
catalytic conversion to liquid hydrocarbon fuels,
374–375, 374fVegetable oils converting method,
165, 166fVolatile fatty acids (VFAs),
643Waste cooking oil (WCO),
624Waste cooking or frying oils (WFO),
102Waste-transformer oil (WTO),
103Water gas shift reaction (WGS),
431, 471