Chapter Two. Strategies or Patterns
How many books, articles, memos, e-mails, and Web sites do you struggle to read each year? Even if you read them all, how much can you remember? All the highlighters and yellow stickies in the world won’t ensure that you can recall the information when you need it. In this chapter we introduce you to patterns and try to show how they can solve some of the problems you face in today’s overloaded society. The name of a pattern captures the essence of the idea you want to remember. A collection of related pattern names creates a special “language.” We think you’ll soon be “speaking” patterns!
We’re not trying to add to your information load; we’re just trying to help you put good ideas to use. To this end, we have documented the strategies in this book as patterns, which are a form of knowledge management. We have seen how effective patterns are for sharing information. When you know a pattern and use its name, a lot of information is communicated with just that single word or short phrase. When you know a collection of patterns, for example, patterns for introducing new ideas, the names of the patterns in the collection give you a vocabulary or language to talk about strategies for introducing change. That’s our goal. We want you to be able to speak this language.
You can certainly apply the ideas in this book, even if you don’t know much about patterns. We include a short introduction to patterns in this chapter and, if you want to learn more, we encourage you to check out the pattern books in the list of References for more information.
In short, a pattern is a way to capture expertise. The word “pattern” refers to a recurring best practice documented as a solution to a problem in a given environment. We feel it’s important to note that patterns do not simply document good ideas, but rather strategies that have been shown to work well for a variety of people in a variety of circumstances. When patterns work together to solve problems in a particular area, these patterns are called a pattern language. Our patterns work together to solve problems in the area of introducing new ideas into organizations.
Pattern Formats
There are several pattern formats, but nearly all of them include the following components: Name, Context, Forces, Problem, Solution, Rationale, and Resulting Context. We use a variation of the format originally proposed by Christopher Alexander, a building architect, who used patterns to document successful practices in constructing buildings and towns.
The following example pattern illustrates the format we use.
Pattern Name: Innovator
Opening story:
Roger lived next door, so every time he bought the newest, coolest gadget, I would hear all about it. He would get so excited about his purchases, even when the items were much too overpriced. But if he convinced me that something was really useful, I would wait and buy it months later when the cost came down to less than half of what Roger paid.
Summary:
When you begin the change initiative, ask for help from colleagues who like new ideas.
Context:
You are a new Evangelist(144) or Dedicated Champion(129) just starting to introduce a new idea into your organization.
Problem:
You need people to jumpstart the new idea in your organization.
Forces:
You can’t interest everyone in a new idea all at once, but you need to start somewhere. A community of even a few people who share your interest and want to work together will make a world of difference in the confusion and inconsistencies that invariably arise. Virtually every significant change initiative starts with a small number of deeply committed individuals, often as few as two or three.
It’s easier to begin with those people who will be most receptive to the new idea. Innovators make up a small percentage of the population. They get intrigued and excited about something just because it is new. They don’t need much convincing, just a little information. They enjoy trying to figure out how the latest thing works. This puts them in a good position to help launch the new idea into the organization.
Therefore:
Essence of the solution:
Find the people who are quick to adopt new ideas. Talk to them about the innovation and ask for help in sparking an interest for it in the organization.
Look for Innovators among those who attend early Brown Bags(113) and other meetings where new ideas are being introduced. Some of them will come to you once you start talking about the new idea.
Encourage these individuals to take on the role of gatekeepers. Invite them to Test the Waters(237) by using Just Do It(177) and doing an early evaluation. Ask for their feedback about the innovation and listen to their suggestions for appealing to the larger community. Because they are the first to come on board with a new idea, perhaps they could lead one of the first Study Groups(228) for other people who are curious about learning more. Those who are especially enthusiastic may become Evangelists(144) in their own groups.
Resulting Context (positive and negative consequences):
This pattern establishes support from a group who can help get a new idea going in the organization. It doesn’t take a lot of work to interest them and then you won’t feel so alone. Since they are willing to accept some of the uncertainty that comes with a new idea, they ease the risk for later adopters.
However, you may not be able to depend on them in the long term. Their interest in new ideas makes them move from one thing to another. In addition, their willingness to quickly accept new ideas causes others to be suspicious of their claims. Therefore, they generally aren’t good opinion leaders. Count on their help as gatekeepers in the short term. If they offer more, consider that a bonus.
Known Uses:
Bill’s eyebrows seem to rise to his hairline when he hears about something new. So he was one of the first people Julie talked with about the new idea. He tried it, reported the results, and helped Julie plan a few events to pass the word. His enthusiasm was just what she needed to keep her going in the early days of trying to convince other people whose eyebrows did not rise as quickly.
Some people know when you’ve returned from a conference and drop by to see what new books you’ve bought or new techniques you’ve seen. They wanted to be there but couldn’t take the time. So Sam always tries to bring something back for them. It is fun to watch how happy these people get about anything because their need to be in on the “latest and greatest” is almost physical. Sam knows what his boss means when he says, “Sure, you can go to the conference, but bring something back for the team!” He is thinking about these guys.
Using Patterns
When you first see all the information in a pattern, you might think it’s overkill. That’s how Linda felt early in her pattern experience when she participated in a workshop on software architecture. The workshop leader outlined the task for the session—look at some common problems software architects encounter, document solutions for those problems, and also identify elements of the environment where the solution would be most appropriate. To a “patterns person” that sounded very much like Problem, Solution, and Context. Linda suggested that they use patterns to document their ideas. Since most of the participants didn’t know what patterns were, she gave them a quick overview but only included the components they needed, that is, Problem, Solution, and Context. She thought that trying to deal with the other pattern elements, for example, Forces and Resulting Context, would take too much time and was probably not necessary.
The group began to work and immediately ran into a snag. A fellow from one company said, “I think that anyone who uses this solution should be aware that there are some problems with it. Should that go in the Solution?” “Actually,” Linda replied, “there is an additional section for concerns like that. It’s called the Resulting Context.” She explained further and they added Resulting Context to their list of pattern elements. Gradually, additional information was revealed that needed to be included to help those who would use the techniques. In a relatively short time, all the pattern components had been added. It was a significant moment for Linda. Suddenly she saw all the pattern components as essential for capturing and communicating the knowledge needed to solve a problem.
It’s like your mother always told you: “Haste makes waste.” That means if you hurry, you’ll mess up, so take your time. However, your mother also said: “A stitch in time saves nine.” That means you shouldn’t let things go or you’ll be sorry. Well, which is it? Your wise mother understood the context and the forces and the resulting context but forgot to pass along all that helpful information. When we know the wisdom, it’s easy to simply summarize a solution for an inquiring novice. The rest, we think, is easy—just do it! However, novices who find only a summary of a technique are often at a loss about when and how to apply the solution and what the consequences will be when they do. Patterns supply this essential information.
A topic for considerable debate among pattern writers is whether or not a solution that has worked well in a particular context to solve a particular problem really is a pattern or whether it is just a general heuristic or guideline. The fallback response to this question has historically been: What does the pattern “build?” The origin of this response is the work of Christopher Alexander, an architect who builds structures. His patterns describe concrete changes in the real world. Since our patterns describe organizational solutions, the result is tangible but usually not structural. Therefore, we have taken extra care to include both an opening story to provide an image for the intent of the pattern and also to include text that describes what we feel the pattern “builds”—that is, what the positive and negative results of applying the pattern will be. Stories mean different things to different readers. If our opening story strikes a chord with you, then the name and story may be enough for you to understand what the pattern is all about.
Another important component in our patterns is the Known Uses. We’ve found that many people read these stories first and are convinced by the compelling accounts. Research in cognitive science shows that humans have evolved to hear stories as the way to learn important lessons. We believe that patterns should be based on stories from experts. In fact, we might say that if there isn’t a story behind the pattern—a startling success or a shocking failure—then maybe the pattern shouldn’t be written.
The name of the pattern is of critical importance. When pattern names are used in a community, the individuals speak a common language. For example, when using the patterns in this book, one of the first that may become part of the common language is Do Food(132). Everyone immediately understands this pattern because they know food makes meetings more enjoyable. Therefore, once they have read the name Do Food, they use it in conversation without explanation because they feel sure everyone will get the meaning.
In “speaking” a pattern language, the pattern names can be used naturally in conversation or in text. In this book, we use the pattern names conversationally. You will find that after quickly reading the pattern summaries that you will understand what the pattern reference means, even if you haven’t read all the information. That’s an effective test for a pattern name. If it can be used and the people working in the area understand what you mean, then the name is probably a good one. We find that change agents across the globe are starting to use the names of our patterns when they talk about strategies for introducing new ideas. For example, most call themselves Evangelists(144) and talk about giving Brown Bags(113) or inviting Big Jolt(107) speakers and trying to find a Local Sponsor(186) or a Corporate Angel(123). Some names are more evocative than others, but after a quick glance through the summaries in the table in the Appendix, we hope that the names will become part of your conversations about change.
The context or setting in which a pattern can be applied is a vital component. The Latin root of the word context signifies a “joining together,” and the conventional modern meaning refers to the parts that immediately follow or precede a piece of writing and determine its meaning. Hence, a phrase taken “out of context” is one whose meaning has changed or become difficult to understand because it is not part of its original setting. This is also true for a pattern. Each pattern gets its meaning as a result of applying other patterns. The context of an individual pattern not only weaves it into a pattern language, but also ties it to the situation in which it is most applicable. Pattern readers who apply a solution and find that it doesn’t work may feel the pattern is useless, when it’s more likely that they are using the pattern in the wrong context. The context, or appropriate setting, for our collection of patterns or pattern language is an organization of any size where you are attempting to introduce a new idea. Experts apply their knowledge by calling on their experiences in many different contexts. They seem to recognize when it’s appropriate to apply the solution. They are using patterns—even if they don’t always have a name for the particular solution they are using. The expert knows when it’s appropriate to use a particular pattern and when it doesn’t apply. This is what defines expertise, and what we hope our patterns will communicate to you.
Patterns provide solutions to problems. It’s hard for people to buy into the solution if they don’t understand that they are facing a problem and what that problem is. For example, one change agent saw this in her experiences trying to get policy changes in her organization. She noted, “When I took the time to explain the problem, the proposed policy (which contained the solution) met less resistance and passed.”
Some people may read a pattern and say, “Why, that’s just common sense!” And, of course, many times they are right. Since a pattern is an expert’s solution for a recurring problem, it might appear obvious, especially to others with experience in the same area. The power of documenting “common sense” as a pattern is that, sad but true, “common sense is so uncommon.” If this were not the case, no one would ever make the same mistake twice. You would simply apply the wisdom of your experience or “common sense” and become more and more perfect as you age. Unfortunately, we live in stressful times (everyone has always lived in stressful times!). Under stress, we tend to forget even those hard-won lessons that could help us solve recurring problems.
Mary Lynn sees this every semester when her students participate in a fast-paced simulation of a software system development process. In the weeks prior to this exercise, the students learn many concepts about managing and implementing software development. They are tested on the concepts and they review everything during the days before. Once the simulation begins, the students get so involved in completing the task that they seem to forget many of the good practices they studied. When they reflect on the experience, their response is always the same—yes, we knew we should have done <this> and not have done <that>, but in the heat of the simulation we forgot what we knew.
Just as in this simulation, most of us have such hectic lives that we need help recalling and applying those things we have learned and, yes, even our “common sense.”
To give you an idea of the power of patterns, here’s a story about a friend of Linda’s, Frances Blaker, a professional recorder player. Frances and members of her group, The Farallon Recorder Quartet, were visiting in Phoenix recently and started talking about patterns. Linda gave Frances a copy of her book, The Patterns Handbook. A short time later, Linda received this e-mail from Frances.
Hi Linda,
I have been reading your book and finding it very interesting. Already patterns are appearing. I have been stressed with many different projects and deadlines, but decided a way to handle it was just to take 15 minutes for any one thing rather than get in too deep with one thing and have no time for any of the others. When feeling most stressed I say “15 minutes.” This is an example of patterns and names, isn’t it?
Anyway, good work. I am happy to have discovered a new way of thinking of things, and discovered a whole world of people doing this.
Frances
We often say we have a “disease”—we see patterns everywhere. Then, in our enthusiasm, we “infect” others! We believe that “15 Minutes” could be documented as a pattern. Frances obviously knows the right Context and Forces for applying this Solution and it helps her solve the Problem of having too much to do and not enough time to do it. A second e-mail from Frances says something else about patterns.
Hi Linda,
I ran my whole day yesterday based on the 15-minute pattern and was therefore able to accomplish more in one day than in a long time. Good thing, since I have to go out of town tomorrow and had lots of things to get done.
Frances
Now that Frances has identified this helpful pattern, she can apply it. In the past, she would have struggled as she faced this problem over and over again, and since the problem always arises in stressful settings, she might not have remembered what she already knows about solving it. Does this sound familiar?
We have seen teams wrestle with problems and sink deeper and deeper in the mud, getting hopelessly lost. But when they heard someone say the name of a pattern, it’s as though a light had been switched on to show the way in the darkness. That little tap on the shoulder called everyone back to sanity. Of course we know how to solve this; we’ve done it a million times! Why didn’t we think of that? The answer to this question is that without a handy way to reference your accumulated wisdom, you don’t always remember what you know. Patterns can help. The names of the patterns work together to give you a vocabulary to talk about problems in a particular area and help you overcome the obstacles in your path.
We’re not prescribing a fixed sequence for using our collection of patterns that will be effective in every situation. How you use this pattern language will depend on your goals, the needs of your organization, your organization’s culture, and the people in it. We will provide some examples of specific sequences of pattern uses throughout and in the experience reports in Part II. These will give you some good ideas, but you will need to discover what is appropriate for you and your organization.
In our work we provide training sessions to teach people our patterns. In one of the exercises, the participants form small teams and develop a plan for introducing a new idea into an organization. The purpose of the exercise, of course, is not to create the plan, but to allow the teams to learn more about the patterns. It’s much more fun and much more effective than listening to a lecture!
During the exercise we provide each team with a collection of index cards. Each card contains the name of one of our patterns and a brief description. The teams interact with the cards and with each other. They pick up cards and move them around on a table or the floor. They create sequences of patterns as they work. Usually the plan develops to fit the framework described in the following chapters—with variations depending on the group, their perceived organization, and the idea they want to introduce.
We’ve tried to capture the results of that exercise for you. You can find the file with the pattern abstracts on http://www.awprofessional.com/title/0201741571. You could use a similar set of cards to develop your strategy because we think that you will want to discover what fits your style and your organization. Using the cards also means that you can easily adjust to your experiences. Learn as you go. You can’t anticipate everything. Once you accept that, everything becomes less of a struggle.
Since we know how difficult introducing new ideas can be, we are careful not to oversell our patterns. Even though they’ve been road-tested by many people in many organizations, we remember what Henry Petroski, author of To Engineer Is Human, said in his keynote speech at a recent conference: “Nothing can be designed so that it has no limitations.”
So, that’s “patterns in a nutshell.” The chapters that follow describe the infrastructure—framework—for the patterns in our collection. Each chapter presents a small slice of the pattern collection as you might use them to introduce change in your organization. The first question you might be asking yourself is, “Where do I start?”