Index
Note: Page numbers followed by f indicate figures and t indicate tables.
A
description 189
NAa/NAb 190
plastic and agglutinating properties 189
Roga index 190
economic analysis 86–88
harvesting and processing 86–88
industrial applications 86
microalgae production chain 86
nutritional purposes 86
R&D, microalgae biodiesel 86
Alkali metal and alkaline-earth metals catalysis 259
bituminous coal 45
organic metamorphic rocks 5
residential and commercial space heating 6
Roga index 190
ASU See Air separation unit (ASU)
ammonia and methanol synthesis 126
description 233
gas production synthesis 228
oxygen and carbon dioxide 126
partial oxidation 23
POX reactions 233
refractory-lined vessel 126
soot precursors 127
B
capital and costs, feedstocks 82–83
castor bean 83
crop residues collection 81
forest residues 82
water footprint assessment 82
capital and costs, feedstock 85
ethanol feedstock options 83
gasoline consumption 83
biomass 8
gasification role 88
advantages 9
air-blown gasifiers 8
alkali oxides and salts 142
applications, thermal conversion 8
bioethanol and synthetic diesels 8
char and tar 57–58
cogasification, coal See (Cogasification)
dendrothermal energy 8
disadvantages 9
“energy cubes” 61
forms 8
gasification process 309–311
global climate change 9
hydrothermal upgrading and hydroprocessing 8
industrial gasification plant 8
lignocellulosic 57
liquid conversion 167–168
moisture content 8
plants, gasification 8
plasma technology 207
power plants 67
raw materials 7
renewable feedstock 7
resources 243–245
thermal conversion processes 7–8
types 7
upgrading 168–169
medical and health care requirements 282
regulated medical waste (RMW) 282
biogas 64
fish farming communities 64
renewable feedstocks 58
sedentary agricultural systems 64
description 60–61
from eastern United States 203
steam-electric power generation 6
BL See Black liquor (BL)
Kraft process 11
organic constituents 11–12
paper industry 57
recovery boilers 12
sulfite process 11
water/alkali soluble degradation components 12
C
gasification plants 156
IGCC process 312
water gas shift reaction 312
of coal 112
description 112
reactions 112
components, gaseous products 52
methane formation 112
thermodynamic constraints 51
Catalytic partial oxidation (CPOX) 232
CCTs See Clean coal technologies (CCTs)
alkali and alkaline earth metallic (AAEM) species 261
aromatic and cross-linked structures 204
aromatic ring systems 62
biomass 260–262
carbon conversion ratio and gasification efficiency 261–262
chemistry 106–108
corrosive ash elements 204
devolatilization reaction 204
Chemicals and fertilizers 304
coal tar 212–215
Fischer–tropsch 215–217
CHP See Combined heat and power (CHP)
Clean coal technologies (CCTs) 23
Clean development mechanism (CDM) 93
accuracy method and precision 175–176
agglomerating index 189–190
ash disposal 192–193
ash fusion temperature 190–191
British Standards Organization (BS) 175
calorific value 180–181
carbon dioxide emissions 5–6
carbonization properties 6
carbon monoxide and hydrogen 6–7
chemical composition 6
classification systems 6
coal utilization operators 193
commercial use 192
current feedstock, gasifier 193
density 184
devolatilization process 188
flue-gas treating plants 193
fossil fuel 5
friability 186–187
FSI See (Free-swelling index (FSI))
German Standards Organization (DIN) 175
global warming 5–6
grindability 187
hardness 186
heat capacity 188
hydrogen-deficient hydrocarbon 6
oxidization and biodegradation 5
plastic and agglutinating properties 189
porosity and surface area 184–185
process viability and efficiency 175
proximate analysis See (Proximate analysis, coals)
pulverizing mills 175
pyrogenic water, primary tar and gases 187–188
quality control See (Real-time analysis, coals)
resolidification 188
sampling See (Sampling, coals)
strength 185–186
syngas 7
synthetic liquid fuel production See (Synthetic liquid fuel production)
thermal conductivity 188–189
toxic pollutants and greenhouse gases 7
ultimate analysis See (Ultimate analysis, coals)
underground mining 5–6
beta-picoline (3-picoline; 3-methylpryridine) 213–214
description 212
minerals 215
naphthalene 214
primary distillation 213
pyridine 213–214
solvent and heavy naphtha 214
steam distillation 213
tar-acid-free and tar-base-free coke-oven naphth 214
Coats-Redfern approach 109
ash formation 15
compressive and shear strength, wood 15
downstream processes 14
drying and size reduction 14–15
fuel producers 15
hydrogen production 15
medium-sized biomass/waste gasifiers 15
moisture content 15
pretreatment (torrefaction) 14
size reduction 14–15
types 14
upstream processing 14
waste 16–18
carbon scrubber gas 130
nitrogen oxide (NOx) content, flue gas 131
solvent deasphalter residuum 130
investment opportunities 91f
and SNG production 89–90
allothermal 39
feedstock carbon 38–39
gases 39–41
oxygen availability 39
producer gas 41
SNG 41
tar reformer 41–42
town gas 41
water gas 41
CPOX See Catalytic partial oxidation (CPOX)
Cylindrical bubbling fluidized-bed systems 63
D
hydrogen evolution 203–204
inert gas atmosphere 203
Fischer–Tropsch synthesis 155
fraction and naphtha fraction 155
fuel rates 155
petroleum-derived diesels 155
chemical equations 157–158
description 157–158
single-stage, liquid-phase process 158
zeolite catalysts 158–159
DME See Dimethyl ether (DME) production
calcite (CaO) and magnesite (MgO) 259
catalyst, biomass gasification 258
cheap and disposable 259
fluidized bed gasifier 259
E
carbon conversion 36–37
coal feedstock 202
fuel particles 37
gasification reactions 36
gas phase 36
reactor design and construction materials 36
F
Feedstocks See also Heavy feedstocks
agglomeration, ash 61
ash-melting behavior 63
BL 59
bulk density 61
char reactivity 62
coalification index 60
crushing, separation and drying 64–65
cylindrical bubbling fluidized-bed systems 63
description 241
direct melting system process 63
dryer fire/explosion 68
dust emissions 68–69
energy resources 57
fixed-bed gasifier 63
gas-powered devices 57–58
handling processes 58
heavy petroleum residues 62
high mineral matter 59–60
high-moisture coals 62
lignocellulosic biomass 57
oxidizing agents 57–58
pelletizing and briquetting 65–67
pre-treatment process 58
properties 283
recyclable pulping chemicals 59
scrubber/fabric filter 68–69
slagging/clinker formation 61
superheated steam drying 68
thermal behavior and properties 61
thermo-chemical methods 57–58
underground coal gasification 62
waste-to-energy gasification-based process 63
wood chips 62
catalysts 216
chemicals 167–168
coal-based process 149
CO-rich syngas 126
description 215
diesel production 155
liquids 149–151
methanol synthesis 123
oil and natural gas 149
process 215
product distribution 216–217
syngas See (Synthesis gas (syngas))
synthesis 215
advantages, downdraft gasification 33
co-current fixed-bed (downdraft) 32
combustion gases 31–32
countercurrent fixed-bed gasifier 32
cross-draft gasification reactors 33
descending-bed-of-solids system 32
feedstock moisture content 32
methane and tar production 32
advantages 35
axial and radial transport, solids 36
bubbling and circulating 34
corrosive ash (biomass) 33
disadvantages 35
fuel/gasification reactor 35–36
gas flow 33
indirectly heated gasification 35
segregation 36
uniform-bed formation 34
upward-flowing gas 33–34
clinkering/slagging problems 60
coal 58–59
disposition 58–59
middlings 58–59
petroleum residues 59
physical cleaning 58–59
Freeman-Carroll method 109
description 190
1-g samples, coal testing 190
plastic properties 190
weathering (oxidation) 190
FSI See Free-swelling index (FSI)
FTS See Fischer–Tropsch synthesis (FTS)
cocurrent fixed bed gasifier 287
consumer and agricultural products 290
counter-current fixed bed gasifier 286–287
entrained-flow gasifier 288–289
fluidized-bed gasifier 287–288
gasification technology 289–291
horizontal oil-cooled grate 289
moving grate gasifier 289
MSW processing 290
plasma gasification 291–292
preprocessing 284–286
rotary kiln gasifier 289
solid waste gasification 283–284
thermal decomposition regimes 284
waste processing facilities 290
waste-to-energy facility 290
G
high-heat content (high-btu) gas 21–22
hydrocarbon gasification 131
low-heat content (low-btu) gas 20
medium-heat content (medium-btu) gas 20–21
synthesis gas (syngas) 19–20
tar and solid char 241
autothermal reforming 23
biodegradable waste 3
carbonaceous material 23
CCTs 23
chemical/fertilizer manufacture 24
coal plants 3–4
combustion 5
electricity-generation marketplace 3–4
entrained-bed system 4
feedstocks 5–12
fixed-bed process 4
fluidized-bed system 4
fuels assessment See (Coals)
high-temperature process 3
molten salt system 4
organic (carbonaceous) feedstock conversion 3
power generation 12–18
reduction zone 5
steam-reforming processes 23
synthesis gas (syngas) 3
synthetic fuel production 18–22
atmospheric pollutants 304
biomass gasification 309–311
carbonaceous/hydrocarbonaceous feedstocks 314
carbon-based material 313–314
carbon dioxide removal 314
chemicals and fertilizers 304
clean synthesis gas 313
climate change and resource conservation 318
coal-to-electricity combustion systems. 311
economical manufacturing technology 314
energy-generating process 313
enhanced oil recovery 311
environmental complex chemical operations 315
fossil fuel combustion 303
GHGs 303
high-conversion refineries 315–316
hydrogen, petroleum refining 305–306
industry and power generation 317
lower air emissions 312
MSW management 318
petroleum refining industry 315
plasma gasification 315
pollution abatement technologies 311
power generation 307–308
reduced water use 313
SNG 304–305
solids generation 312
steam reforming 316
transportation fuels See (Transportation fuels)
volatile oil and natural gas prices 317
waste and biomass gasification 317
waste-to-energy gasification 308–309
advantages 243
biomass resources See (Biomass)
biomass, thermal cracking 241
catalyst materials 242
char See (Char gasification)
cold gasification efficiency 242
CO2 sorbents 242
description 241
factors 241
feedstock characteristics See (Feedstocks)
formation and cracking, tar See (Tar)
low gas productivity and high tar content 242
mathematical and computational modeling 242
sorption-enhanced steam gasification, H2 production See (Sorption-enhanced steam gasification)
staged gasification See (Staged gasification)
syngas 245–246
tar removal 242
thermal chemical process 245
types 255
water-gas shifting (WGS) reaction 246–248
activation energy value 49
catalytic 51–52
catalytic effects 49
char, carbon dioxide atmosphere 49
hydrogasification 50–51
plasma 52–53
primary 49
and pyrolysis process 49
secondary 50
shift conversion 50
thermal decomposition, feedstock 48
char 106–108
combustible gases 103
combustion reactions 115–116
devolatilization 106
Fischer–Tropsch processes 105
methanation 105–106
process chemistry 109–115
reaction equilibrium 103–104
reaction rate 103–104
thermal decomposition, coal 104
thermodynamic cycles 116
water and hot coal 103
entrained-bed 36–37
fixed-bed 31–33
fluid-bed 33–36
high-pressure systems 31
hydrogasification process 31
ligno-cellulosic structure, biomass 31
molten salt 37–38
reactor design/gasification technology 30
steam gasification 31
thermal treatment 31
automobiles 154
fluidized-bed reactors 153
hydrocarbons 154
methanol synthesis 154
MTG 154
naphtha fraction 153
straight-chain hydrocarbons 153
catalytic gasification 206
char gasification See (Char gasification)
coal devolatilization See (Devolatilization)
description 203
gasification chemistry 204–205
hydrogasification 211–212
plasma gasification 206–207
pressure, product definition 203
process optimization 207–208
H
Heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) 308
carbon monoxide-hydrogen ratio 233–234
commodities 235
description 222–223
economic value 235
expansion and yield improvement 235–236
extra heavy oil 225
garbage can 222
gasifiers, functional process 221–222
gas processes 233
gas purification and quality 234–235
heavy oil 224–225
high-quality fuels production 222
hydrocarbons, residua 221
hydrotreating process 236
integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) 221
low-boiling products 235
petroleum coke See (Petroleum coke)
petroleum residua 223–224
potential products 236
process optimization 235
refinery flexibility 237
residua hydroprocessing 222
residuum coking and solvent deasphalting 221–222
solvent deasphalter bottoms 227–228
steam adjustment/shift converter inclusion 234
synthesis gas, production See (Synthesis gas (syngas))
tar sand bitumen 225–226
upgrading techniques 221
Heavy residue gasification 130–131
H2 generation See Sorption-enhanced steam gasification
hydrogasification 210
synthetic/substitute natural gas (SNG) 210
HRSG See Heat recovery steam generator (HRSG)
Hybrid gasification process 131
Hydrocarbon gasification 131
carbonaceous feedstocks 29
chemical technology 143
coal-derived 141
desulfurization and hydrocracking 130
FTS 119
garbage disposal units 130
gasification processes 143
heavy residue gasification and combined cycle power generation 130–131
high-purity carbon monoxide 121
hybrid gasification process 131
hydrocarbon gasification 131
and nitrogen 119
pyrolysis processes 132–133
recovery, fuel gas 135
shell gasification process 133
steam-naphtha reforming 133–134
Texaco gasification 134
transportation fuel 141
waste gasification 141
I
ILUC See Indirect land use changes (ILUC)
agricultural land management and practices 76
biomass production 93
CO2 emissions 76–77
Industrial solid waste 280–281
biomass-to-liquid (BTL) fuels 92–93
biorefinery 93
capital accumulation and investments 93
CDM 93
cellulose hydrolysis processes 92
energy security 91
environmental disaster prevention 91
feedstock production and conversion 92
mixed output products 92
L
LHVs See Lower heating values (LHVs)
agricultural crop residues 75
bioenergy crop production 75
biofuels 74
carbon neutrality 77
deforestation 75
displacement effects 76–77
and economic assessment 74
energy crops 74–75
environmental assessment issue 75
ILUC 76
land use availability and management 76
plantation lifetime 76
system boundary 74–75
Light-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) 192
Bergius process 162
commercial scale 215
description 161
gasoline and diesel 162
low-temperature carbonization (LTC) 162
physicochemical changes 162–163
thermal decomposition 162
upgrading 163
gas to chemical synthesis 208–209
hydrogen and carbon monoxide 209
gasifying agent 253–254
and higher-heating value (HHV) 181
updraft gasifier 63
western coals 58–59
M
kinetics models 268–269
neural networks model 269
thermodynamic equilibrium models 267–268
Methanation, gasification 114
Mobil Oil Corporation 154
ZSM-5 zeolite catalyst 154
applications 37
feedstocks 38
gasification methods 38
Pullman-Kellogg process 38
steam-coal reaction 37
types, design 37
water-gas shift equilibrium 38
MSW See Municipal solid waste (MSW)
biomass resources 245–246
and biosolids 57
components 279–280
description 279
entrained-flow gasifier 288–289
heat content 280
plasma gasification 292
thermal degradation 284
waste-to-energy gasification-based process 63
N
carbon deposition 260
Ni2MgAl8O16 and NiMgAl4O8 260
steam and dry reforming reactions 260
O
fluidized-bed hydroretort 165
kerogen 164
retorting 164
synthetic fuel production 164
upgrading 165–167
P
advantages, refinery 229
autothermal reactor (ATR) 230
gasification 229
high molecular-weight organic feedstocks 230
Phillips process 231
shell gasification process 230
stoichiometric reactions 230
sub-stoichiometric fuel-air mixtures 229–230
Texaco gasification process 230–231
Particle size distribution (PSD) 63
description 226
gas and hydrogen synthesis 227
metallurgical reducing agent 227
needle (acicular coke) 227
shot 226–227
sponge 227
atmospheric pressure/under reduced pressure 223–224
carbon soot 11
chemical composition and physical methods 224
cleaner transportation fuels 9
conversion technologies 9
description 223
electric power and high-pressure steam 11
fossil-based feedstocks 58
high-purity hydrogen 10
single-stage retorting and upgrading 165
type, refinery residue 9
Phillips process 231
Plant safety 283
air fed 52–53
benefits over typical coal gasification plant 207
description 206–207
gasification reactor 52
magmavication/vitrification 291–292
plasma torch system 207
synthesis gas cleanup and oxygen separation methods 292
transferred and the nontransferred torch 291
allothermal gasification 13
biomass fuel producers, coal producers 308
cleaned gases 12–13
coal cogasification, biomass and waste 13–18
combustion turbine 13
feedstock characteristics 13
Fischer–Tropsch feedstocks 149
gasification agents 13
gasifier configuration 13
heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) 308
hot syngas 13
IGCC power plant 307–308
modern gas-fired power plants 12
organically bound nitrogen 13
polygeneration 307
turbine types 12
types, gasifier 12
POX See Partial oxidation (POX)
and cryogenics 139
hydrogen separation 121
purification 138
caking properties 109
carbon dioxide gasification 112
coal feedstocks 110
hydrogasification 114–115
Lurgi process 109
methanation 114
pretreatment 110
primary gasification 110
product definition. 110
secondary gasification 111–112
volatile products discharge 109
water gas shift reaction 112–113
feedstock types 135
hydrogen 136
low-btu gas 135–136
oil-water separation 140
purification 136–140
high btu gas 210
hydogen 205–206
low btu gas 208–209
medium btu gas 209–210
methane 210–211
producer gas 212
synthetic natural gas (SNG) 212
town gas 212
water gas 212
Anderson–Schulz–Flory distribution 152
gasoline production 153–154
hydrocarbon recovery step 151–152
liquid transportation fuels 152
naphtha stream 152
synthetic naphtha and diesel fuel 152
air-dried (AD) basis 177–178
ash 179–180
as-received (AR) basis 177–178
characterization with coal utilization 177
description 177
dry, ash-free (DAF) basis 177–178
dry-basis (DB) 177–178
dry, mineral-matter-free (DMMF) basis 177–178
fixed carbon 180
moisture content 178
volatile matter 178–179
PSA See Pressure swing adsorption (PSA)
PSD See Particle size distribution (PSD)
Pullman-Kellogg process 38
amine washing procedure 137–138
coal-based processes 136–137
cryogenic separation 139
gas cleaning 136
hydrogen recovery 139–140
membrane systems 139
PSA 138
recycle, gases 136
solvent extraction methods 138
sorbate and sorbent interaction 137
waste gas stream 138–139
water washing 137
Pyrolysis and gasification processes 49
R
ash production 47
char gasification 43
chemistry 44–45
feedstock devolatilization 42–43
feedstock quality influence 45–46
heat release 47–48
mineral matter content 47
mixed feedstocks 46–47
quench designs 48
water-gas shift reactor 48
compositions 192
drawbacks 192
gamma rays 192
industry applications 191
LIBS 192
on-line analysis 191–192
unanticipated, unknown and unmonitored changes 191
Regulated medical waste (RMW) 282
RMW See Regulated medical waste (RMW)
S
DME 157–159
gasification industry 156
global climate change 156
iron catalysts 155
methanol production 156–157
nickel-based catalysts 155–156
ruthenium 156
buyers and suppliers 177
issues 177
preparation plant 177
SMR See Steam-methane reforming (SMR)
SNG See Substitute natural gas (SNG)
Solid generation 312
Solid waste 279
advantages 228
commercial applications 228
description 227
advantages 266
chemical equilibrium 265–266
description 265
hydrogen (H2) 265
SRU See Sulfur recovery unit (SRU)
air and steam 264
characteristics 262–263
char-supported iron/nickel catalysts 264–265
LHV, resulting syngas 262–263
low carbon (char) conversion and high tar content 262
residual char 264–265
adiabatic fixed-bed reactor 124
autothermal/secondary reformers 122–123
carbon deposition 232
carbon monoxide and hydrogen 121–122
carbon/steam ratio 125
coking reactions 124–125
desulfurized material 122
diameter-to-height ratio 124
exothermic reaction 122
gas composition 123
high endothermic character, reactions 232–233
natural gas 122
preheated mixture catalyst-filled tubes 232
primary and secondary 232
sorption 123
SPARG process 232
thermodynamic limitation 123
top-fired steam reformer 125–126
WGS reactors 124
Steam-naphtha reforming 133–134
Sub-bituminous coal 6
Substitute natural gas (SNG) 304–305
Sulfur recovery unit (SRU) 9
agricultural phase 79
algae fuels 86–88
biodiesel 80–83
bioenergy system applications 79
bioethanol 83–85
biofuel/bioenergy system pathway 79
biogas fuels 88–91
biomass sources 79
chemical and combustion processes 78–79
cultivation stage 78–79
electricity production 79–80
energy security 73
FER 78–79
greenhouse gases (GHGs) 73
international biofuel policies 91–93
irrigation techniques 95
LCA, biofuels 74–77
life cycle analysis 95
lignocellulosic feedstock 73
research and development (R&D) 73
sugar conversion processes 80
techno-economic analysis 94
carbonaceous feedstock 143
catalytic process 120
clean-up processes 31
components 229
conversion 119
CPOX 232
description 228
distribution 248f
economics 121
fossil fuels 121
gasification processes 143
gas mixture 119
heat exchange elements 228–229
high-purity carbon monoxide 121
membrane reactors 129
nitrogen oxide (NOx) content 229
partial oxidation 127–129
POX technology See (Partial oxidation (POX))
process products 292–298
production 131
purification operations 120
SMR See (Steam-methane reforming (SMR))
solid fuels 120
solvent deasphalter residuum 228
steam-methane reforming 121–126
tar reformer 42
carbonaceous materials 147
catalytic cracking 159
economics 170
energy legislation 148
Fischer–Tropsch process See (Fischer–Tropsch synthesis (FTS))
hydrocracking 159–160
product quality 169–170
Sabatier–Senderens process 155–159
tar sand bitumen 160–161
thermal decomposition 159
advantages and limitations 217–218
carbonaceous feedstocks 29
chemicals production See (Chemicals production)
coal technology 18–19
coal to gaseous products 201
crude oil 4
electric power generation 201
entrained-bed and fluidized-bed gasifiers 202
feedstock 201
fluidized-bed/moving-bed reactors 202
gaseous products 19–22
gasifier types 33–36
gasoline and diesel fuel 22
gas products See (Gas products)
hydrocarbon products 22
hydrogen/carbon monoxide ratio 22
IGCC 29
indirect liquefaction, coal 22
mineral matter content 202
petroleum refinery technologies 4
products and product quality See (Products and product quality)
slurry-feed and dry-feed gasifiers 203
types, gasification reactors 29
unburned char fraction 201
volatile matter 202
T
alkali metal and alkaline-earth metals catalysis 259
chemical tar treatment processes 294
condensable hydrocarbons 257
condensable/noncondensable organic material 293
description 257
and destruction processes 295
dry tar removal 294
fuel-reforming catalysts 293
lignin and cellulose 294
nickel-based catalysts 260
primary tars 294
secondary gas phase reactions 293
“soot” 257–258
thermal and catalytic cracking 258
wet physical processes 294
defined 225–226
description 160
liquid conversion 160
materials 226
native asphalt and extra heavy oil 225–226
recovery 226
thermal stimulation 226
transportation fuels 306–307
upgrading 160–161
Texaco gasification/partial oxidation process 134
Texaco gasification process 230–231
gasifier design 268
Gibbs free energy 267
rice husk gasification 267–268
FT process 306
gasification 306
pressurized biomass gasification systems 306
tar sand bitumen 306–307
U
chemical elements, proportions 182
chlorine 182
fouling classification 182
gasifier performance criterias 182
mercury 182
trace elements 183
Underground coal gasification 62
W
alkalis 297
and biomass coutilization 16
biomass/waste-fired power plants 16
biomedical waste 282
biosolids 282
carbon dioxide 293
cleaner biomass materials 17
coprocessing 17
coutilization 299
electricity production/combined electricity 17
emission control systems 299
entrained flow processes 18
gas cleaning equipment 298
halogens/acid gases 295–296
healthcare facilities 277
heat production 17
heavy metals 296–297
incineration 277–278
industrial solid waste 280–281
mass-burn combustion 16
mechanical screening and shredding 16
MSW 279–280
municipal and industrial disposal 17
oxygen-deficient atmosphere 278
particulate matter 295
slag 297–298
solid waste 279
synthesis gas 292–293
tar 293–295
toxic dioxins and furans 278
waste-to-energy plants 278
waste types 278–282
Waste-to-energy gasification 308–309
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