Index

‘Note: Page numbers followed by “f” indicate figures and “t” indicate tables.’
A
Acetogenesis, 260
Acidogenesis, 260
Acetone, butanol, and ethanol (ABE), 245, 248
Acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACCase), 678–680
Acid-catalyzed reaction, 126
Activated alumina catalysts, 406
Adsorption, 347–348
Agricultural biomass, 440
Algae, 130–131
See also Microalgae
Ammonia fiber explosion (AFEX), 241–242
Anaerobic baffled reactor (ABR), 267, 637
Anaerobic digestion (AD) process
advantages and limitations, 263–265, 264f
biogas installations, 288–290
biogas utilization, 287–288, 288t
defined, 274–277
efficiency enhancing, methods for
biological pretreatments, 273–274
chemical pretreatments, 272–273
mechanical pretreatments, 271
pretreatments, 270–274
thermal pretreatments, 271–272
factors affecting, 261–263
feedstock composition, 263
pH/free ammonia and volatile fatty acids, 262–263
temperature, 262
future trends, 290–291
methane, 259
monitoring and control, 282–287, 284t
alkalinity, 283
biogas composition, 283–285
biogas flow, 283
control law, 287
manipulated variables, 286–287
organic matter, 283
pH, 283
steps to considered, 282–287
volatile fatty acids (VFAs), 285–286
principles, 260–261, 261f
process modeling, 264f, 277–282
reactor configurations, 265–270
continuous/batch mode of operation, 270
continuous-stirred tank reactor (CSTR), 265
digesting mixture, solid content of, 269
feedstocks, 265–266
number of bioreactors, 269–270
sequential batch anaerobic composting (SEBAC) process, 269–270, 269f
small/large-scale systems, 270
temperature of operation, 268
types, 266–268
Annona, 99, 100t
Annona methyl esters (AME), 99
Annona oil for second-generation biodiesel (AOBD), 99
Aqueous phase reforming (APR), 378–381, 379f–380f
Artificial neural network (ANN), 101–102
Aspergillus awamori, 624–626
Aspergillus oryzae, 624–626
Auxiliary energies, 91–92
Azadirachta indica, 101
B
Benzene, toluene, and xylenes (BTX), 556–558
Bioalcohol production
biobutanol, 245
bioethanol, 244–245
BioMCN, 495
biomethanol, 244
biopropanol, 246
black liquor, 495–496
gasification routes
ethanol production, 498–500
methanol production, 497
Ineos Bio, 495–496
oxidative coupling of methane (OCM) process, 500–501, 505–506
economical analysis, 502–505, 503t, 504f, 504t, 505f
technical analysis, 501–502
types, 243–244
Bio-based heterogeneous catalysts, 97
Biobutanol, 245
BIOCELL process, 643
Biochar
biorefinery residues
rotary drum pyrolyzers, 664
screw pyrolyzers, 664
slow pyrolysis, 663
climate change mitigation, 656
fast pyrolysis, 658–660
gasification, 660–662
hydrothermal carbonization (HTC), 662–663
soil conditioning, 656–657
waste management, 657
Biochemical catalytic production
bioalcohols
biobutanol, 245
bioethanol, 244–245
biomethanol, 244
biopropanol, 246
types, 243–244
bioethanol production, new technologies for
endogenous alpha-amylase, corn with, 247–248
food waste, 248
high fermentable corn (HFC) hybrids, 246, 247f
oil-producing sugarcane (lipidcane), 248
biofuels to biodiesel, 181–189
fatty acid glycerol carbonate esters, oils and fats transesterification process, 183–184, 184f
glycerol triacetate, oils and fats transesterification process, 182–183
monoacylglycerol, 184–189, 189f
biomass, types of
availability, 238–240
characteristics, 238, 239t–240t
processing, 241–242, 241f, 243f
cellulosic ethanol, 237
enzymatic production
different sources, lipases from, 178–179
enzymatic transesterification reaction, variables affecting, 174–177
extracellular and intracellular lipases, 170–171
lipase immobilization, 171–173
new tendencies, 177–181, 177f
novel immobilization techniques, 178
enzyme-catalyzed transesterification, 180–181
enzyme-catalyzed transesterification, ionic liquids, 180
enzymes, industrial biodiesel production using, 189–192, 191f
Fatty Acids Methyl Ester (FAME), 165
gasoline, 237
lipases, 167–170
reaction optimization, statistical approaches for, 180
scientific publications, 166, 169f
substrate and product inhibition, 249–252, 249f
granular starch hydrolyzing (GSH) enzymes, 249, 250f
vacuum, in situ ethanol stripping using, 250–252, 250f–251f
transesterification, 165
vegetable oils converting method, 165, 166f
Biocrude, 528–529
Biodiesel, 5–6, 6f
Biodiesel-based palm oil, 718–721
Biodiesel B5-based cat-fish fat, 721
durability test, 727–728, 727f–728f
experimental set up and apparatus, 723–724, 724f, 724t
performance tests, 725–727, 725f–726f
properties, 721–723, 722t
Biodiesel production
background
alternative fuel, 124–126, 125t
process, 126
transesterification reaction, 126, 127f
homogeneously catalyzed biodiesel production, 123–124, 123f
oil depletion issues, 122–123, 122f
oil feedstocks
first and second generation biodiesel fuels, 127–128, 128f, 130t
nonedible vegetable oils and lipid composition, 128–131, 129f, 131t, 132f
robust technology, 132–149
homogeneous vs. heterogeneous catalysis, 132–134, 133f, 133t
solid acid catalysts, 142–149
solid base catalysts, 134–142, 135t–137t, 138f–143f
Bioenergy production, 31
Bioethanol production, 244–245
first generation of, 4
food waste (FW), 626–627, 628t–629t
large-scale ethanol production, 632–633
pretreatment, 627–630
process strategies, 630–632
new technologies for
endogenous alpha-amylase, corn with, 247–248
food waste, 248
high fermentable corn (HFC) hybrids, 246, 247f
oil-producing sugarcane (lipidcane), 248
raw materials for, 104–109
employed by country, 105–108
sustainable bioethanol production, challenges for, 108–109
Biofuel conversion routes, biomass to, 50–53
first-generation biofuels, 51
second-generation biofuels, 51–52
third- and fourth-generation biofuels, 52–53
Biofuel production
assessing first- and next-generation biofuels, 64–71
biodiesel, 66–67
bioethanol, 65–66
biogas, 67
butanol, 67
cellulose ethanol, 69
first-generation biofuels, 68–70
green diesel, 68
methanol, 67
other biofuels, 67–68
radical, path-breaking innovations, 63
thermochemical and biotechnological routes, 69–70
food waste (FW)
biodiesel, 623–626
bioethanol, 626–633
hydrogen, 633–639
methane, 639–643
two-stage combined hydrogen/methane fermentation, 643–644
integrated biorefineries, 70–71
policy actions and regulatory framework, 74–79
incentive and regulatory systems, Brazil, 75–77
incentive and regulatory systems, EU, 78–79
incentive and regulatory systems, USA, 77
socioeconomic issues, 71–72
socio-environmental issues, 73–74
socio-technical transition theory, insights from, 71–74
Biofuels feedstock production, 20
Biofuels support policies, 20–25, 23f
Biofuel thermochemical pretreatment, 55
Biological conversion technologies
development, 7
Biological/fermentative production
hydrogen, 303, 304t
advantages, 303–305
anoxygenic photosynthetic bacteria, photofermentation by, 313–314
biophotolysis, See Biophotolysis
cell-free enzymatic systems, 319–320
energy conversion efficiency, 321–323
enzymes, 305–306
feedstock and microorganisms, 308–309, 310t–311t
fundamentals, 305–306
hybrid systems, 316–317
hydrogen production rate, 321
metabolic engineering, See Metabolic engineering
microalgae and cyanobacteria, water biophotolysis by, 309–313
microbial electrolysis cell, See Microbial electrolysis cell
organic matters, dark fermentation of, 306–309
pathway, 306–308, 307f
production techniques, 320–323
strategies, 306–317
Biological methane potential (BMP), 535
Biomass, types of
availability, 238–240
characteristics, 238, 239t–240t
processing, 241–242, 241f, 243f
Biomass gasifiers, 452, 452f
crossdraft gasifier, 457–458, 457f
developments, 461
indirect gasifiers, 461–462, 462f
plasma gasifiers, 462–463
UNIfHY process, 464
UNIQUE gasifier, 463
downdraft gasifier, 455–456
entrained flow gasifiers, 460, 461f
fixed bed/moving bed gasifiers, 452–458
fluidized bed gasifiers, 458–460
updraft gasifier, 456–457, 456f
Biomass liquefaction products
catalytic processing methods, 598–599
hydroprocessing
blending, 600
three-stage HT, 599–600
two-stage HT, 599
operating conditions and catalysts, 602–605, 603t–604t
potential fractionation, 598–599
product properties, 605–606, 605t, 607t–608t
scale of operation, 601–602
Biomass-to-liquids (BTL) process, 552
biofuel synthesis, 559–566
biomass gasification
gasifiers, 552–556
syngas cleaning and conditioning, 556–559
commercial status, 583–586
diesel, 578–580
environmental and economic considerations, 581–583
final fuel products
naphtha, 580, 581t
Fischer–Tropsch catalysts
catalytic systems, 560t
high-temperature Fischer–Tropsch (HTFT), 559
low-temperature Fischer–Tropsch (LTFT), 559
naphtha, 580
reactors and process conditions, 562
fixed-bed reactors, 563–564, 563f
fluidized-bed reactors, 564–565
slurry reactors, 565–566, 566f
upgrading
BTL naphtha to gasoline, 575–577
BTL wax to diesel, hydrocracking, 568–571
carbon number distribution, 567, 567t
fluid catalytic cracking, 571–575
BioMCN, 495
Biomethanol, 67, 244
Bio-oil upgrading/refining, 597–598
biomass liquefaction, 596–606
hydrodeoxygenation (HDO) processing, 595
vs. hydrothermal liquefaction, 609
hydrotreating (HT), 595
liquid fuel products
fuel properties, chemical analysis, 606–608
vs. petroleum fuels, 608–609
vs. upgraded bio-oil and biocrude, 608–609
potential development, 609–610
relevant petroleum processing technology, 597
upgrading vs. fast pyrolysis, 609
Biophotolysis, 318
direct biophotolysis, 311–312
indirect biophotolysis, 312–313
Biopropanol, 246
Biopyrolysis, 7–8
Biorefineries, 207–208
Biorefinery
process integration, 8–9
residues, biochar
rotary drum pyrolyzers, 664
screw pyrolyzers, 664
slow pyrolysis, 663
Black liquor, 440–441, 495–496
Bond dissociation energy (BDE), 403
Brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC), 95
Bubble column reactors, 346
Bubbling fluidized bed (BFB) gasifier, 458–459, 459f
C
Calophyllum inophyllum L., 97–99, 98t
Candida Antarctica, 170
Carbonate-derived catalysts, 413
Carbon/nitrogen (C/N) ratio, 633–636
Carbonyl group, 126
Carboxylic acids, 244–245
Catalyst deactivation, 413–414
Catalysts, fast pyrolysis, 405–414
activated alumina catalysts, 406
carbonate-derived catalysts, 413
catalyst deactivation, 413–414
fluid catalytic cracking catalysts, 410–412
mesoporous catalysts, 409–410
transition metal catalysts, 412
zeolite catalysts, 406–409
Catalytic fast pyrolysis
background, 392–398
biomass components, distribution of, 394–395, 394f
fast pyrolysis, 393–394
gases, 398
liquid bio-oil, 396–397, 396t
pyrolysis, 392–393, 393t
solid char, 397–398
catalysts used, 405–414
activated alumina catalysts, 406
carbonate-derived catalysts, 413
catalyst deactivation, 413–414
fluid catalytic cracking catalysts, 410–412
mesoporous catalysts, 409–410
transition metal catalysts, 412
zeolite catalysts, 406–409
catalytic upgrading, 398–399, 399t–401t
decarbonylation, 405
decarboxylation, 404–405
dehydration, 403–404
deoxygenation, 403
higher-value chemicals, production of, 401–402
reactor setup
process parameters, 416–417
In situ/ex situ processing, 414–415, 415f
renewable energy sources, 391
Catalytic gasification, 449–450
Catalytic hydrothermal processing, 516–517
Cellulose ethanol, 69
Cellulosic platform molecules
conversion, chemical routes for
aqueous phase reforming process, 378–381, 379f–380f
conventional fuels, oxygenated biofuels blending effect with, 371–374, 372t
defined, 360, 361f
furan derivatives, 375–378, 376f
5-HMF, oxygenated fuels via, 360–363
levulinic acid, 363–367
oxygenated fuels, furan derivatives, 367–371
γ-valerolactone catalytic conversion to liquid hydrocarbon fuels, 374–375, 374f
Chlorella, 675–678
Chlorella pyrenoidosa, 624–626
Chlorella zofingiensis, 680
Chlorocuccum littorale, 674
Choren Carbo-V gasification process, 554–555, 554f
Circulating fluidized bed (CFB) gasifier, 459–460, 460f
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), 29–30
Climate-change mitigation policies, 29–30
Closed photo bioreactors (PBRs), 684–685
Clostridium acetobutylicum, 245
Clostridium sp., 636–637
Cobalt catalysts, 561
Coconut methyl ester (CME), 720
Coconut oil, 718–721
Combustion engine study
engine indicating information, 711–713, 712f, 713t
experimental apparatus, 710
experimental procedure, 710–711, 711t
flame temperature and soot distribution, 715–716
Ford Ranger WL81 2.499 L engine, 706–710, 710t
spray combustion phenomena, 715–716
spray formation, 713, 714f, 714t
Complementary assets, 63–64
Complete mixed anaerobic digester, 268
Compression ignition engines (CIE), 700
Continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR), 265, 345–346, 637
Cotton seed, 95
Cottonseed methyl esters, 95
Covered anaerobic lagoon, 268
Crossdraft gasifier, 457–458, 457f
Croton megalocarpus, 101
Crude jatropha oil (CJO), 700, 718–721
Crypthecodinium cohnii, 675–678
Cryptococcus curvatus, 209
Cs-doped MgO, 141–142
D
Dark fermentation, 317–318
Diacylglycerol acyltransferase (DGAT), 681–682
Diacylglycerols (DAGs), 681–682
Diesel engines, biofuel utilization, 728–729
biodiesel-based palm oil, 718–721
biodiesel B5-based cat-fish fat, 721
durability test, 727–728, 727f–728f
experimental set up and apparatus, 723–724, 724f, 724t
performance tests, 725–727, 725f–726f
properties, 721–723, 722t
coconut oil, 718–721
combustion bomb study, 701
experimental apparatuses and procedure, 702–706, 703f–708f
fuel specification, 701–702, 702t
combustion engine study
engine indicating information, 711–713, 712f, 713t
experimental apparatus, 710
experimental procedure, 710–711, 711t
flame temperature and soot distribution, 715–716
Ford Ranger WL81 2.499 L engine, 706–710, 710t
spray combustion phenomena, 715–716
spray formation, 713, 714f, 714t
compression ignition engines (CIE), 700
crude jatropha oil (CJO), 700, 718–721
JO10 engines, 700
kapok nut oil, 718–721
pure plant oil (PPO), 700–701
Dimethyl carbonate (DMC), 183
Dimethylfuran, 606
Direct combustion, 52
Directive 2009/28/EC, 15
Direct liquefaction products, 596–597
Disintegration, 260
Distiller’s Dried Grains with Solubles (DDGS), 8–9
Dolomite, 139
Downdraft gasifier, 455–456
Dry biomass, 436
E
Ecodiesel production, 185
Edible vegetable raw materials
cotton seed, 95
defined, 87–95, 88t
palm tree, 92–93
peanut seed, 94–95
rapeseed/canola seed, 88–90
soybean seed, 93–94
sunflower seed, 90–92
Efficiency enhancing methods
biological pretreatments, 273–274
chemical pretreatments, 272–273
mechanical pretreatments, 271
pretreatments, 270–274
thermal pretreatments, 271–272
Elaeis guineensis, 92, 718
Emission reductions
land use and environmental impacts, 18–20
Emission Trading System (ETS), 29–30
Endogenous alpha-amylase, corn with, 247–248
Energy crops, 53–54
Energy from waste (EfW) conversion process, 440
Energy Policy Act, 2005, 77
Energy return on investment (EROI), 540
Entrained flow gasifiers, 460, 461f
Environmental premium, 74
Enzymatic catalysis, 178
Enzymatic hydrolysis, 69
Enzymatic production
different sources, lipases from, 178–179
enzymatic transesterification reaction, variables affecting, 174–177
extracellular and intracellular lipases, 170–171
lipase immobilization, 171–173
new tendencies, 177–181, 177f
novel immobilization techniques, 178
Enzymatic transesterification reaction, variables affecting
acyl acceptor, 175
alcohol inhibition, 176
glycerol inhibition, 176–177
improving lipase stability, pretreatment for, 177
lipid source, 174–175
temperature, 175
water content, 176
Equivalence ratio (ER), 447
Escravos GTL (EGTL), 550–551
Ethanol concentrations, 246
Ethanol production, 498–500
Ethyl tert-butyl ether (ETBE), 51
Extracellular polymeric substance (EPS), 636
F
Fast internally circulating fluidized bed (FICFB), 555–556, 555f, 557t
Fast pyrolysis, 596, 658–660
Fatty acid ethyl ester (FAEE), 91
Fatty acid methyl ester (FAME), 5–6, 91, 121, 221
Fatty acids, 129
Feedstock process, 19
Fermentative conversion, reactors for, 345–347
bubble column reactors, 346
continuous stirred-tank reactor (CSTR), 345–346
membrane-based system, 346–347
trickle-bed reactor, 346
First-generation biofuels, 86
Fischer-Tropsch (FT), 473–475, 549, 587
biomass-to-liquids (BTL), 552
biofuel synthesis, 559–566
biomass gasification, 552–559
diesel, 578–580
naphtha, 580
upgrading, 567–577
BTL-FT process, 561–562
catalytic systems, 560t
cobalt catalysts, 561
Escravos GTL (EGTL), 550–551
high-temperature Fischer–Tropsch (HTFT), 559
iron catalysts, 560
low-temperature Fischer–Tropsch (LTFT), 559
Pearl GTL, 550–551
Sasol, 550–551
Fixed bed/moving bed gasifiers, 452–458
Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC), 410–412, 571–572, 599
conversion and product yields, 574f
gasoline components, yields, 574f
product yield comparison, 572–573, 573t
research octane number (RON), 573–575
vacuum gas oil (VGO), 572–573
ZSM-5 pores, 573–575
Fluidized bed gasifiers, 458–460
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 617
Food safety
rural areas, development of, 20–25, 23f
Food supply chain (FSC), 618–619
Food waste (FW), 248
biofuels production
biodiesel, 623–626
bioethanol, 626–633
hydrogen, 633–639
methane, 639–643
two-stage combined hydrogen/methane fermentation, 643–644
characteristics
carbohydrate hydrolysis, 619–620
compositions of components, 619–620, 621t
food supply chain (FSC), 618–619
global relative food wastage, 618–619, 619f
vs. total agricultural production, 619–620, 620t
management
foot and mouth disease (FMD), 622
municipal solid waste (MSW), 622
waste hierarchy, 621
Food waste leachate (FWL), 631–632
Foot and mouth disease (FMD), 622
Ford Ranger WL81 2.499 L engine, 706–710
Free fatty acid (FFA), 123
Free-fatty acids, 219
Furan derivatives, 375–378, 376f
C–C coupling reactions
furfural upgrading, 377–378
5-HMF upgrading, 377
furfural hydrogenation, 367–368
furfuryl alcohol, esters and ethers from, 369
γ-valerolactone, 369–371, 370f
G
Gasification technology, 52, 660–662
biomass feedstock, 435–436
agricultural biomass, 440
biomass properties, 436, 437t–439t
herbaceous biomass, 440
improved biomass feedstock, 441–442
lignocellulosic biomass, 436
wastes, 440–441
wood and woody biomass, 436–440
biomass gasification process
ash content and composition, 448
catalytic gasification, 449–450
gasifying agent and equivalence ratio, 447
heating rate and residence time, 446
hydrogasification, 443
hydrothermal gasification, 443, 448–449
HyPr-RING, 451
kinetics, 444–445, 446t
microwave-assisted gasification, 451
partial oxidation with air/oxygen, 442
plasma gasification, 450
pressure, 447
reactions and thermodynamics, 443–444
steam/biomass ratio, 447
steam gasification, 442
temperature, 447–448
biomass gasifiers, 452–464
commercial gasification, current status, 476–484, 477t, 478f, 478t–483t
Gasifiers
biomass-to-liquids (BTL) process
Choren Carbo-V gasification process, 554–555, 554f
circulating fluidized bed (CFB), 553–554
entrained flow gasifiers, 553–554
fast internally circulating fluidized bed (FICFB), 555–556
fixed bed gasifiers, 553–554
Güssing Renewable Energy (GRE), 555–556
Gasoline, 571–575
Gas stripping, 348
Gate-to-grave analysis, 47
Glycerol-3-phospate acyltransferase (GPAT), 681
G-3-P acyltranferase (GAT), 217
Granular starch hydrolyzing (GSH) enzymes, 249, 250f, 627–630
Green canola seed, 96–97
Greenhouse gas (GHG) emission, 3–4, 14–15, 62, 86, 655
Green seed canola biodiesel (GSCB), 96–97
Güssing Renewable Energy (GRE), 555–556
H
Hemicelluloses, 99
Herbaceous biomass, 440
Heterogeneous catalysis, 132–134, 133f, 133t
Heterogeneous solid acids, 144
Hierarchical macroporous–mesoporous solid acid and base materials, 148–149, 149f–150f
High-biomass-sorghum, 108
High fermentable corn (HFC) hybrids, 246, 247f
High-temperature Fischer–Tropsch (HTFT), 559
Homogeneous catalysis, 132–134, 133f, 133t
Hubbert peak theory, 123
Hydraulic retention time (HRT), 630–631
Hydrocracked BTL-FT wax
BETA zeolite, 570–571
chromatograph sample, 568, 569f
effect of temperature, 568–570, 569f
product selectivity, 570–571, 570f
Pt/WO3/ZrO2, 571
ZSM-5, 570–571
Hydrodeoxygenation (HDO) processing, 595
Hydrogen production, 303, 304t, 431–432
advantages, 303–305
anoxygenic photosynthetic bacteria, photofermentation by, 313–314
biophotolysis, See Biophotolysis
cell-free enzymatic systems, 319–320
energy conversion efficiency, 321–323
enzymes, 305–306
feedstock and microorganisms, 308–309, 310t–311t
food waste (FW), 634t–635t
pretreatments, 636–637
process control, 638–639
reactor configurations, 637–638
substrate composition, 633–636
fundamentals, 305–306
hybrid systems, 316–317
hydrogen production rate, 321
metabolic engineering, See Metabolic engineering
microalgae and cyanobacteria, water biophotolysis by, 309–313
microbial electrolysis cell, See Microbial electrolysis cell
organic matters, dark fermentation of, 306–309
pathway, 306–308, 307f
production techniques, 320–323
strategies, 306–317
Hydrogen production by reaction integrated novel gasification (HyPr-RING), 451
Hydrolysis, 260
Hydrophobic ionic liquids, 180
Hydroprocessing, 606–609
Hydrotalcite (HT), 138
Hydrothermal carbonization (HTC), 509, 517–518
ash transition temperatures, 525–528, 528f
biochar, 662–663
extraction of inorganics, 525–528, 527f
hydrochar, 524, 525f
Van Krevelen diagram, 524–525, 527f
Hydrothermal gasification (HTG), 448–449, 509, 516, 520, 531–532
Hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL), 509, 518–520, 596–597
biocrude, 528–529
comparative analysis, 528, 529t
different feedstocks, 529, 530t
manures and sludges, 529–531
wet algae slurries, 531
Hydrothermal processing
catalytic hydrothermal processing, 516–517
feedstock considerations, 521–524, 523t
hot compressed water, 510–511
density and static dielectric constant, 512, 512f
water phase diagram, 511, 511f
hydrothermal carbonization (HTC), 509
hydrothermal gasification (HTG), 509, 520
hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL), 509
hydrothermal reactions, 513–516, 514f, 516f
lifecycle analysis (LCA), 539–541
process water, composition
algal biomass, 533
biological methane potential (BMP), 535
components, 533, 534t–535t
5-HMF and furfural dominate, 533
product distribution and properties, 524–535
reactor systems, development
continuous HTL reactors, 536–538, 537t
industrial pilot-scale HTC plants, 535–536, 536t
outcomes, 538
techno-economic analysis (TEA), 539–541
Hydrothermal upgrading process (HTU®), 510
Hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF)
acetoxymethylfurfural (AMF), 363
2,5-dimethylfuran (DMF), 360–362
5-(ethoxymethyl)furfural (EMF), 362–363
I
Improved biomass policy, 79
Indirect gasifiers, 461–462, 462f
Indirect land use change (ILUC), 70–71, 74
Ineos Bio, 495–496
Integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC), 434, 435f
Interesterification processes, 182
International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), 14
International Sustainability and Carbon Certification (ISCC), 86
Interpretation, 50
Intracellular dissimilation, 219–220
Iron catalysts, 560
J
Jatropha curcas L., 701
Jatropha curcas methyl-ester (JCME), 720
Jevons paradox, 75
JO10 engines, 700
K
Kapok nut oil, 718–721
KL factor, 705
Kyoto Protocol, 29–30
L
Lactic acid (LA), 631–632
Lactic acid bacteria (LAB), 631–632
Land use, emission reductions and environmental impacts, 18–20
Large-scale biofuels, 24–25
Leach-bed, 268
Levulinic acid
alkyl levulinates, esterification, 363–365, 365f
γ-valerolactone and valeric biofuels, 365–367
Life cycle assessment (LCA), 73, 87–88, 191–192
biofuel conversion routes, biomass to, 50–53
first-generation biofuels, 51
second-generation biofuels, 51–52
third- and fourth-generation biofuels, 52–53
biofuel production, 53–56
biofuel thermochemical pretreatment, 55
energy crops, 53–54
overall impact, 55–56
solid biofuels upgrade, 54
challenges
biofuel sustainability certification, scientific studies for, 44–45
effective sustainability schemes, 43–44
green biofuels, necessity for, 42–43, 42f
methodology, 45–50, 46f
goal and definition, 46–48, 47f
interpretation, 50
life cycle impact assessment (LCIA), 49–50
life cycle inventory, 48
Lignin, 395
Lignocellulosic biomass, 109, 436, 513
Lignocellulosic raw materials, 4
Lipase-catalyzed biodiesel production, 180
Lipase immobilization
commercialization, 173
cross-linking, 173
entrapment/encapsulation, 173
ionic bonding versus covalent bonding, 172–173
physical adsorption, 171–172
Lipid accumulation biochemistry
general remarks, 214–215, 215f
hydrophobic materials fermentation, lipid production from, 218–220
sugars fermentation, lipid accumulation from, 215–218, 218f
Lipid bodies, 682–683, 683f
Liquefactions, 52
Liquid–liquid extraction, 347
Low-cost palm stearin, 93
Low-temperature Fischer–Tropsch (LTFT), 559
Lysophosphatidic acid acyltransferase (LPAAT), 681
M
Macronutrients, 263
Marine biomass, 10–11
Mass transfer
additives, 345
bioreactor design, 344–345
Media composition, influence of, 338–341
nutrients, 336f, 338–341
reducing agent, 341
Membrane-based system, 346–347
Membrane bioreactor, 267–268
Mesoporous catalysts, 409–410
Metabolic engineering
biophotolysis, 318
dark fermentation, 317–318
photofermentation, 319
Methanation, 475
Methane production, 264–265
food waste (FW), 640t–641t
anaerobic anaerobic digestion (AD), 639
reactor configurations, 642
single-stage strategy, 642–643
Methanogenesis, 261
Methanol production, 495, 497
Methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE), 244
Mg–Al hydrotalcites, 138
Microalgae
biomass, harvesting and dewatering, 674–675, 674f, 688–689
fatty acid composition, 675–678, 679t
feedstock, 516–517
mass cultivation, 683–684
closed photo bioreactors (PBRs), 684–685
heterotrophic and mixotrophic cultivation, 685
open pond systems, 684
techno-economic evaluation, 687
oil biosynthesis
fatty acid biosynthesis, 678–680, 680f
lipid bodies, 682–683, 683f
triacylglycerols (TAGs), 678, 681–682, 681f
oil content and productivity, 675, 676f–677f
oil extraction and transesterification, 692f
application, 693t
common extraction methods, 691t–692t
mechanical disruption, 690
methanol, 690
osmotic shock treatment, 690
Microbial electrolysis cell
challenges, 315–316
device configuration, 314–315
hydrogen yield, 315
mechanism, 314
microorganisms and substrates, 315
Microbial oil production
biodiesel production, 221–224
biodiesel properties, 222
direct versus indirect transesterification, 223–224
biofuel production perspective, 224–225
fed-batch cultures, 220–221
oleaginous microorganisms, lipid accumulation biochemistry in
general remarks, 214–215, 215f
hydrophobic materials fermentation, lipid production from, 218–220
sugars fermentation, lipid accumulation from, 215–218, 218f
oleaginous yeasts and raw materials, 202–214, 203t–206t
biodiesel industry by-products, 210
food supply chain wastes, 208–209
industrial wastes and by-product streams, 212–214, 213t
lignocellulosic resources, 210–212
techno-economic evaluation of, 224
Microphytes, See Microalgae
Microwave-assisted gasification, 451
Microwave pyrolysis, 624
Molasses, 209
Monitoring/control, Anaerobic digestion (AD), 282–287, 284t
alkalinity, 283
biogas composition, 283–285
biogas flow, 283
control law, 287
manipulated variables, 286–287
organic matter, 283
pH, 283
steps to considered, 282–287
volatile fatty acids (VFAs), 285–286
Monoculture, 20
Mucor miehei, 170
Multilevel perspective (MLP), 62–63
Multiple objectives policies, biofuels production
climate-change mitigation policies, 29–30
energy security and supply, 13–17
Brazil, 15–16
China, 17
European Union, 14–15
Municipal solid waste (MSW), 440, 622
Myceliophthora thermophile, 630
N
National Renewable Energy Action Plan (NREAP), 26–28
Natural minerals, 449
Net energy ratio (NER), 687
Nitrogen dioxide emissions, 19
Nonedible/low-cost raw materials, 96–104
Annona, 99, 100t
Azadirachta indica, 101
Calophyllum inophyllum L., 97–99, 98t
Croton megalocarpus, 101
green canola seed, 96–97
low-cost and renewable oil, 104
waste oils, 102–104
O
Oil biosynthesis
fatty acid biosynthesis, 678–680, 680f
lipid bodies, 682–683, 683f
triacylglycerols (TAGs), 678, 681–682, 681f
Oil depletion issues, 122–123, 122f
Oil extraction, 690–692
Oil feedstocks
first and second generation biodiesel fuels, 127–128, 128f, 130t
nonedible vegetable oils and lipid composition, 128–131, 129f, 131t, 132f
Oil-producing sugarcane (lipidcane), 248
Oleaginous microorganisms, 202–214, 203t–206t
biodiesel industry by-products, 210
food supply chain wastes, 208–209
general remarks, 214–215, 215f
hydrophobic materials fermentation, lipid production from, 218–220
industrial wastes and by-product streams, 212–214, 213t
lignocellulosic resources, 210–212
sugars fermentation, lipid accumulation from, 215–218, 218f
Open pond systems, 684
Oxidative coupling of methane (OCM) process, 500–501, 505–506
economical analysis, 502–505, 503t, 504f, 504t, 505f
technical analysis, 501–502
Oxygenated fuels, furan derivatives, 367–371
furfural hydrogenation, 367–368
furfuryl alcohol, esters and ethers from, 369
γ-valerolactone, 369–371, 370f
P
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL), 595, 601–602
Packed-bed reactors (PBR), 642
Palm oil mill effluent (POME), 212–214
Palm tree, 92–93
Parameters effects, Syngas fermentation, 338–345
mass transfer influence, 344–345
media composition, influence of, 338–341
pH value, influence of, 342
syngas composition, influence of, 343–344
temperature, influence of, 342
trace metals, influence of, 342–343
Parietochloris incise, 675–678
Peanut seed, 94–95
Pearl GTL, 550–551
Pertraction, 347
Pervaporation, 348
Phosphatidate phosphatase (PAP), 681–682
Photofermentation, 319
Pichia stipitis, 630
Plasma gasification, 450
Plasma gasifiers, 462–463
Plug flow reactor, 268
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 660–661
Polytrimethylene terephthalate (PTT), 10
Process integration
biorefinery, 8–9
Process parameters, catalytic fast pyrolysis
catalyst to biomass ratio, 416–417
residence time and heating rate, 416
temperature, 416
vapor residence time, 417
Product recovery, 347–348
adsorption, 347–348
gas stripping, 348
liquid–liquid extraction, 347
pertraction, 347
pervaporation, 348
Protein-coated microcrystals (PCMC), 178
Pseudochlorococcum sp., 675
Pseudomonas cepacia, 170
Pure bioethanol (E100), 65–66
Pure plant oil (PPO), 700–701
Pyrolysis, 52
R
Rapeseed/canola seed, 88–90
Reactor configurations, 265–270
continuous/batch mode of operation, 270
continuous-stirred tank reactor (CSTR), 265
digesting mixture, solid content of, 269
feedstocks, 265–266
number of bioreactors, 269–270
sequential batch anaerobic composting (SEBAC) process, 269–270, 269f
small/large-scale systems, 270
temperature of operation, 268
types, 266–268
Reactor design, 178
Reactor setup, fast pyrolysis
process parameters, 416–417
In situ/ex situ processing, 414–415, 415f
Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD), 29–30
Renewable Energy Directive 2009/28/EC (RED), 78
Renewable Fuels Standard (RFS), 15–16, 77
Research and development (R&D), 70
Rhizopus oryzae, 170
Rhodosporidium toruloides, 210, 224
Rhodotorula glutinis, 212–214
Robust technology, 132–149
homogeneous vs. heterogeneous catalysis, 132–134, 133f, 133t
solid acid catalysts, 142–149
solid base catalysts, 134–142, 135t–137t, 138f–143f
Rotary drum pyrolyzers, 664
S
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, 244–245
Saccharomyces coreanus, 630
Sasol, 550–551
Schizochytrium mangrovei, 624–626
Screw pyrolyzers, 664
Second-generation biodiesel feedstocks, 128
Second-generation biofuels, 25, 86–87
SENECA Green Catalyst S.L., 624
Sequential batch anaerobic composting (SEBAC) process, 269–270, 269f
Shell Middle Distillate Synthesis (SMDS) process, 564
Simultaneous liquefaction, saccharification, and fermentation (SLSF), 249, 250f
Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF), 242, 627–631
Single cell oil (SCO), 201–202
Slow pyrolysis, 663
Soapstock acid oil, 94
Solid acid catalysts, 142–149
hierarchical macroporous–mesoporous solid acid and base materials, 148–149, 149f–150f
templated mesoporous materials, 144–148, 148f
Solid base catalysts, 134–142, 135t–137t, 138f–143f
Soybean seed, 93–94
Sponge iron, 471
Starch-based waste, 208–209
Stearoyl-ACP desaturase (SAD), 680
Sugarcane, 106, 248
Sugarcane molasses, 10
Sunflower seed, 90–92
Supercritical ethanol, 102
Supercritical water gasification (SCWG), 509
Sustainability transitions, 63–64
Syngas fermentation
commercial/semicommercial processes, 348–350
defined, 335
fermentative conversion, reactors for, 345–347
bubble column reactors, 346
continuous stirred-tank reactor (CSTR), 345–346
membrane-based system, 346–347
trickle-bed reactor, 346
Fischer-Tropsch (FT) process, 335–336
fundamentals, 336–338, 337f
process parameters effects, 338–345
mass transfer influence, 344–345
media composition, influence of, 338–341
pH value, influence of, 342
syngas composition, influence of, 343–344
temperature, influence of, 342
trace metals, influence of, 342–343
product recovery, 347–348
adsorption, 347–348
gas stripping, 348
liquid–liquid extraction, 347
pertraction, 347
pervaporation, 348
syngas conversion, bacteria for, 338
thermochemical process, 335
Syngas technology, 10, 431–432
ammonia, 465
ashes, 465–466
chlorine, 465
cleaning technologies, 466–469
contaminants, 464–466
sulfur, 464–465
tars, 465
upgrading technologies, 470f
alcohol and aldehyde production, 475–476
H2 production, 470–472
iso-C4 production, 475
liquid fuel production, 473–475
syngas fermentation, 476
synthetic natural gas, 475
Synthesis gas, 495
Synthetic catalysts, 449–450
Synthetic single-use plastic waste, 104
T
Techno–economic evaluation, 190, 193, 224
Templated mesoporous materials, 144–148, 148f
Tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS), 147
Thermochemical/biotechnological routes, 69–70
Thermochemical processes, 432–433
Torrefaction, 441
Transesterification process, 67, 126, 127f, 623, 690–692
Transesterified biodiesel, 96
Transition metal catalysts, 412
Triacylglycerols (TAGs), 678, 681–682
Trickle-bed reactor, 346
Triglycerides, 129
Trimethylbenzene (TMB), 147
Turnover frequency (TOF), 147
U
Updraft gasifier, 456–457, 456f
Upflow anaerobic sludge bed reactor (UASBR), 266–267
Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB), 637
V
Vacuum gas oil (VGO), 572–573
γ-Valerolactone
catalytic conversion to liquid hydrocarbon fuels, 374–375, 374f
levulinic acid, 365–367
oxygenated fuels, furan derivatives, 369–371, 370f
Vegetable oils converting method, 165, 166f
Volatile fatty acids (VFAs), 643
W
Waste cooking oil (WCO), 624
Waste cooking or frying oils (WFO), 102
Waste oils, 102–104
Waste-transformer oil (WTO), 103
Water gas shift reaction (WGS), 431, 471
X
Xylan, 395
Xylenes, 556–558
Y
Yarrowia lipolytica, 214–215, 217
Z
Zeolite catalysts, 406–409
ZSM-5 pores, 403–404, 573–575
Zymomonas mobilis, 631
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