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Energy Processing and Smart Grid
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Energy Processing and Smart Grid
by James A. Momoh
Energy Processing and Smart Grid
Preface
Acknowledgments
Foreword
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Introduction
Bibliography
Chapter 2 Electric Network Analysis in Energy Processing and Smart Grid
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Complex Power Concepts
2.3 Review of AC-Circuit Analysis Using Phasor Diagrams
2.4 Polyphase Systems
2.5 Three-Phase Impedence Loads
2.6 Transformation of Y to Delta and Delta to Y Networks
2.7 Summary of Phase and Line Voltages/Currents for Balanced Three-Phase Systems
2.8 Per-Unit Systems
2.9 Chapter Summary
Exercises
Bibliography
Chapter 3 Magnetic Systems for Energy Processing
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Magnetic Fields
3.3 Equivalent Magnetic and Electric Circuits
3.4 Overview of Magnetic Materials
3.5 Hysteresis Loops and Hysteresis Losses in Ferromagnetic Materials
3.6 Definitions
3.7 Magnetic Circuit Losses
3.8 Producing Magnetic Flux in Air Gap
3.9 Rectangular-Shaped Magnetic Circuits
3.10 Chapter Summary
Exercises
Bibliography
Chapter 4 Transformers
4.1 Introduction
4.2 First Two Maxwell's Laws
4.3 Transformers
4.4 Ideal Single-Phase Transformer Models
4.5 Modeling a Transformer into Equivalent Circuits
4.6 Transformer Testing
4.7 Transformer Specifications
4.8 Three-Phase Power Transformers
4.9 New Advances in Transformer Technology: Solid-State Transformers — an Introduction
4.10 Chapter Summary
Exercises
Bibliography
Chapter 5 Induction Machines
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Construction and Types of Induction Motors
5.3 Operating Principle
5.4 Basic Induction-Motor Concepts
5.5 Induction-Motor Slip
5.6 Rotor Current and Leakage Reactance
5.7 Rotor Copper Loss
5.8 Developing the Equivalent Circuit of Polyphase, Wound-Rotor Induction Motors
5.9 Computing Corresponding Torque of Induction Motors
5.10 Approximation Model for Induction Machines
5.11 Speed Control of Induction Motors
5.12 Application of Induction Motors
5.13 Induction-Generator Principles
5.14 Chapter Summary
Exercises
Bibliography
Chapter 6 Synchronous Machines
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Synchronous-Generator Construction
6.3 Exciters
6.4 Governors
6.5 Synchronous Generator Operating Principle
6.6 Equivalent Circuit of Synchronous Machines
6.7 Synchronous Generator Equivalent Circuits
6.8 Over Excitation and Under Excitation
6.9 Open-Circuit and Short-Circuit Characteristics
6.10 Performance Characteristics of Synchronous Machines
6.11 Generator Compounding Curve
6.12 Synchronous Generator Operating Alone: Concept of Infinite Bus
6.13 Initial Elementary Facts about Synchronous Machines
6.14 Cylindrical-Rotor Machines for Turbo Generators
6.15 Synchronous Machines with Effects of Saliency: Two-Reactance Theory
6.16 the Salient-Pole Machine
6.17 Synchronous Motors
6.18 Synchronous Machines and System Stability
6.19 Chapter Summary
Exercises
Bibliography
Chapter 7 Dc Machines
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Conductor Moving in A Uniform Magnetic Field
7.3 Current-Carrying Conductor in A Uniform Magnetic Field
7.4 Dc-Machine Construction and Nameplate Parameters
7.5 Dc Machine Pertinent Nameplate Parameters
7.6 Development and Configuration of Equivalent Circuits of Dc Machines
7.7 Classification of Dc Machines
7.8 Voltage Regulation
7.9 Power Computation for Dc Machines
7.10 Power Flow and Efficiency
7.11 Dc Motors
7.12 Computation of Speed of Dc Motors
7.13 Dc-Machine Speed-Control Methods
7.14 Ward Leonard System
7.15 Chapter Summary
Exercises
Bibliography
Chapter 8 Permanent-Magnet Motors
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Permanent-Magnet DC Motors
8.3 Permanent-Magnet Synchronous Motors
8.4 Variants of Permanent-Magnet Synchronous Motors
8.5 Chapter Summary
Bibliography
Chapter 9 Renewable Energy Resources
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Distributed Generation Concepts
9.3 DG Benefits
9.4 Working Definitions and Classifications of Renewable Energy
9.5 Renewable-Energy Penetration
9.6 Maximum Penetration Limits of Renewable-Energy Resources
9.7 Constraints to Implementation of Renewable Energy
Exercises
Bibliography
Chapter 10 Storage Systems in the Smart Grid
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Forms of Energy
10.3 Energy Storage Systems
10.4 Cost Benefits of Storage
10.5 Chapter Summary
Bibliography
Chapter 11 Power Electronics
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Power Systems With Power Electronics Architecture
11.3 Elements of Power Electronics
11.4 Power Semiconductor Devices
11.5 Applications of Power Electronics Devices to Machine Control
11.6 Applications of Power Electronics Devices to Power System Devices
11.7 Applications of Power Electronics to Utility, Aerospace, and Shipping
11.8 Facts
11.9 Chapter Summary
Bibliography
Chapter 12 Converters and Inverters
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Definitions
12.3 DC–DC Converters
12.4 Inverters
12.5 Rectifiers
12.6 Applications
12.7 Chapter Summary
Exercises
Bibliography
Chapter 13 Microgrid Application Design and Technology
13.1 Introduction to Microgrids
13.2 Types of Microgrids
13.3 Microgrid Architecture
13.4 Modeling of a Microgrid
13.5 Chapter Summary
Bibliography
Chapter 14 Microgrid Operational Management
14.1 Perfomance Tools of a Microgrid
14.2 Microgrid Functions
14.3 IEEE Standards for Microgrids
14.4 Microgrid Benefits
14.5 Chapter Summary
Bibliography
Chapter 15 the Smart Grid: an Introduction
15.1 Evolution, Drivers, and the Need for Smart Grid
15.2 Comparison of Smart Grid with the Current Grid System
15.3 Architecture of a Smart Grid
15.4 Design for Smart-Grid Function for Bulk Power Systems
15.5 Smart-Grid Challenges
15.6 Design Structure and Procedure for Smart-Grid Best Practices
15.7 Chapter Summary
Bibliography
Chapter 16 Smart-Grid Layers and Control
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Controls for the Smart Grid
16.3 Layers of Smart Grid Within the Grid
16.4 Command, Control, and Communication Applications in Real Time
16.5 Hardware-in-the-Loop for Energy Processing and the Smart Grid
16.6 Cyber-Physical Systems for Smart Grids
16.7 Chapter Summary
Bibliography
Chapter 17 Energy Processing and Smart-Grid Test Beds
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Study of Available Test Beds for the Smart Grid
17.3 Smart Microgrid Test-Bed Design
17.4 Smart-Grid Test Beds
17.5 Smart-Grid Case Studies
17.6 Simulation Tools, Hardware, and Embedded Systems
17.7 Limitations of Existing Smart-Grid Test Beds
17.8 Chapter Summary
Bibliography
Index
End User License Agreement
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Energy Processing and Smart Grid
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Preface
CONTENTS
Preface
Acknowledgments
Foreword
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Introduction
Bibliography
Chapter 2 Electric Network Analysis in Energy Processing and Smart Grid
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Complex Power Concepts
2.3 Review of AC-Circuit Analysis Using Phasor Diagrams
2.4 Polyphase Systems
2.5 Three-Phase Impedence Loads
2.6 Transformation of Y to Delta and Delta to Y Networks
2.7 Summary of Phase and Line Voltages/Currents for Balanced Three-Phase Systems
2.8 Per-Unit Systems
2.9 Chapter Summary
Exercises
Bibliography
Chapter 3 Magnetic Systems for Energy Processing
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Magnetic Fields
3.3 Equivalent Magnetic and Electric Circuits
3.4 Overview of Magnetic Materials
3.5 Hysteresis Loops and Hysteresis Losses in Ferromagnetic Materials
3.6 Definitions
3.7 Magnetic Circuit Losses
3.8 Producing Magnetic Flux in Air Gap
3.9 Rectangular-Shaped Magnetic Circuits
3.10 Chapter Summary
Exercises
Bibliography
Chapter 4 Transformers
4.1 Introduction
4.2 First Two Maxwell's Laws
4.3 Transformers
4.4 Ideal Single-Phase Transformer Models
4.5 Modeling a Transformer into Equivalent Circuits
4.6 Transformer Testing
4.7 Transformer Specifications
4.8 Three-Phase Power Transformers
4.9 New Advances in Transformer Technology: Solid-State Transformers — an Introduction
4.10 Chapter Summary
Exercises
Bibliography
Chapter 5 Induction Machines
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Construction and Types of Induction Motors
5.3 Operating Principle
5.4 Basic Induction-Motor Concepts
5.5 Induction-Motor Slip
5.6 Rotor Current and Leakage Reactance
5.7 Rotor Copper Loss
5.8 Developing the Equivalent Circuit of Polyphase, Wound-Rotor Induction Motors
5.9 Computing Corresponding Torque of Induction Motors
5.10 Approximation Model for Induction Machines
5.11 Speed Control of Induction Motors
5.12 Application of Induction Motors
5.13 Induction-Generator Principles
5.14 Chapter Summary
Exercises
Bibliography
Chapter 6 Synchronous Machines
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Synchronous-Generator Construction
6.3 Exciters
6.4 Governors
6.5 Synchronous Generator Operating Principle
6.6 Equivalent Circuit of Synchronous Machines
6.7 Synchronous Generator Equivalent Circuits
6.8 Over Excitation and Under Excitation
6.9 Open-Circuit and Short-Circuit Characteristics
6.10 Performance Characteristics of Synchronous Machines
6.11 Generator Compounding Curve
6.12 Synchronous Generator Operating Alone: Concept of Infinite Bus
6.13 Initial Elementary Facts about Synchronous Machines
6.14 Cylindrical-Rotor Machines for Turbo Generators
6.15 Synchronous Machines with Effects of Saliency: Two-Reactance Theory
6.16 the Salient-Pole Machine
6.17 Synchronous Motors
6.18 Synchronous Machines and System Stability
6.19 Chapter Summary
Exercises
Bibliography
Chapter 7 Dc Machines
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Conductor Moving in A Uniform Magnetic Field
7.3 Current-Carrying Conductor in A Uniform Magnetic Field
7.4 Dc-Machine Construction and Nameplate Parameters
7.5 Dc Machine Pertinent Nameplate Parameters
7.6 Development and Configuration of Equivalent Circuits of Dc Machines
7.7 Classification of Dc Machines
7.8 Voltage Regulation
7.9 Power Computation for Dc Machines
7.10 Power Flow and Efficiency
7.11 Dc Motors
7.12 Computation of Speed of Dc Motors
7.13 Dc-Machine Speed-Control Methods
7.14 Ward Leonard System
7.15 Chapter Summary
Exercises
Bibliography
Chapter 8 Permanent-Magnet Motors
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Permanent-Magnet DC Motors
8.3 Permanent-Magnet Synchronous Motors
8.4 Variants of Permanent-Magnet Synchronous Motors
8.5 Chapter Summary
Bibliography
Chapter 9 Renewable Energy Resources
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Distributed Generation Concepts
9.3 DG Benefits
9.4 Working Definitions and Classifications of Renewable Energy
9.5 Renewable-Energy Penetration
9.6 Maximum Penetration Limits of Renewable-Energy Resources
9.7 Constraints to Implementation of Renewable Energy
Exercises
Bibliography
Chapter 10 Storage Systems in the Smart Grid
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Forms of Energy
10.3 Energy Storage Systems
10.4 Cost Benefits of Storage
10.5 Chapter Summary
Bibliography
Chapter 11 Power Electronics
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Power Systems With Power Electronics Architecture
11.3 Elements of Power Electronics
11.4 Power Semiconductor Devices
11.5 Applications of Power Electronics Devices to Machine Control
11.6 Applications of Power Electronics Devices to Power System Devices
11.7 Applications of Power Electronics to Utility, Aerospace, and Shipping
11.8 Facts
11.9 Chapter Summary
Bibliography
Chapter 12 Converters and Inverters
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Definitions
12.3 DC–DC Converters
12.4 Inverters
12.5 Rectifiers
12.6 Applications
12.7 Chapter Summary
Exercises
Bibliography
Chapter 13 Microgrid Application Design and Technology
13.1 Introduction to Microgrids
13.2 Types of Microgrids
13.3 Microgrid Architecture
13.4 Modeling of a Microgrid
13.5 Chapter Summary
Bibliography
Chapter 14 Microgrid Operational Management
14.1 Perfomance Tools of a Microgrid
14.2 Microgrid Functions
14.3 IEEE Standards for Microgrids
14.4 Microgrid Benefits
14.5 Chapter Summary
Bibliography
Chapter 15 the Smart Grid: an Introduction
15.1 Evolution, Drivers, and the Need for Smart Grid
15.2 Comparison of Smart Grid with the Current Grid System
15.3 Architecture of a Smart Grid
15.4 Design for Smart-Grid Function for Bulk Power Systems
15.5 Smart-Grid Challenges
15.6 Design Structure and Procedure for Smart-Grid Best Practices
15.7 Chapter Summary
Bibliography
Chapter 16 Smart-Grid Layers and Control
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Controls for the Smart Grid
16.3 Layers of Smart Grid Within the Grid
16.4 Command, Control, and Communication Applications in Real Time
16.5 Hardware-in-the-Loop for Energy Processing and the Smart Grid
16.6 Cyber-Physical Systems for Smart Grids
16.7 Chapter Summary
Bibliography
Chapter 17 Energy Processing and Smart-Grid Test Beds
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Study of Available Test Beds for the Smart Grid
17.3 Smart Microgrid Test-Bed Design
17.4 Smart-Grid Test Beds
17.5 Smart-Grid Case Studies
17.6 Simulation Tools, Hardware, and Embedded Systems
17.7 Limitations of Existing Smart-Grid Test Beds
17.8 Chapter Summary
Bibliography
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1
Chapter 4
Table 4.1
Table 4.2
Table 4.3
Table Q3
Table Q11
Table Q15
Chapter 8
Table 8.1
Table 8.2
Table 8.3
Chapter 9
Table 9.1
Table 9.2
Chapter 10
Table 10.1
Table 10.2
Table 10.3
Chapter 11
Table 11.1
Table 11.2
Chapter 12
Table 12.1
Chapter 14
Table Q2
Chapter 15
Table 15.1
Table 15.2
List of Illustrations
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Simplified single-line diagram schematics of a modern electric power system.
Figure 2.2 Phasor diagram of a purely resistive circuit.
Figure 2.3 Phasor diagram of purely inductive circuit.
Figure 2.4 Phasor diagram of a purely capacitive circuit.
Figure 2.5 AC circuit analysis with phasor diagram.
Figure 2.6 Phasor relationships of power system quantities.
Figure 2.7 Equivalent Y diagram.
Figure 2.8 Phase and line voltage representation.
Figure 2.9 Equivalent Y-connected voltage phasor representation.
Figure 2.10 Mesh or delta connection.
Figure 2.11 Delta-connected three-phase loads.
Figure 2.12 Y-connected load.
Figure 2.13 Star-delta conversion of impedances.
Figure 2.14 Delta-star impedance conversion.
Figure Q3 A Wye-Delta Circuit.
Figure Q4 A Wye-Delta Circuit.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Toroidal coil.
Figure 3.2 Magnetic and electric circuit.
Figure 3.3 BH curve for some ferromagnetic materials.
Figure 3.4 BH curve for iron.
Figure 3.5 A hysteresis loop for a solenoid's ferromagnetic core.
Figure 3.6 Magnetic flux leakage and fringing.
Figure 3.7 Toroid with air gap.
Figure 3.8 Rectangular magnetic circuit.
Figure 3.9 Simple series magnetic circuit and analogous electric circuit.
Figure 3.10 Parallel magnetic circuit.
Figure Q2 Copper Core Magnetic Circuit.
Figure Q3 Magnetic Circuit.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Electric or magnetic fields as catalysts for electro-mechanical energy conversion.
Figure 4.2 Power and distribution transformer.
Courtesy of ABB Inc.
Figure 4.3 Distribution transformers. (a) Pole-mounted distribution transformer (b) Ground-mounted distribution transformer.
Courtesy of ABB Inc.
Figure 4.4 (a) Physical isolating transformer. (b) Isolating system schematic.
Courtesy of EREA Energy Engineering BVBV
.
Figure 4.5 (a) Schematic of a potential transformer. (b) Three-phase physical voltage transformer.
Courtesy of Flex-Core
.
Figure 4.6 (a) Schematic of a current transformer. (b) Solid-core current transformer.
Courtesy of Flex-Core
.
Figure 4.7 Communication transformer.
Courtesy of Hangzhou Smart Technology
.
Figure 4.8 Autotransformer and its models. (a) Physical autotransformer (b) Step-down model (c) Step-up model.
Courtesy of EREA Energy Engineering BVBV
.
Figure 4.9 Ideal transformer model.
Figure 4.10 Approximate equivalent circuit of real transformer (parameters referred to primary side).
Figure 4.11 Final approximate equivalent circuit referred to the primary neglecting shunt branch.
Figure 4.12 Final approximate equivalent circuit referred to the primary neglecting shunt branch and winding resistance.
Figure 4.13 Approximate equivalent circuit of real transformer with parameters referred to the secondary side.
Figure 4.14 Approximate equivalent circuit of real transformer (parameters referred to the secondary side).
Figure 4.15 Final approximate equivalent circuit referred to the secondary, neglecting shunt branch.
Figure 4.16 Final approximate equivalent circuit referred to the primary neglecting shunt branch and winding resistance.
Figure 4.17 Circuit for open-circuit test.
Figure 4.18 The equivalent circuit during open circuit.
Figure 4.19 No-load phasor diagram.
Figure 4.20 Set-up for short-circuit test.
Figure 4.21 Equivalent circuit diagram.
Figure 4.22 Phasor equivalent of the transformer.
Figure 4.23 Typical transformer nameplate showing its parameters.
Figure 4.24 Basic solid-state transformer structure.
Figure 4.25 Different SST configurations.
Figure P1 A potential transformer.
Figure Q9 Equivalent circuit diagram of the transformer.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Induction motor stator.
Figure 5.2 Cage-rotor induction motor.
Figure 5.3 Wound-rotor induction motor.
Figure 5.4 Induction-motor equivalent circuit.
Figure 5.5 The ideal transformer model of an induction motor.
Figure 5.6 Induction-motor stator equivalent circuit-transformer analog model.
Figure 5.7 Rotor equivalent circuit of three-phase induction motor at slip frequency.
Figure 5.8 Equivalent circuits of three-phase polyphase induction motors.
Figure 5.9 Approximate equivalent circuit of three-phase induction motor.
Figure 5.10 Induction generator in self-excited mode.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Synchronous generator rotor types. (a) Cylindrical or round rotor (b) Salient-pole rotor.
Figure 6.2 Cross-section of a synchronous machine.
Figure 6.3 Rotor pole showing damper windings.
Figure 6.4 DC generator excitation system.
Figure 6.5 Mechanical governor system.
Figure 6.6 Synchronous generator operating principle. (a) Rotor-stator arrangement (b) 3-Phase AC induced voltage.
Figure 6.7 Phasor diagram relating flux linkage and voltage.
Figure 6.8 Round rotor synchronous generator phasor diagram.
Figure 6.9 Synchronous generator equivalent circuit and phasor diagram.
Figure 6.10 Per phase equivalent model and phasor diagram.
Figure 6.11 (a) Diagram of Open Circuit Test (b) Open-circuit test characteristics.
Figure 6.12 Short-circuit test: circuit connections for test and short-circuit characteristics.
Figure 6.13 Open-circuit and short-circuit characteristics of a synchronous machine.
Figure 6.14 Steady-state power or torque-angle characteristics of a cylindrical rotor machine.
Figure 6.15 Synchronous machine V-curves.
Figure 6.16 A single machine connected to an infinite bus bar.
Figure 6.17 Synchronous generator armature field current curves.
Figure 6.18 Reactive power capability curves.
Figure 6.19 Power and load angle for saliency.
Figure 6.20 Synchronous generator power-flow diagram.
Figure 6.21 Synchronous motor power flow.
Figure 6.22 Phasor diagrams of a synchronous motor.
Figure Q6 Single line diagram of a Power System.
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Conductor moving in a magnetic field.
Figure 7.2 Current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field.
Figure 7.3 Front elevation and schematic diagram of DC machine.
Figure 7.4 DC machine equivalent circuit.
Figure 7.5 DC-machine configurations. (a) Series DC machine (b) Shunt DC machine (c) Compound (short shunt) (d) Compound (long shunt).
Figure 7.6 Separately excited DC machine.
Figure 7.7 Terminal and load characteristics of separately excited generator.
Figure 7.8 Losses and energy flow in DC generators and motors. (a) Energyflow in DC motor (b) Energy flow in DC generators.
Figure 7.9 Configuration types of DC motors. Configuration (a) shunt DC motor (b) Series DC motor (c) Compound motor.
Figure 7.10 Torque/armature-current characteristics.
Figure 7.11 Torque/speed characteristics of a DC-motor configuration.
Figure 7.12 Speed/power characteristics of a DC-motor configuration.
Figure 7.13 Speed–power relationship.
Figure 7.14 Speed-torque characteristics of electric machines.
Figure 7.15 Ward Leonard system control scheme.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Permanent magnet DC motor.
Figure 8.2 Movement of flux in PMDC.
Figure 8.3 Equivalent circuit of a permanent magnet DC motor.
Figure 8.4 Graph of current (I) versus torque (T), and flux speed (
ω
m
) versus current (I).
Figure 8.5 B–H curve.
Figure 8.6 Rotor configurations for permanent-magnet synchronous motor.
Figure 8.7 Arrangement of permanent magnets in synchronous motors.
Figure 8.8 Cross-section of trapezoidal surface-magnet machine.
Figure 8.9 Recoil line graph.
Figure 8.10 Equivalent magnetic-circuit diagram of a permanent-magnet motor.
Figure 8.11 Norton's theorem current-to-voltage transformation.
Figure 8.12 Equivalent circuit 1 of a permanent-magnet motor.
Figure 8.13 Equivalent circuit 2 of a permanent-magnet motor.
Figure 8.14 Equivalent-circuit model of permanent-magnet motor.
Figure 8.15 Permanent-magnet machine operating points on a B–H curve.
Figure 8.16 Cross-section of trapezoidal surface-magnet machine (two poles) with stator in its star form.
Figure 8.17 Stator-phase voltage and current waves in trapezoidal permanent-magnet machine.
Figure 8.18 Cross-section of synchronous reluctance motor.
Figure 8.19 Torque-angle characteristics of a salient-pole machine.
Figure 8.20 Principle of operation of 30° step variable-reluctance stepping motor.
Figure 8.21 A typical switched reluctance motor.
Figure 8.22 Structure of a switched reluctance motor.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 PV systems integration with microgrid.
Figure 9.2 PV-equivalent circuit.
Figure 9.3 Modified equivalent circuit.
Figure 9.4 PV-equivalent circuit for both series and parallel resistances.
Figure 9.5 V-I characteristics: PV connected to resistive load.
Figure 9.6 Basic components of a wind-turbine system.
Figure 9.7 Biomass-gasification process.
Figure 9.8 Diversion type hydropower plant.
Figure 9.9 Schematic diagram of fuel-cell system.
Figure 9.10 Oscillating water-column system.
Figure 9.11 Wave-capture system.
Figure 9.12 Schematic diagram of microturbine.
Figure 9.13 Stirling engine.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Flywheel.
Figure 10.2 Pumped hydro energy storage system.
Figure 10.3 Different kinds of batteries. (a) Dry cell. (b) Automotive battery. (c) Deep-cycle battery. (d) Bank of deep-cycle batteries.
Figure 10.4 Batteries in series and parallel.
Figure 10.5 Battery storage application in a solar PV system.
Figure 10.6 A supercapacitor.
Figure 10.7 Typical equivalent model of an electromechanical double-layer capacitor.
Figure 10.8 Illustration of an SMES system.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Architecture of power system with power electronic devices.
Figure 11.2 Schematic symbol of a diode.
Figure 11.3 (a) Soft reverse-recovery characteristics. (b) Abrupt reverse-recovery characteristics.
Figure 11.4 Typical diode-switching characteristics. (a) Switching circuit with S closed at
t
=
t
0
. (b) Diode current.
Figure 11.5 V–I characteristics of a diode. (a) Practical characteristics. (b) Ideal characteristics.
Figure 11.6 Diode waveform illustrations. (a) Positive clipper. (b) Negative clipper.
Figure 11.7 Diode as a rectifier.
Figure 11.8 Resultant output waveform.
Figure 11.9 Clamping configuration.
Figure 11.10 Diode-limiter circuit.
Figure 11.11 npn transistor.
Figure 11.12 pnp transistor.
Figure 11.13 Circuit operation modes of the BJT.
Figure 11.14 CB input characteristics.
Figure 11.15 CB output characteristics.
Figure 11.16 CE input characteristics.
Figure 11.17 CE output characteristics.
Figure 11.18 CB input characteristics.
Figure 11.19 CC output characteristics.
Figure 11.20 Switching characteristics of BJT. (a) Circuit. (b) Switching waveform
Figure 11.21 Circuit symbols of enhancement-type and depletion-type MOSFETs. (a) Enhancement-type MOSFET (b) Depletion-type MOSFET.
Figure 11.22 Transfer characteristics of MOSFETs.
Figure 11.23 Circuit symbol and equivalent circuit for an IGBT.
Figure 11.24 Static characteristics of an IGBT. (a) Output characteristics (b) Transfer characteristics.
Figure 11.25 Switching characteristics of SCR. (a) I–V characteristics and symbolic representation (b) Ideal-switching characteristics.
Figure 11.26 SCR circuit and characteristics. (a) Circuit. (b) v-i characteristics.
Figure 11.27 SCR equivalent circuit.
Figure 11.28 SCR half-wave rectifier and waveform. (a) SCR half-wave rectifier. (b) Waveform and trigger pulse.
Figure 11.29 SCR full-wave rectifier and waveform.
Figure 11.30 SCR full-wave bridge rectifier.
Figure 11.31 Switching characteristics of a TRIAC. (a) I–V characteristics and symbolic representation (b) Ideal-switching characteristics.
Figure 11.32 Step-down chopper with resistive load.
Figure 11.33 Step-down choppers: output voltage and current waveforms.
Figure 11.34 DC Motor Chopper Circuit.
Figure 11.35 Solid-state DC circuit breaker.
Figure 11.36 Solid-state relay.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 A DC–DC converter system.
Figure 12.2 Basic DC–DC conversion.
Figure 12.3 Step-down DC–DC converter.
Figure 12.4 Step-up DC–DC converter.
Figure 12.5 Buck–boost converter.
Figure 12.6 Ćuk DC–DC converter.
Figure 12.7 Single-phase half-bridge inverter. (a) Circuit. (b) Waveforms with resistive load. (c) Load current with highly inductive load.
Figure 12.8 Single-phase full-bridge inverter.
Figure 12.9 Three-phase bridge inverter with Y-connected load.
Figure 12.10 Half-wave rectifier.
Figure 12.11 Graetz bridge rectifier: a full-wave rectifier using four diodes.
Figure 12.12 Full-wave rectifier using a center tap transformer and 2 diodes.
Figure 12.13 Three-phase, half-wave rectifier circuit using thyristors as the switching elements, ignoring supply inductance.
Figure 12.14 Three-phase, full-wave rectifier circuit using thyristors as the switching elements, with a center-tapped transformer, ignoring supply inductance.
Figure 12.15 Switchable full-bridge/voltage doubler.
Figure Q12.5.3 Single phase full bridge inverter.
Figure Q12.5.4 Three-phase half-bridge inverter.
Figure Q12.5.5 Single-phase fully-controlled bridge converter.
Figure Q12.5.1 Three-phase half-bridge inverter.
Figure Q12.5.2 Three-phase half-bridge inverter with Purely inductive load.
Figure 12.16 Block diagram of DC–DC converter with a rectifier.
Figure Q12.6.1 Fly back converter.
Figure Q12.6.2 Single phase rectifier.
Figure Q12.6.3 Voltage and Current waveform.
Figure Q12.6.4 Switching scheme for full bridge inverter.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Community microgrid.
Figure 13.2 Architecture of a microgrid.
Figure 13.3 Typical microgrid-connection scheme.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Performance structure of a microgrid EMS.
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Architecture of the smart-grid design.
Figure 15.2 Smart grid using advanced optimization and control techniques.
Figure 15.3 Automation functions at transmission level.
Figure 15.4 Automation functions at distribution level.
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Hierarchical levels of control in microgrid.
Figure 16.2 Smart-grid layers.
Figure 16.3 Physical layers.
Figure 16.4 Smart meter.
Figure 16.5 Phasor measurement unit.
Figure 16.6 Howard University microgrid test bed with OPAL-RT.
Figure 16.7 Convergence of computation, communication, information, and control.
Figure 16.8 Smart grid with CPS attributes.
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Preface
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