Index
Symbols
1G network architectures, 5–10
cellular versus mobile networks, 7–8
limitations of, 10
mobile transport in, 8
MSC (Mobile Switching Center), 8–10
1PPS (1 pulse-per-second) signals, 309
2G network architectures, 10–14
technology summary of, 14
2.5G network architectures, 15–17
3D beanforming, 145
3G network architectures, 17–26. See also 3GPP (3rd Generation Partnership Project) releases
GSN Enhancements in 3G Core, 69–70
microdiversity and macrodiversity in, 21
technology summary of, 26
3GPP (3rd Generation Partnership Project) releases, 18, 24–26, 77
CSFB (Circuit Switched Fallback), 78, 80
EPS bearer, 85
E-RAB (E-UTRAN radio access bearer), 85–87
network attach process, 84
QoS (quality of service), 87
USIM (Universal Subscriber Identity Module), 84–85
EPC (Evolved Packet Core) and, 79–83
architecture, 79
definition of, 78
HSS (Home Subscriber Server), 82–83
MME (Mobility Management Entity), 80–81
PCRF (Policy Charging and Rule Function), 82
PGW (PDN Gateway), 82
SGW (Serving Gateway), 81
goals of, 77
IMS (IP Multimedia Subsystem), 77, 83
LTE (Long Term Evolution). See E-UTRAN (Evolved UTRAN)
PCC (policy and charging control), 77
release versions
Rx interface, 89
SAE (System Architecture Evolution), 77, 78
4G. See E-UTRAN (Evolved UTRAN)
5G Equipment Identity Register (5G-EIR) database, 189
5G Extended Range, T-Mobile, 130
5G Fund for Rural America, 123
5G Nationwide, Verizon, 130
5G NR (5G New Radio). See NR (New Radio)
5G Rural First initiative, 123
5G transport. See transport
5G Ultra Capacity, T-Mobile, 130
5G Ultra Wideband, Verizon, 130
5GC (5G Core) network, 18, 179–194
5GC user plane placement, 181
CUPS (Control and User Plane Separation), 179–183
influence of, 183
introduction of, 179
DC (data center) composition, 181–182
introduction of, 179
MEC (Multi-access Edge Compute), 180–181
5QI (5G QoS Identifier), 193
8b/10b line-coding, 196
802.1BA, 344
802.1CM, 344
802.1Q, 295
802.11ah, 133
A
AAA (Authentication Authorization Accounting) servers, 63
AAVs (alternative access vendors), 373–374
ABRs (area border routers), 364
Access and Mobility Management Function (AMF), 188–189
access point names (APNs), 64–66
active versus passive antennas, 142–143
Adaptive Multi-Rate (AMR), 21
address family, L2VPN, 278
Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS), 6, 31
Advertising Segment Routing Policies in BGP (IETF), 227
AF (Application Function), 190
affinity values, 270
aggregation, carrier. See CA (carrier aggregation)
AI (artificial intelligence), 380
air interface enhancements (5G NR), 139–142
NOMA (Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access), 142
Alcatel, 38
algorithms
BMCA (Best Master Clock Algorithm), 319, 320–323
Flex-Algo (Flexible Algorithm), 234, 235–238
flexible, 220
SPF (Shortest Path First), 220
Strict SPF, 220
aliasing, 290
All-Active multihoming, 279, 290
All-Active redundancy, 294
alternative access vendors (AAVs), 373–374
Altiostar, 156–157, 197–198, 373
Amazon
AWS (Amazon Web Services)
AWS Output, 375
AWS Wavelength, 259
EKS (Elastic Kubernetes Service), 184–185
American National Standards Institute. See ANSI (American National Standards Institute)
AMF (Access and Mobility Management Function), 188–189
AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone Service), 6, 31
AMR (Adaptive Multi-Rate), 21
analog beamforming, 145
ANSI (American National Standards Institute), 251
Ansible Automation Platform, 184–185
antenna functions (5G NR), 142–155
5G technology enablers, 127
active versus passive antennas, 142–143
DASs (distributed antenna systems), 41
directional antennas, 36
DSS (dynamic spectrum sharing), 154–155
GNSS antenna installation, 314–315
mMIMO (massive MIMO), 98, 148–150, 339
multi-radio connectivity, 150–153
TPs (transmission points), 151–153
Vehicle-to-Everything communication, 155
Any Transport over MPLS (AToM), 277
Anycast IP prefix, 217
Anycast-SID, 217
aPipe, 277
APNs (access point names), 64–66
Apple iPhone, introduction of, 120
Application Function (AF), 190
application integration, 231–232
application threads, 270
application-hosting facilities, 176
application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs), 91–92, 268
Apstra System, 267
APTS (Assisted Partial Timing Support), 329
AR (augmented reality), 132
area border routers (ABRs), 364
Arista CloudVision eXchange (CVX), 296
ARM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode), 21–22
artificial intelligence (AI), 380
ASICs (application-specific integrated circuits), 91–92, 268
Assisted Partial Timing Support (APTS), 329, 358
asymmetry, path, 323
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), 21–22
AT&T, 176
AToM (Any Transport over MPLS), 277
atomic clock, 309
attachment circuit, 277
AuC (Authentication Center), 8, 58–59, 189
augmented reality (AR), 132
AUSF (Authentication Server Function), 189
authentication
AAA (Authentication Authorization Accounting) servers, 63
AuC (Authentication Center), 8, 58–59, 189
AUSF (Authentication Server Function), 189
automated steering, 227
automation-first mindset, 125
benefits of, 377
cross-domain, 378
ZTD (zero-touch deployment), 377
AS (autonomous systems), 105–106, 218
autoroutes, 227
AWS (Amazon Web Services)
AWS Output, 375
AWS Wavelength, 259
B
Backbone Destination Address (B-DA), 261–262
Backbone Source Address (B-SA), 261–262
backhaul networks. See MBH (mobile backhaul networks)
backup pseudowire, 279
backup-selected PE, 294
bandwidth considerations, in fronthaul network design, 339–340
BAR (Buffering Action Rules), 193
base station controllers (BSCs), 12
base station subsystem (BSS), 13
base transceiver stations (BTSs), 12, 39
baseband units. See BBUs (baseband units)
baseband units (BBUs), 101
baseband-processing resources, 156
BBUs (baseband units), 37, 101, 125, 303–304, 339
BCs (boundary clocks), 327–329, 358
B-DA (Backbone Destination Address), 261–262
beamformers, 146
bearer, radio access, 85
default bearer, 85
DRB (data radio bearer), 85
E-RAB (E-UTRAN radio access bearer), 85–87
SRB (signaling radio bearer), 85
Best Master Clock Algorithm (BMCA), 319, 320–323
best path, calculation of, 235
BFD (Bidirectional Forwarding Detection), 240–241
BGP (Border Gateway Protocol), 71, 105–106, 213, 222, 231, 263, 278
BGP EPE (BGP Egress Peering Engineering), 217–218
BGP NLRI (BGP Network Layer Reachability Information), 231
BGP PeerAdj-SID, 218
BGP PeerNode-SID, 218
BGP PeerSet-SID, 218
BGP-LS (BGP Link State), 231
BGP-LU (BGP Labeled Unicast), 105–106, 230–231, 263, 360
Bidirectional Forwarding Detection (BFD), 240–241
binding, SDF, 193
BITS (Building Integrated Timing Supply), 315
Blue Planet, 267
BMCA (Best Master Clock Algorithm), 319, 320–323
Border Gateway Protocol. See BGP (Border Gateway Protocol)
border leaves, 266
Borg, 184
boundary clocks (BCs), 327–329, 358
BPDUs (Bridge Protocol Data Units), 262–263
broadcast, unknown unicast, multicast traffic. See BUM (broadcast, unknown unicast, multicast) traffic, handling
B-SA (Backbone Source Address), 261–262
BSCs (base station controllers), 12
BSS (base station subsystem), 13
BTSs (base transceiver stations), 12, 39
Buffering Action Rules (BAR), 193
buffers, 305
Building Integrated Timing Supply (BITS), 315
BUM (broadcast, unknown unicast, multicast) traffic, handling, 104, 261, 281
with EVPN. See EVPN (Ethernet VPN)
C
CA (carrier aggregation), 93–94, 140–142
cable connectivity
applicability to xHaul domains, 345–346
overview of, 51
synchronization in, 302
call flow, in circuit switched core, 59–61
CAPEX (capital expense), 252, 338
carrier aggregation. See CA (carrier aggregation)
Carrier Ethernet Services, 50
carrier frequency, 31
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA), 303
Carrier-Grade Network Address Translation (CGNAT), 242
catching, IMSI, 192
C-Band frequencies, 33
CBR (constant bitrate), 169, 303–304
CBRS (Citizens Broadband Radio Service), 30, 134
CCS (Common Channel Signaling), 11
C-DA (Customer Destination Address), 261–262
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access), 8, 11
Cell Identification (CI) values, 56
base station terminology, 39
cable, 51
Clos fabric, 46
DSL (digital subscriber line), 51, 302
importance of, 44
MEF (Metro Ethernet Forum) services, 49–51
PONs (passive optical networks), 47–48, 302
satellite, 51
CSRs (cell site routers), 104–105, 279, 338
environmental and placement considerations, 356–357
timing and synchronization support, 357–358
ownership of, 39
RRH (remote radio head), 37–38
cell towers, 37
Cellular Vehicle-to-Everything (C-V2X), 155
cellular versus mobile networks, 7–8
central DCs (data centers), 159
central processing units. See CPUs (central processing units)
centralized DCs (data centers), 257
centralized units (CUs), 275
Centralized-RAN. See C-RAN (Centralized-RAN)
certification, MEF (Metro Ethernet Forum), 50–51
Cesium atomic clock, 309
CGNAT (Carrier-Grade Network Address Translation), 242
chain, RF, 145
channels, 3
channel reciprocity, 35
channel widths, 31
CHF (Charging Function), 189–190
China Mobile, 176
China Mobile Research Institute, 156
CI (Cell Identification) values, 56
circuit switched core, 24, 54–61
AuC (Authentication Center), 8, 58–59, 189
EIR (Equipment Identity Register), 59
HLR (Home Location Register), 5, 8, 57, 189
VLR (Visitor Location Register), 8, 57–58, 84
definition of, 54
identifiers and databases in, 11
SIM (subscriber identity module) cards, 55–57
circuit switched data, 15
Circuit Switched Fallback. See CSFB (Circuit Switched Fallback)
Cisco
Crosswork Cluster, 232
Crosswork Optimization Engine, 232
CSNM (Data Center Network Manager), 267
NSO (Network Services Orchestrator), 267
point-to-point L2VPN services, 277
Tail-F, 267
VFI (Virtual Forwarding Interface), 282
VTS (Virtual Topology System), 296
Citizens Broadband Radio Service (CBRS), 30, 134
clocks, PTP (Precision Time Protocol), 308–310, 323–325
Class A, 328
Class B, 328
Class C, 328
Class D, 328
Clos architecture, 46, 253, 267
closed ring design, 46
closed-loop automation, 378–380
cloud deployments, 372–376. See also cloud-native 5G core
benefits of, 372
cloud DCs (data centers), 258–259
Cloud RAN, 101, 156–157, 176–177
cloud service providers, 185, 251–252
hybrid clouds, 376
VPC (virtual private cloud), 376
Cloud RAN, 101, 156–157, 176–177
cloud-native applications, 185–186
containerization and Docker, 183
MANO (management and orchestration), 184–185
microservices architecture, 184
NFs (Network Functions), 187–192
definition of, 187
UPF (User Plane Function), 187–188
PDU sessions, 193
PFCP (Packet Forwarding Control Protocol), 193
QoS (quality of service), 193–194
SBA (Service-Based Architecture), 186
transition to, 194
user authentication and registration, 192–193
virtualization, 183
cloud-native applications, 185
CloudVision eXchange (CVX), 296
CMT (Simultaneous Multi-Threading), 270
CN. See 5GC (5G Core) network
CNFs (containerized networking functions), 373
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), 8, 11
co-location DCs, 251
commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) hardware, 372
Common Channel Signaling (CCS), 11
Common Public Radio Interface. See CPRI (Common Public Radio Interface)
CoMP (Coordinated Multi-Point), 97, 150–153, 308
component carriers, 93–94, 141–142
connectivity models, for cell sites, 44–51
cable, 51
Clos fabric, 46
DSL (digital subscriber line), 51, 302
importance of, 44
MEF (Metro Ethernet Forum) services, 49–51
PONs (passive optical networks), 47–48, 302
satellite, 51
constant bitrate (CBR), 169, 303–304
constant time error (cTE), 327
Constrained Shortest-Path First (CSPF), 223, 230
containerization, 183
containerized networking functions (CNFs), 373
content creation, emerging trends and expectations for, 122
Continuous Packet Connectivity (CPC), 25
Control and User Plane Separation. See CUPS (Control and User Plane Separation)
control plane (C-Plane), 106, 127–128, 298, 335, 370
control-plane NFs (Network Functions), 188–191
coordinated beamforming, 151
Coordinated Multi-Point (CoMP), 97, 150–153, 308
Coordinated Universal Time, 309
core DCs (data centers), 159
Core network. See 5GC (5G Core) network
Core Network and Terminals (CT), 18
correctionField, 324
COTS (commercial off-the-shelf) hardware, 372
CPC (Continuous Packet Connectivity), 25
CPE (customer-premises equipment), 302
C-Plane. See control plane (C-Plane)
CPRI (Common Public Radio Interface), 38, 101, 303–304, 337
eCPRI
open versus vendor-specific, 174–175
CPS (cycles per second), 29
CPUs (central processing units), 268
CPU packages, 269
CPU pinning, 270
C-RAN (Centralized-RAN), 41, 100–101, 127, 156–157
cross-domain automation, 378
Crosswork Cluster (Cisco), 232
Crosswork Optimization Engine, 232
C-SA (Customer Source Address), 261–262
CSFB (Circuit Switched Fallback), 78, 80
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access), 303
CSNM (Data Center Network Manager), 267
CSPF (Constrained Shortest-Path First), 223, 230
CSRs (cell site routers), 104–105, 279, 338
environmental and placement considerations, 356–357
timing and synchronization support, 357–358
CT (Core Network and Terminals), 18
CUPS (Control and User Plane Separation), 127–128, 179–183, 257, 274
cloud-native applications, 185
containerization and Docker, 183
MANO (management and orchestration), 184–185
microservices architecture, 184
NFs (Network Functions), 187–192
PDU sessions, 193
PFCP (Packet Forwarding Control Protocol), 193
QoS (quality of service), 193–194
SBA (Service-Based Architecture), 186
transition to, 194
user authentication and registration, 192–193
virtualization, 183
introduction of, 179
CUs (centralized units), 275
Customer Destination Address (C-DA), 261–262
customer expectations, 120–121
EMBB (Enhanced Mobile Broadband), 131–132
mMTC (Massive Machine-Type Communications), 133
URLLC (Ultra-Reliable Low-Latency Communications), 132–133
5G technology enablers, 126–130
automation, 129
IMT-2020 specification, 126
mapping to market trends, 129
network slicing. See network slicing
NGMN (Next Generation Mobile Network), 127
RAN and mobile core decomposition, 127–128
spectrum and advanced antenna features, 127
content creation and utilization, 122
dedicated services and private networks, 124–125
IoT (Internet of Things), 124
on-demand, rapid service deployment, 125
real-time and immersive experiences, 122–123
universal connectivity and reliability, 123–124
Customer Source Address (C-SA), 261–262
customer VLAN (C-VLAN), 261–262
customer-premises equipment (CPE), 302
C-V2X (Cellular Vehicle-to-Everything), 155
C-VLAN (customer VLAN), 261–262
CVX (CloudVision eXchange), 296
cycles per second (CPS), 29
cyclic prefix, 91
D
DA (Destination Address) field, 242, 244
D-AMPS (Digital AMPS), 10
DAS (distributed antenna system), 41
Data Center Interconnect. See DCI (Data Center Interconnect)
Data Center Interconnect (DCI), 106–107, 253, 265–266
Data Center Network Manager (DCNM), 267
data centers. See DCs (data centers)
Data Network (DN), 187
Data Network Name (DNN), 189
Data Over Cable Service Interface Specifications. See cable connectivity
EPS bearer, 85
E-RAB (E-UTRAN radio access bearer), 85–87
network attach process, 84
QoS (quality of service), 87
USIM (Universal Subscriber Identity Module), 84–85
data plane, 106
data radio bearers. See DRBs (data radio bearers)
databases, for mobile networks, 55–59
AuC (Authentication Center), 8, 58–59, 189
Authentication Center (AuC), 58–59
EIR (Equipment Identity Register), 59
HLR (Home Location Register), 5, 8, 57, 189
SIM (subscriber identity module) cards, 11
VLR (Visitor Location Register), 8, 57–58, 84
DCI (Data Center Interconnect), 106–107, 253, 265–266
centralized, 257
Clos architecture, 46, 253, 267
cloud. See cloud deployments
co-location, 251
data center fabric
DCI (Data Center Interconnect), 106–107, 253, 265–266
distributed, 258
east-west traffic, 253
far-edge, 132–133, 159, 258, 263, 270–271, 344–345
growth in the size and relevance of, 251–252
incorporating into xHaul, 201–202
north-south traffic, 253
off-premises (off-prem), 252
on-premises (on-prem), 251
regional, 159
resource optimization, 267–271
benefits of, 268
space considerations for, 255–256
telco data centers, 257
decomposition
RAN (radio access network), 100–101, 127–128, 156, 163–169
dedicated services, emerging trends and expectations for, 124–125
default bearers, 85
default routing tables, 284
delay range, 236
Delay_Req PTP messages, 320–323
Department of Homeland Security (DHS), 314–315
deployment. See also design, network
cloud deployments, 372–376. See also cloud-native 5G core
benefits of, 372
cloud DCs (data centers), 258–259
Cloud RAN, 101, 156–157, 176–177
cloud service providers, 185, 251–252
hybrid clouds, 376
VPC (virtual private cloud), 376
DCI (Data Center Interconnect), 106–107, 253, 265–266
on-demand, 125
PTP (Precision Time Protocol), 324–330
common deployment scenarios, 350–352
QoS (quality of service), 353–355
deployment profiles, PTP (Precision Time Protocol), 328–330
design, network
5G architecture summary, 334–336
5G mobile requirements, determination of, 380–382
benefits of, 377
cross-domain, 378
device-level, 377
ZTD (zero-touch deployment), 377
cloud deployments, 372–376. See also cloud-native 5G core
benefits of, 372
cloud DCs (data centers), 258–259
Cloud RAN, 101, 156–157, 176–177
cloud service providers, 185, 251–252
hybrid clouds, 376
VPC (virtual private cloud), 376
environmental and placement considerations, 355–357
importance of, 356
planning for scale, 360
supported interface types, 358–359
timing and synchronization support, 357–358
bandwidth considerations, 339–340
challenges of, 337
lower-layer splits, 341
WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing), 337–339
PCE (path computation element), 367–368
routing design simplification, 361–370
importance of, 361
multidomain IGP (Interior Gateway Protocol), 362
SRGB (Segment Routing Global Block), 368–370
interface types, 370
MTU (Maximum Transmission Unit) recommendation, 371–372
SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol), 370
vRAN (Virtual RAN) deployment, 350–355
common deployment scenarios, 350–352
QoS (quality of service), 353–355
xHaul
physical topology, 347–350. See also xHaul
transport technology choices, 345–346
Designated Forwarders (DFs), 291
Destination Address (DA) field, 242, 244
Deutsche Telekom, 176
environmental and placement considerations, 355–357
importance of, 356
planning for scale, 360
supported interface types, 358–359
timing and synchronization support, 357–358
device-level automation, 377–378
DFs (Designated Forwarders), 291
DFT-s-OFDM (discrete Fourier transform spread OFDM), 93
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), 63, 378
DHS (Department of Homeland Security), 314–315
Diameter, 88
Differentiated Services Code Point (DSCP), 193
diffraction, 30
Digital AMPS (D-AMPS), 10
digital beamforming, 146
digital subscriber line. See DSL (digital subscriber line)
digital voice, in 2G network architectures, 11
diplexers, 34
dipole antennas, 142
directional antennas, 36
discontinuous transmissions (DTX), 21
discrete Fourier transform spread OFDM (DFT-s-OFDM), 93
Dish Network, 375
Disney+121
distributed antenna system (DAS), 41
distributed DCs (data centers), 258
distributed peering across xHaul, 202
distributed units (DUs), 275, 303–304
Distributed-RAN. See D-RAN (Distributed-RAN)
diversity, spatial, 37
DN (Data Network), 187
DNN (Data Network Name), 189
DNS (Domain Name System) servers, 63
Docker, 183
DOCSIS. See cable connectivity
downstream frequency, 31
draft-kompella, 278
draft-martini, 278
D-RAN (Distributed-RAN), 100–101
DRB (data radio bearer), 187, 193
DRBs (data radio bearers), 85
DSCP (Differentiated Services Code Point), 193
DSL (digital subscriber line), 51
applicability to xHaul domains, 345–346
synchronization in, 302
DSS (dynamic spectrum sharing), 154–155
DTX (discontinuous transmissions), 21
dual connectivity, 152
dual split architecture, 165–167
dual-channel QPSK (Quadrature Phase-Shift Keying), 20
duplexing mechanisms, radio frequency, 33
DUs (distributed units), 303–304
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP), 63, 378
dynamic point selection, 151
dynamic time error (dTE), 327
E
E1 interface, 162
EAPS (Ethernet Automatic Protection Switching), 104
Earthquake and Tsunami Warning System (ETWS), 94
east-west traffic, 253
ECMP (Equal Cost Multi-Path), 217, 240–241, 262–263
eCPRI (evolved CPRI), 337, 339
open versus vendor-specific, 174–175
edge computing, 255–256. See also DCs (data centers)
edge DCs (data centers), 159, 258, 263, 270–271
eDRX (extended discontinues reception), 133
effective area, radio frequency, 30
Egress Peering Engineering (EPE), 217–218, 367–368
EIR (Equipment Identity Register), 59
EKS (Elastic Kubernetes Service), 184–185
Elastic Kubernetes Service (EKS), 184–185
electric tilt, 145
E-Line (Ethernet Line) services, 277–279
eMBB (Enhanced Mobile Broadband), 131–132, 258
emerging trends, 120–121. See also SR (Segment Routing)
EMBB (Enhanced Mobile Broadband), 131–132
mMTC (Massive Machine-Type Communications), 133
URLLC (Ultra-Reliable Low-Latency Communications), 132–133
5G technology enablers, 126–130
automation, 129
IMT-2020 specification, 126
mapping to market trends, 129
network slicing. See network slicing
NGMN (Next Generation Mobile Network), 126–130
RAN and mobile core decomposition, 127–128
spectrum and advanced antenna features, 127
content creation and utilization, 122
dedicated services and private networks, 124–125
IoT (Internet of Things), 124
on-demand, rapid service deployment, 125
real-time and immersive experiences, 122–123
universal connectivity and reliability, 123–124
interfaces, 81
QoS (quality of service), 95
End.DT4 behavior, 246
End.DT6 behavior, 246
End.DX2 behavior, 246
End.DX4 behavior, 246
End.DX6 behavior, 246
en-gNB, 153
Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE), 17
Enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB), 131–132, 258
environmental considerations, for network devices, 355–357
EoMPLS (Ethernet over MPLS), 110–111, 275–276, 277
EPC (Evolved Packet Core), 25, 79–83, 152
architecture, 79
definition of, 78
HSS (Home Subscriber Server), 82–83
MME (Mobility Management Entity), 80–81
PCRF (Policy Charging and Rule Function), 82
PGW (PDN Gateway), 82
SGW (Serving Gateway), 81
EPE (Egress Peering Engineering), 217–218, 366
ePipe, 277
EPS (Evolved Packet System), 77
EPS bearer, 85
E-RAB (E-UTRAN radio access bearer), 85–87
network attach process, 84
QoS (quality of service), 87
USIM (Universal Subscriber Identity Module), 84–85
definition of, 77
EPC (Evolved Packet Core), 79–83
architecture, 79
definition of, 78
HSS (Home Subscriber Server), 82–83
MME (Mobility Management Entity), 80–81
PCRF (Policy Charging and Rule Function), 82
PGW (PDN Gateway), 82
SGW (Serving Gateway), 81
goals of, 77
LTE (Long Term Evolution). See E-UTRAN (Evolved UTRAN)
Rx interface, 89
SAE (System Architecture Evolution), 77, 78
Equal Cost Multi-Path (ECMP), 217, 240–241, 262–263
Equinix, 352
Equipment Identity Register (EIR), 59
E-RAB (E-UTRAN radio access bearer), 85–87
Ericsson, 38
ERPS (Ethernet Ring Protection Switching), 104
ESI label extended community, 291
ESMC (Ethernet Synchronization Messaging Channel), 318
Ethernet. See also EVPN (Ethernet VPN)
applicability to xHaul domains, 345–346
EAPS (Ethernet Automatic Protection Switching), 104
E-Line (Ethernet Line) services, 50, 277–279, 337
EoMPLS (Ethernet over MPLS), 110–111, 275–276, 277
ERPS (Ethernet Ring Protection Switching), 104
ESMC (Ethernet Synchronization Messaging Channel), 318
Ethernet Auto-Discovery (A-D) Route, 290–291
E-Tree (Ethernet Tree), 50, 281–282
MEF (Metro Ethernet Forum) services, 49–51
RoE (Radio over Ethernet), 195–197, 337
SyncE (Synchronous Ethernet), 312–313, 316–318
xHaul networks, 349
E-Tree (Ethernet Tree), 50, 281–282
ETSI (European Telecommunication Standards Institute), 14
ETWS (Earthquake and Tsunami Warning System), 94
European Telecommunication Standards Institute (ETSI), 14
E-UTRAN (Evolved UTRAN), 78, 89–100
definition of, 77
interfaces, 81
QoS (quality of service), 95
E-RAB (E-UTRAN radio access bearer), 85–87
history of, 78
ICIC (inter-cell interference coordination), 94, 95–97
introduction of, 25
ISI (inter-symbol interference), 90–93
LTE-A (LTE-Advanced), 77
MIMO (multiple-input multiple-output), 37, 97–98
OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiple Access), 90–94
definition of, 90
orthogonal subcarriers in, 90–91
subcarrier allocation to different subscribers, 93
VoLTE (Voice over LTE), 88
event messages, PTP (Precision Time Protocol), 319
evolved CPRI (eCPRI), 337, 339
Evolved Node. See eNB (Evolved Node)
Evolved Packet Core. See EPC (Evolved Packet Core)
Evolved Packet Data Gateway (ePDG), 99
Evolved Packet System. See EPS (Evolved Packet System)
Evolved UTRAN. See E-UTRAN (Evolved UTRAN)
EVPN (Ethernet VPN), 263–265, 275–276, 287–294
goals of, 337
Ethernet Auto-Discovery (A-D) Route, 290–291
Ethernet segment route, 291–292
Inclusive Multicast Ethernet Tag route, 292–293
IP Prefix Advertisement route, 293
MAC/IP Advertisement Route, 289–290
VPWS (virtual private wire service), 293–294
extended discontinues reception (eDRX), 133
Extended IP Reachability TLV, 220
Extended Link Opaque LSA, 222
Extended Prefix Opaque LSA, 222
eXtensible Markup Language (XML), 378
F
F1 Control Plane Interface (F1-C), 370
F1 User Plane Interface (F1-U), 370
F1-Control Plane (F1-CP), 162
F1-User Plane (F1-UP), 162
fabric, data center, 46, 252. See also Clos architecture
FAD (Flexible Algorithm Definition), 235
FAR (Forwarding Action Rule), 193
far-edge DCs (data centers), 132–133, 159, 258, 263, 270–271, 344–345
fat-tree design, 253
FDD (Frequency Division Duplex), 33–35, 307
FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access), 18
FFR (fractional frequency reuse), 95–97
FHGW (Fronthaul Gateway), 197–198, 337
FIB (forwarding information base), 212–213
fiber, propagation delay over, 113
field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), 268
Fixed Wireless Access (FWA), 123–124
Flex-Algo (Flexible Algorithm), 234, 235–238
Flexible Algorithm Definition (FAD), 235
flexible algorithms, 220
flood-and-learn approach, 288, 297
Follow_Up PTP messages, 320–323
forward link, 31
Forwarding Action Rule (FAR), 193
forwarding information base (FIB), 212–213
FPGAs (field-programmable gate arrays), 268
FQDNs (fully qualified domain names), 64
fractional frequency reuse (FFR), 95–97
Frame Relay, 276
Frequency Division Duplex (FDD), 33–35, 307
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA), 18
frequency spectrum, 3
frequency synchronization, 304–306
Fronthaul Gateway (FHGW), 197–198, 337
fronthaul networks, 115. See also synchronization; timing
bandwidth considerations, 339–340
challenges of, 337
lower-layer splits, 341
WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing), 337–339
hub site routers, 115
packet-based fronthaul transport networks, 161
FRR (Fast Reroute), 103, 104–105, 238
fully qualified domain names (FQDNs), 64
functional splits (RAN), 163–169
5G protocols stack overview, 163
cloud and orchestration, 176–177
definition of, 163
eCPRI
open versus vendor-specific, 174–175
impact on fronthaul network design, 341
NAS (Non-Access Stratum), 164–165
RIC (RAN Intelligent Controller), 175–176
single versus dual split architecture, 165–167
split options, 165–167, 168–169, 178–179
functions, network. See NFs (Network Functions)
G
G.2860 standard, 327
G.8032 standard, 104
G.8261 standard, 316
G.8262 standard, 316
G.8265 standard, 324
G.8272 standard, 324
G.8273.2 standard, 328
G.8275 standard, 324
G.8275.1 standard, 329
G.8275.2 standard, 329
Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN), 17, 63–64, 82
Gateway Mobile Location Center (GLMC), 190–191
GBR (guaranteed bitrate), 354
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), 16
GRX (GPRS roaming exchange), 69–70
GSN Enhancements in 3G Core, 69–70
GTP (GPRS Tunneling Protocol), 67–69
Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE), 222, 297–298
GENEVE (Generic Network Virtualization Encapsulation), 297–298
GGSN (Gateway GPRS Support Node), 17, 63–64, 82
Gigabit PON (GPON), 48
GKE (Google Kubernetes Engine), 184–185
GLMC (Gateway Mobile Location Center), 190–191
Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS), 310, 312, 313–314
global navigation satellite systems (GNSSs), 310
Global Positioning System (GPS), 310, 312, 313–314
global routing tables, 284
global SIDs (segment IDs), 216
Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM), 10, 11, 14
GLONASS (Global Navigation Satellite System), 310, 312, 313–314
gNB-CU-CP (control plane), 162
gNB-CU-UP (user plane), 162
gNMI (Google Network Management Interface), 378
GNSS antenna installation, 314–315
GNSSs (global navigation satellite systems), 310. See also timing
Anthos, 259
GKE (Google Kubernetes Engine), 184–185
gNMI (Google Network Management Interface), 378
gRPC (Google Remote Procedure Call), 378
GPON (Gigabit PON), 48
GPRS (General Packet Radio Service), 16
GRX (GPRS roaming exchange), 17, 69–70
GSN (GPRS support nodes), 16, 69–70
GTP (GPRS Tunneling Protocol), 67–69, 81, 187
GPS (Global Positioning System), 310, 312, 313–314
GPUs (graphics processing units), 270–271
graphics processing units (GPU), 270–271
GRE (Generic Routing Encapsulation), 222, 297–298
groups, NUMA (non-uniform memory access), 269
gRPC (Google Remote Procedure Call), 378
GRX (GPRS roaming exchange), 17, 70–71
GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications), 10, 11, 14
GSN (GPRS support nodes), 16, 69–70
GTP (GPRS Tunneling Protocol), 67–69, 81, 187
guaranteed bitrate (GBR), 354
guard interval, 34
Gx interface, 82
Gy interface, 82
H
HA (high availability), 238–239
hard network slicing, 234
Headend Encapsulation (H.Encaps) behavior, 244
HeNB (home eNodeB), 41
H.Encaps behavior, 244
H.Encaps.L2 behavior, 244
H.Encaps.L2.Red behavior, 244
H.Encaps.Red behavior, 244
Hertz (Hz), 29
Hertz, Heinrich, 29
Hertzian waves, 29
heterogenous networks (HetNet), 41
Hierarchical VPLS (H-VPLS), 282–284
high availability (HA), 238–239
High Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA), 24, 25
High Speed Packet Access (HSPA), 24, 97
High Speed Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA), 25
Higher Layer Split (HLS), 167–168
history of mobile networks
1G network architectures, 5–10
cellular versus mobile networks, 7–8
limitations of, 10
mobile transport in, 8
MSC (Mobile Switching Center), 8–10
2G network architectures, 10–14
technology summary of, 14
2.5G network architectures, 15–17
3G network architectures, 17–26
3GPP standardization efforts, 18, 24–26
microdiversity/macrodiversity in, 21
technology summary of, 26
pre-cellular mobile networks, 2–5
HLR (Home Location Register), 5, 8, 57, 189
HLS (Higher Layer Split), 167–168
HNB (home NodeB), 41
HNI (Home Network Identity), 56
holdover mode, 316
home eNodeB (HeNB), 41
Home Location Register (HLR), 5, 8, 57, 189
Home Network Identity (HNI), 56
home NodeB (HNB), 39
hop by hop, 317
HSDPA (High Speed Downlink Packet Access), 24
HSPA (High Speed Packet Access), 24, 25
HSPA+ (High Speed Packet Access) networks, 97
HSS (Home Subscriber Server), 82–83, 189
HSUPA (High Speed Uplink Packet Access), 25
HT (HyperThreading), 270
hub pseudowire, 111
hub sites, C-RAN, 101
H-VPLS (Hierarchical VPLS), 282–284
hybrid beamforming, 147
hybrid SDN (software-defined networking), 229
HyperThreading (HT), 270
Hz (Hertz), 29
I
IAB (Integrated Access Backhaul), 200
ICCID (Integrated Circuit Card Identifier), 56
ICIC (inter-cell interference coordination), 94–95
ideal backhaul, 151
identifiers, for mobile networks, 11, 55–57
IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers). See also PTP (Precision Time Protocol)
802.1BA, 344
802.1CM, 344
802.11ah, 133
1914.1 standard, 161
TSN (Time Sensitive Networking), 344, 353–354
IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force). See also RFCs (requests for comments)
Advertising Segment Routing Policies in BGP, 227
Loop Avoidance Using Segment Routing, 241
iFFT (inverse fast Fourier transform), 91–92
IGPs (Interior Gateway Protocols), 105, 213, 219
IGP-only MPLS (multiprotocol label switching), 106–111
IGP-Prefix segment, 217
multidomain design, 362
IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identity), 56
immersive experiences, emerging trends and expectations for, 122–123
Improved Mobile Telephone Service (IMTS), 4
IMS (IP Multimedia Subsystem), 25, 77, 83, 88
IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber Identity), 56, 192
IMT-2020 specification, 126
IMTS (Improved Mobile Telephone Service), 4
Inclusive Multicast Ethernet Tag route, 292–293
Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS), 310
ingress protection (IP) ratings, 357
in-phase components, 169
Integrated Access Backhaul (IAB), 200
Integrated Circuit Card Identifier (ICCID), 56
Integrated Routing and Bridging (IRB), 293
inter-autonomous system (inter-AS), 263
inter-cell interference coordination (ICIC), 94–95, 311
inter-DC connectivity, 265
interfaces, see individual interfaces
interference, 29
Interim Standard 95 (IS-95), 10
Interior Gateway Protocols. See IGPs (Interior Gateway Protocols)
Intermediate System to Intermediate System (ISIS), 105–106, 219, 363–365
International Bureau of Weights and Measures, 309
International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI), 56
International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI), 56, 192
International Mobile Telecommunication-Advanced (IMT-Advanced), 77
International Telecommunication Union. See ITU (International Telecommunication Union)
Internet Engineering Task Force. See IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force)
Internet of Things. See IoT (Internet of Things)
inter-symbol interference. See ISI (inter-symbol interference)
interworking function (IWF), 197
Intra-MAC Layer Split, 166
Intra-PHY Layer Split, 166
Intra-RLC Layer Split, 167
inverse fast Fourier transform (iFFT), 91–92
IoT (Internet of Things)
emerging trends and expectations for, 124
NB-IoT (Narrowband IoT), 133
IP (ingress protection) ratings, 357
IP (Internet Protocol). See also EPC (Evolved Packet Core)
in 3G network architectures, 22
GRX (GPRS roaming exchange) and, 69–70
IMS (IP Multimedia Subsystem), 25, 77, 83, 88
IP-FRR (IP Fast Reroute), 238–239
SRv6 (Segment Routing for IPv6), 242–247
IPX (IP eXchange), 71
Prefix Advertisement route, 293
VoIP (Voice over IP), 79
iPhone, 120
iPreboot eXecution Environment (iPXE), 378
IPX (IP eXchange), 71
iPXE (iPreboot eXecution Environment), 378
IQ data, 169
IRB (Integrated Routing and Bridging), 293
IRNSS (Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System), 310
IS-95 (Interim Standard 95), 10
ISI (inter-symbol interference), 90–93
ISIS (Intermediate System to Intermediate System), 105–106, 219, 363–365
ITU (International Telecommunication Union), 77
IMT-2020 specification, 126
ITU-T, 324
G.2860 standard, 327
G.8032 standard, 104
G.8261 standard, 316
G.8262 standard, 316
G.8265 standard, 324
G.8272 standard, 324
G.8273.2 standard, 328
G.8275 standard, 324
G.8275.1 standard, 329
G.8275.2 standard, 329
NGMN (Next Generation Mobile Network), 127
IWF (interworking function), 197
J
Japan
JTACS (Japan TACS), 6
QZSS (Quasi-Zenith Satellite System), 310
JavaScript Object Notion (JSON), 192, 378
Jio, 173
joint transmission, 151
Juniper, 278
Apstra System, 267
NorthStar, 267
Northstar, 232
VPLS Routing Instance, 282
K
kilocycles (kc), 29
Kompella, Kireeti, 278
L
L2VPNs (Layer 2 VPNs), 276–284
multipoint L2VPN services, 280–284
point-to-point L2VPN services, 277–279
in pre-4G mobile networks, 276
L3 Cross-Connect action, 245–246
L3VPNs (Layer 3 VPNs), 284–287
Label Distribution Protocol (LDP), 213, 278–279
label switched path (LSP), 103, 105–106, 212–213, 222–223, 361
Labeled Unicast (BGP-LU), 105–106, 263
LAC (Location Area Code), 56
LAI (Location Area Identifier), 85
lambdas, 113
latency, in fronthaul network design, 342–344
Layer 2 VPNs. See L2VPNs (Layer 2 VPNs)
layers
MBH (mobile backhaul networks), 42–44
MIMO (multiple-input multiple-output), 149–150
LDP (Label Distribution Protocol), 213, 278–279
leaf nodes, 253
LFA (Loop-Free Alternates), 238–239
Licensed Shared Access (LSA), 30
LLC (Logical Link Control Layer), 67
LLQ (Low Latency Queuing), 353
LLS (Lower Layer Split), 167–168, 341
LMF (Location Management Function), 190–191
LMSI (Local Mobile Station Identify), 56
Local Mobile Station Identify (LMSI), 56
local SIDs (segment IDs), 216
Location Area Code (LAC), 56
Location Area Identifier (LAI), 56, 85
Location Management Function (LMF), 190–191
Logical Link Control Layer (LLC), 67
logical slices, 235
logs, syslog, 330
Long Range (LoRa), 133
Long Term Evolution. See E-UTRAN (Evolved UTRAN)
Loop Avoidance Using Segment Routing (IETF), 241
Loop-Free Alternates (LFA), 238–239
loops
LFA (Loop-Free Alternates), 238–239
loop-avoidance mechanism, 241–242, 282
transient, 241
Low Latency Queuing (LLQ), 353
low-band frequencies, 31
Lower Layer Split (LLS), 167–168, 341
LPWAN (low-power wide area network), 133
LSA (Licensed Shared Access), 30
Extended Link Opaque LSA, 222
Extended Prefix Opaque LSA, 222
Router Information Opaque LSA, 222
Type 10 Opaque LSAs, 222
LSP (label switched path), 103, 105–106, 212–213, 222–223, 361
LTE (Long Term Evolution). See E-UTRAN (Evolved UTRAN)
LTE Machine-Type Communications (LTE-MTC), 133
LTE-A (LTE-Advanced), 77
M
MAC (Media Access Control), 163–165
MAC Mobility extended community, 290
machine learning (ML), 380
machine-to-machine communications, 124
MAC/IP Advertisement Route, 289–290
MAC-PHY Layer Split, 166
macrodiversity, 21
main DCs (data centers), 159
management plane (M-Plane), 298, 335, 370
MANO (management and orchestration), 184–185
market trends, mapping 5G technology enablers to, 129
Martini, Luca, 278
massive MAC withdrawal, 290
Massive Machine-Type Communications (mMTC), 133
massive MIMO (mMIMO), 98, 148–150, 339
master nodes (MNs), 153
master ports, 319
maximum absolute time error (max |TE|), 327
Maximum SID Depth (MSD), 220
Maximum Transmission Units (MTUs), 371–372
MBH (mobile backhaul networks), 41–51, 102–111, 202, 212. See also MPLS (multiprotocol label switching); transport
backhaul transport services, 110–111
cell site connectivity models, 44–51
cable, 51
Clos fabric, 46
DSL (digital subscriber line), 51, 302
importance of, 44
MEF (Metro Ethernet Forum) services, 49–51
PONs (passive optical networks), 47–48, 302
satellite, 51
definition of, 13
enabling technologies for, 103
network characteristics, 159–160
non-MPLS, IP-only backhaul, 105–111
PE (Provider Edge) routers, 109–110
pseudowire, 111
MCNs (mobile communication networks), 28, 76
3GPP releases. See 3GPP (3rd Generation Partnership Project) releases
4G, 78
5G mobile requirements, determination of, 380–382
cloud deployments. See cloud deployments; cloud-native 5G core
data centers. See DCs (data centers)
design of. See design, network
emerging trends and expectations, 122
5G technology enablers, 126–130
content creation and utilization, 122
dedicated services and private networks, 124–125
IoT (Internet of Things), 124
on-demand, rapid service deployment, 125
real-time and immersive experiences, 122–123
universal connectivity and reliability, 123–124
history of
1G network architectures, 5–10
2G network architectures, 10–14
2.5G network architectures, 15–17
3G network architectures, 17–26
pre-cellular mobile networks, 2–5
mobile backhaul networks. See MBH (mobile backhaul networks)
mobile core. See mobile core
OBSAI (Open Base Station Architecture Initiative), 102
radio access network. See RANs (radio access networks)
synchronization in. See synchronization
transport. See transport
xHaul. See xHaul
mean of time error, 327
meanPathDelay value, 321
MEC (Multi-access Edge Compute), 180–181, 259
Media Access Control (MAC), 163–165
Media Gateway Control Protocol. See MGCP (Media Gateway Control Protocol)
MEF (Metro Ethernet Forum), 49–51, 282
MEF (Metro Ethernet Forum) services, 49–51
megacycles (mc), 29
messages
event, 319
syslog, 330
Metro Ethernet Forum (MEF), 49–51, 282
Metro Ethernet services, 50
MGCP (Media Gateway Control Protocol), 88
microdiversity, 21
microloop avoidance, 241
microservices architecture, 184
Microsoft
Azure Stack, 259
mid-band frequencies, 31
midhaul. See also xHaul
definition of, 159
network characteristics, 159–160
midpoints, 213
millimeter wave (mmWave) frequencies, 31–32
MIMO (multiple-input multiple-output), 37, 97–98, 121, 148. See also mMIMO (massive MIMO)
ML (machine learning), 380
MME (Mobility Management Entity), 80–81, 125
mMIMO (massive MIMO), 98, 148–150, 339
mMTC (Massive Machine-Type Communications), 133
MNs (master nodes), 153
mobile backhaul networks. See MBH (mobile backhaul networks)
mobile communication networks. See MCNs (mobile communication networks)
in 1G network architectures, 8–10
in 2G network architectures, 13–14
in 3G network architectures, 22–24
circuit switched core, 24, 54–61
definition of, 54
definition of, 28
geographical deployment layout of, 52–54
overview of, 334
packet switched core, 24, 61–71
APNs (access point names), 64–66
evolution of, 61
GGSN (Gateway GPRS Support Node), 17, 63–64
GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) interfaces, 66–67
GRX (GPRS roaming exchange), 70–71
GSN Enhancements in 3G Core, 69–70
GTP (GPRS Tunneling Protocol), 67–69
packet switched data, 63
PDP (Packet Data Protocol) context, 63–64
SGSN (Serving GPRS Support Node), 17, 63–64
Mobile Station International Subscriber Directory Number (MSISDN), 56
Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN), 56
Mobile Switching Center (MSC), 5, 8–10
Mobile Telephone Service (MTS), 3–5
Mobility Management Entity (MME), 80–81, 125
modern L2VPN (Layer 2 VPN), 275–276
MP-BGP (Multi-Protocol BGPs), 284–285
M-plane (management plane), 170, 335, 370
MPLS (multiprotocol label switching), 103, 212
architecture and operations, 107–111
definition of, 103
Ethernet over MPLS (EoMPLS), 110–111, 275–276
MPLS-TE, 223
non-MPLS, IP-only backhaul, 105–111
Seamless MPLS, 213–214, 360, 365
MR-DC (Multi-Radio Dual Connectivity), 152–153
MSC (Mobile Switching Center), 5, 8–10
MSD (Maximum SID Depth), 220
MSISDN (Mobile Station International Subscriber Directory Number), 56
MSRN (Mobile Station Roaming Number), 56
MST (Multiple Spanning Tree), 103–104
MTS (Mobile Telephone Service), 3–5
MTUs (Maximum Transmission Units), 371–372
Multi-access Edge Compute (MEC), 180–181, 259
multidomain IGP (Interior Gateway Protocol), 362
multihoming
All-Active, 290
Single-Active, 291
multi-level master-slave clock hierarchy, 319
multiple-input multiple-output. See MIMO (multiple-input multiple-output)
multipoint services, 50, 280–284
Multi-Protocol BGPs (MP-BGP), 284–285
multiprotocol label switching. See MPLS (multiprotocol label switching)
multi-radio connectivity, 150–153
N
N3 reference interface, 187
N3IWF (Non-3GPP InterWorking Function), 191
N4 interface, 193
NAI (Network Access Identifier), 192
naming conventions, data center, 159–160
Narrowband IoT (NB-IoT), 133
NAS (Non-Access Stratum), 164–165
national data centers, 159
NB-IoT (Narrowband IoT), 133
near real-time (near-RT) RIC, 175–176
NEC, 373
NEF (Network Exposure Function), 190
Netconf, 378
Netflix, 121
NetFlow, 379
Network Access Identifier (NAI), 192
network attach process, 84
Network Data Analytics Function (NWDAF), 190
Network Exposure Function (NEF), 190
Network Function Virtualization Infrastructure (NFVI), 173
Network Functions. See NFs (Network Functions)
Network Functions Virtualization (NFV), 156, 257, 337
Network Layer Reachability Information (NLRI), 105–106
Network Repository Function (NRF), 190
Network Services Orchestrator (NSO), 184–185, 267
Network Slice Admission Control Function (NSACF), 190
network slice instances (NSIs), 232–233
Network Slice Selection Function (NSSF), 190
Network Slice Specific Authentication and Authorization Function (NSSAAF), 190
network slice subnet instances (NSSIs), 232–233, 378
network slicing, 128–129, 186, 232–234, 378
hard, 234
NSACF (Network Slice Admission Control Function), 190
NSIs (network slice instances), 232–233, 378
NSSAAF ( Network Slice Specific Authentication and Authorization Function), 190
NSSF (Network Slice Selection Function), 190
NSSIs (network slice subnet instances), 232–233, 378
NSTs (Network Slicing Templates), 378
number of network slices, 234
QoS (quality of service), 232
slice managers, 233
soft, 234
toolkit, 232
Network Slicing Templates (NSTs), 378
network switching subsystem (NSS), 13
Network Time Protocol (NTP), 312–313, 330–331
Network Virtualization using Generic Routing Encapsulation (NVGRE), 297–298
networks, mobile communication. See MCNs (mobile communication networks)
New Radio. See NR (New Radio)
Next Generation Fronthaul Interface (NGFI), 161
Next Generation Mobile Network (NGMN), 127
Next Generation PON (NG-PON), 48
Next Generation RAN (NG-RAN), 161
next-generation NodeB (gNodeB), 161–162
next-hop label, 277
next-hop-self, 107
NFs (Network Functions), 187–192
definition of, 187
UPF (User Plane Function), 187–188
NFV (Network Functions Virtualization), 156, 257, 337
NFVI (Network Function Virtualization Infrastructure), 173
NG interfaces, 161
ng-eNB, 153
NGFI (Next Generation Fronthaul Interface), 161
NGMN (Next Generation Mobile Network), 127
NG-PON (Next Generation PON), 48
NG-RAN (Next Generation RAN), 161
NLRI (Network Layer Reachability Information), 105–106
NMT (Nordic Mobile Telephone), 6
NodeB, 21
nodes, 187. See also NFs (Network Functions)
Node-SID, 217
Nokia, 38
point-to-point L2VPN services, 277
NOMA (Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access), 142
Non-3GPP InterWorking Function (N3IWF), 191
Non-Access Stratum (NAS), 164–165
non-end-of-segment nodes, 245
non-GBR (non-guaranteed bitrate), 354
non-guaranteed bitrate (non-GBR), 354
non-MPLS, IP-only backhaul, 105–111
Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA), 142
non-real-time (non-RT) RIC, 175–176
non-real-time functions, 158, 165
non-uniform memory access (NUMA), 269–270
Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT), 6
north-south traffic, 253
NPN. See Private 5G networks
active versus passive antennas, 142–143
carrier aggregation, 93–94, 140–142
definition of, 139
DSS (dynamic spectrum sharing), 154–155
mMIMO (massive MIMO), 98, 148–150, 339
multi-radio connectivity, 150–153
NOMA (Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access), 142
TPs (transmission points), 151–153
Vehicle-to-Everything communication, 155
NRF (Network Repository Function), 190
NSACF (Network Slice Admission Control Function), 190
NSIs (network slice instances), 232–233, 378
NSO (Network Services Orchestrator), 184–185, 267
NSS (network switching subsystem), 13
NSSAAF (Network Slice Specific Authentication and Authorization Function), 190
NSSF (Network Slice Selection Function), 190
NSSIs (network slice subnet instances), 232–233, 378
NSTs (Network Slicing Templates), 378
NTP (Network Time Protocol), 312–313, 330–331
null-forming, 143
NUMA (non-uniform memory access), 269–270
NVGRE (Network Virtualization using Generic Routing Encapsulation), 297–298
NWDAF (Network Data Analytics Function), 190
O
OAM Workgroup, 177
OBSAI (Open Base Station Architecture Initiative), 102
OC (ordinary clock), 323–324, 325, 327–329
O-CU (Open Central Unit), 259
OCXOs (oven-controlled crystal oscillators), 309
ODN (On-Demand Next Hop), 227–228
O-DU (Open DU), 174
OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing), 139
OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiple Access), 89, 90–94, 307
definition of, 90
orthogonal subcarriers in, 90–91
off-premises (off-prem) DCs, 252
offsetFromMaster value, 321–323
OLT (optical line termination), 47–48
Omega, 184
On-Demand Next Hop (ODN), 227–228
on-demand deployment, 125
on-premises (on-prem) DCs, 251
ONT (optical network termination), 47–48
ONU (optical network unit), 47–48
Open Base Station Architecture Initiative (OBSAI), 102
Open Central Unit (O-CU), 259
Open DU (O-DU), 174
Open Fronthaul Gateway, 197–198
Open Fronthaul Interfaces Group, 174
Open RAN Alliance. See O-RAN Alliance
Open RU (O-RU), 174
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF), 105–106, 219, 363–365
Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) model, 212–213
OpenRAN, 173
OpenStack, 257
OPEX (operational expense), 338
optical distribution network (ODN), 47
optical fiber-based xHaul transport, 199–200
optical line termination (OLT), 47–48
optical network termination (ONT), 47–48
optical network unit (ONU), 47–48
optics
optimization, data center, 267–271
benefits of, 268
O-RAN Alliance, 127, 276, 293, 294
architecture and use cases, 173
definition of, 173
FHGW (Fronthaul Gateway), 337
open fronthaul nodes and interfaces, 174–175
open versus vendor-specific eCPRI, 175
O-RAN Packet Switched xHaul Architecture, 298
Synchronization Architecture and Solution Specification, 325
terminology, 173
xHaul Packet Switched Architectures and Solutions Specification, 202, 234
orchestration
RAN (radio access network), 176–177
ordinary clock (OC), 323–324, 325, 327–329
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM), 139
Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiple Access. See OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiple Access)
orthogonality, 90
O-RU (Open RU), 174
oscillators, 305, 307, 308–309
OSI (Open Systems Interconnect) model, 212–213
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First), 105–106, 219, 363–365
OTT (over-the-top) services, 251
OTV (Overlay Transport Virtualization), 297–298
oven-controlled crystal oscillators (OCXOs), 309
overlay technologies. See transport
Overlay Transport Virtualization (OTV), 297–298
overload indicators, 96
over-the-top (OTT) services, 251
P
packages, CPU, 269
Packet Control Units (PCUs), 17
packet core, 24
Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP), 163–165, 167
packet data network (PDN), 16
Packet Data Protocol (PDP), 63–64
Packet Detection Rule (PDR), 193
packet forwarding
PFCP (Packet Forwarding Control Protocol), 193
SR-TE (Segment Routing Traffic Engineering), 224–225
Packet Loss and Delay Measurement for MPLS Networks, 236
packet switched core, 24, 61–71
APNs (access point names), 64–66
evolution of, 61
GGSN (Gateway GPRS Support Node), 17, 63–64
GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) interfaces, 66–67
GRX (GPRS roaming exchange), 70–71
GSN Enhancements in 3G Core, 69–70
GTP (GPRS Tunneling Protocol), 67–69
packet switched data, 63
PDP (Packet Data Protocol) context, 63–64
SGSN (Serving GPRS Support Node), 17, 63–64
packet switched data, 63
packet-based fronthaul transport networks, 161
packetized fronthaul networks, 115–116, 303–304, 337–339
Partial Timing Support (PTS), 329
parts per billion (PPB), 306
parts per million (PPM), 306
passive optical networks (PONs), 47–48, 199–200, 302, 345–346
path asymmetry, 323
path computation client (PCC), 230
Path Computation Element Communication Protocol (PCEP), 231, 361, 367
path computation element (PCE), 230, 366, 367–368
path symmetry, 323
PBB (provider backbone bridges), 261–262
PBR (policy-based routing), 214–215
PCC (policy and charging control), 77
PCE (path computation element), 230, 366, 367–368
PCEP (Path Computation Element Communication Protocol), 230, 231, 361, 367
PCF (Policy Control Function), 189–190
PCRF (Policy Charging and Rule Function), 82, 189–190
PDCP (Packet Data Convergence Protocol), 163–165, 167
PDN (packet data network), 16
PDN Gateway (PGW), 82
PDP (Packet Data Protocol), 63–64
PDR (Packet Detection Rule), 193
PE (provider edge) routers, 109–110, 277, 294
penultimate hop popping (PHP), 108, 224, 277
Penultimate Segment Pop (PSP), 244
per-algo virtual topology, 235
per-CE L3VPN labels, 246
per-hop behaviors (PHBs), 354
Per-VLAN Spanning Tree (PVST), 103–104
per-VRF label allocation, 246
PFCP (Packet Forwarding Control Protocol), 193
PGW (PDN Gateway), 82
phase synchronization, 304–306, 307, 311–313
PHBs (per-hop behaviors), 354
PHP (penultimate hop popping), 108, 224, 277
PHY-RF Layer Split, 166
physical topology, xHaul
Ethernet, 349
pinning, CPU, 270
planar arrays, 146
planning for scale, 360
PLMN (Public Land Mobile Network), 56
point-to-multipoint architecture, 281
point-to-point services
Ethernet Line (E-Line) services, 50
polarization, 148
policies
PBR (policy-based routing), 214–215
PCF (Policy Control Function), 189–190
PCRF (Policy Charging and Rule Function), 82, 189–190
policy and charging control. See PCC (policy and charging control)
SR (Segment Routing), 217, 225–226
PONs (passive optical networks), 47–48, 199–200, 302, 345–346
ports
master, 319
slave, 319
power consumption, 133, 255–256
power saving mode (PSM), 133
Power Usage Effectiveness (PUE), 256
PPB (parts per billion), 306
PPM (parts per million), 306
PQ (Priority Queuing), 353–354
PRC (primary reference clock), 313–314, 317
pre-cellular mobile networks, 2–5
Precision Time Protocol. See PTP (Precision Time Protocol)
prefixes, cyclic, 91
Prefix-SID, 217
primary reference clock (PRC), 313–314, 317
primary reference timing clock (PRTC), 313–314
primary-selected PE, 294
Priority Queuing (PQ), 353–354
private clouds, 185
private networks, 124–125, 133–134
profiles, PTP (Precision Time Protocol), 328–330
propagation
propagation delay over fiber, 113
of reference timing signal, 313–314
protocol data unit session (PDU session), 187
provider backbone bridges (PBB), 261–262
provider edge (PE) routers, 109–110, 277, 294
PRTC (primary reference timing clock), 313–314
pseudowire, 111, 277–279. See also point-to-point services
backup, 279
PWE3 (Pseudo-Wire Emulation Edge-to-Edge), 277–279
PSM (power saving mode), 133
PSP (Penultimate Segment Pop), 244
PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network), 3
PTP (Precision Time Protocol), 312–313, 318–330
BMCA (Best Master Clock Algorithm), 320–323
clocks
definition of, 318
versions compatibility, 319
PTS (Partial Timing Support), 329
public cloud, 177, 185, 374–376
Public Data Network (PDN) interface, 180
Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN), 56
Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), 3
PUE (Power Usage Effectiveness), 256
puncturing, 140
Q
QAM (quadrature amplitude modulation), 90, 91–92
QCI (QoS class identifier), 87
QER (QoS Enforcement Rule), 193
QFI (QoS Flow Identifier), 193
QL (Quality Level), 318
QoE (quality of experience), 87
QoS (quality of service), 87
in 3G network architectures, 22
eNB (Evolved Node), 95
EPS (Evolved Packet System), 77, 85
MPLS (multiprotocol label switching), 212–213
network slicing, 232
QCI (QoS class identifier), 87
QER (QoS Enforcement Rule), 193
QFI ( QoS Flow Identifier), 193
vRAN (Virtual RAN) deployment, 353
sample QoS schema, 356
TSN (Time Sensitive Networking), 344, 353–354
QPSK (Quadrature Phase-Shift Keying), 20
quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM), 90, 91–92
quadrature components, 169
Quadrature Phase-Shift Keying (QPSK), 20
Quality Level (QL), 318
Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS), 310
queueing
low latency, 353
QZSS (Quasi-Zenith Satellite System), 310
R
RAB (radio access bearer), 85
default bearer, 85
DRB (data radio bearer), 85
E-RAB (E-UTRAN radio access bearer), 85–87
SRB (signaling radio bearer), 85
Radio Access Network Application Protocol (RANAP), 69–70
radio access networks. See RANs (radio access networks)
radio frequency. See RF (radio frequency)
Radio Link Control (RLC), 67, 163–165, 166
Radio Link Control/Medium Access Control (RLC/MAC), 67
Radio Network Controller (RNC), 21, 80
Radio over Ethernet (RoE), 115, 195–197, 337
Radio Resource Control (RRC), 163–165, 167
radio waves, 29
rake receivers, 21
RAM (random-access memory), 269
(R)AN by 3GPP, 191
RANAP (Radio Access Network Application Protocol), 69–70
random-access memory (RAM), 269
RANs (radio access networks), 13, 18, 28–41, 89–102, 138–179, 212. See also O-RAN Alliance
in 1G network architectures, 6–7
in 2G network architectures, 10–11
in 3G network architectures, 18–21
base station terminology, 39
ownership of, 39
RRH (remote radio head), 37–38
C-RAN (Centralized-RAN), 41, 100–101, 127, 156–157
CU (centralized unit), 275
data centers. See DCs (data centers)
decomposition, 100–101, 127–128, 156, 163–169
definition of, 28
D-RAN (Distributed-RAN), 100–101
E-UTRAN (Evolved UTRAN), 78, 89–100
eNB (Evolved Node), 80–81, 94–95
E-RAB (E-UTRAN radio access bearer), 85–87
ICIC (inter-cell interference coordination), 94, 95–97
ISI (inter-symbol interference), 90–93
MIMO (multiple-input multiple-output), 37, 97–98
OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiple Access), 90–94
5G protocols stack overview, 163
cloud and orchestration, 176–177
definition of, 163
impact on fronthaul network design, 341
NAS (Non-Access Stratum), 164–165
RIC (RAN Intelligent Controller), 175–176
single versus dual split architecture, 165–167
split options, 165–167, 168–169, 178–179
importance of, 138
active versus passive antennas, 142–143
definition of, 139
DSS (dynamic spectrum sharing), 154–155
mMIMO (massive MIMO), 98, 148–150, 339
multi-radio connectivity, 150–153
NOMA (Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access), 142
TPs (transmission points), 151–153
Vehicle-to-Everything communication, 155
overview of, 335
RF (radio frequency)
cell splitting and sectoring, 35–36
frequency band, 31
frequency ranges and capacity, 31–33
interference, 29
RF chain, 145
RF duplexing mechanisms, 33–35
spatial diversity, 37
TDD (Time Division Duplex), 33–35
units of, 29
RICs (RAN intelligent controllers), 175–176, 377
architecture, 158
data center naming conventions, 159–160
IEEE 1914.1 standards, 161
Rapid Ring Protection Protocol (RRPP), 104
Rapid Spanning Tree (RST), 103–104
rApps, 176
RD (Route Distinguisher), 284–287
real-time and immersive experiences, emerging trends and expectations for, 122–123
Real-Time Protocol (RTP), 88
reciprocity, channel, 35
RedHat
Ansible Automation Platform, 184–185
reference clocks, 310
reference timing signal, acquisition of, 313–314
regional data centers, 159
registration
Reliance Jio, 44
remote radio head (RRH), 37–38
remote radio unit (RRU), 37–38, 303–304
REP (Resilient Ethernet Protocol), 104
Representational State Transfer API (REST-API), 192
residence time, 324
Resilient Ethernet Protocol (REP), 104
resource blocks, 141
resource optimization, 267–271
benefits of, 268
Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP), 213, 223
REST-API (Representational State Transfer API), 192
reverse link, 31
RF (radio frequency)
cell splitting and sectoring, 35–36
FDD (Frequency Division Duplex), 33–35
frequency band, 31
frequency ranges and capacity, 31–33
interference, 29
RF chain, 145
RF duplexing mechanisms, 33
spatial diversity, 37
TDD (Time Division Duplex), 33–35
units of, 29
RFCs (requests for comments)
RFC 2328, 364
RFC 2547, 284
RFC 3985, 111
RFC 4448, 110
RFC 4762, 282
RFC 5838, 363
RFC 6624, 278
RFC 7471, 236
RFC 8214, 294
RFC 8570, 236
RFC 8604, 369
RFC 8665, 219
RFC 8666, 219
RFC 8667, 219
RFC 8669, 222
RH (Routing-Header), 243
RIB (Routing Information Base), 223
RICs (RAN intelligent controllers), 175–176, 377
ring-based xHaul networks, 347–349
RLC (Radio Link Control), 67, 163–165, 166
RLC/MAC (Radio Link Control/Medium Access Contro), 67, 166
rLFA (Remote LFA), 239
RNC (Radio Network Controller), 21, 80
Robin.io, 373
RoE (Radio over Ethernet), 115, 195–197, 337
rooted multipoint services, 50
Route Distinguisher (RD), 284–287
route engines, 356
route processors, 356
route targets (RTs), 286, 289–290
route types, EVPN (Ethernet VPN), 289–293
Ethernet Auto-Discovery (A-D) Route, 290–291
Ethernet segment route, 291–292
Inclusive Multicast Ethernet Tag route, 292–293
IP Prefix Advertisement route, 293
MAC/IP Advertisement Route, 289–290
Router Capability TLV, 220
Router Information Opaque LSA, 222
routers
CSRs (cell site routers), 279
PE (provider edge), 109–110, 277, 294
routing design simplification, 361–370
importance of, 361
multidomain IGP (Interior Gateway Protocol), 362
Routing Information Base (RIB), 223
routing tables
default, 284
global, 284
Routing-Header (RH), 243
RRC (Radio Resource Control), 163–165, 167
RRC-PDCP Layer Split, 167
RRH (remote radio head), 37–38
RRPP (Rapid Ring Protection Protocol), 104
RRU (remote radio unit), 37–38, 303–304
RST (Rapid Spanning Tree), 103–104
RSVP (Resource Reservation Protocol), 213, 223
RTP (Real-Time Protocol), 88
RTs (route targets), 286, 289–290
Rubidium atomic clocks, 310
Russia, GLONASS (Global Navigation Satellite System), 310
Rx interface, 89
S
S1 interface, 81
S1 Tunnel, 81
S1-MME interface, 81
S1-U interface, 81
S5 interface, 81
S10 interface, 81
S11 interface, 81
SA (Services and Systems Aspects), 18
SAE (System Architecture Evolution), 77, 78
SAE Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity. See S-TMSI (SAE Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity)
SAE-GW (SAE-Gateway), 82
satellite connectivity, 51, 346
SBA (Service-Based Architecture), 186
scale, planning for, 360
SC-FDMA (Single-Carrier Frequency-Division Multiple Access), 93
SCP (Service Communication Proxy), 190
scrambling codes, 20
SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol), 370
SDAP (Service Data Adaptation Protocol), 163–165
SDF (Service Data Flow), 193
SDN (software-defined networking), 228–232
application integration, 231–232
BGP (Border Gateway Protocol), 71, 105–106, 213, 222, 231, 263, 278
BGP EPE (BGP Egress Peering Engineering), 217–218
BGP NLRI (BGP Network Layer Reachability Information), 231
BGP PeerAdj-SID, 218
BGP PeerNode-SID, 218
BGP PeerSet-SID, 218
BGP-LS (BGP Link State), 231
BGP-LU (BGP Labeled Unicast), 105–106, 230–231, 263, 360
goals of, 337
hybrid, 229
PCE (path computation element), 230
PCEP (Path Computation Element Communication Protocol), 231
SD-WAN (software-defined wide area network), 125
Seamless MPLS (multiprotocol label switching), 213–214, 360, 365
secondary nodes (SNs), 153
sectors, 36
Secure Edge Protection Proxy (SEPP), 190
segment IDs (SIDs), 216–218, 365, 368–370
Segment Routing. See SR (Segment Routing)
Segment Routing Global Block (SRGB), 219–220, 368–370
Segment Routing Header (SRH), 243
Segment Routing Local Block (SRLB), 220
Segment Routing Mapped to IPv6 (SRm6), 244
Segment Routing Traffic Engineering (SR-TE), 224–225, 286, 365–366
segments
segment information, defining and distributing, 219–222
self-contained slots, 139
SEPP (Secure Edge Protection Proxy), 190
Service Communication Proxy (SCP), 190
Service Data Adaptation Protocol (SDAP), 163–165
Service Data Flow (SDF), 193
Service label, 277
service level agreements (SLAs), 374
Service Management and Orchestration Framework (SMO), 176–177
service offerings, 5G, 131–134
EMBB (Enhanced Mobile Broadband), 131–132
mMTC (Massive Machine-Type Communications), 133
URLLC (Ultra-Reliable Low-Latency Communications), 132–133
service producers, 186
service provider VLAN (S-VLAN), 261–262, 279
service providers, 186
service registries, 186
Service-Based Architecture (SBA), 186
service-based representation, 191–192
Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA), 186
Services and Systems Aspects (SA), 18
Services Management and Orchestration (SMO) framework, 176
Serving Gateway (SGW), 81, 125
Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN), 17, 63–64, 80
Session Initiation Protocol (SIP), 88
Session Management Function (SMF), 189
Seven of Nine, 184
SFD (Start of Frame Delimiter), 303
SGi interface, 82
SGSN (Serving GPRS Support Node), 17, 63–64, 80
SGW (Serving Gateway), 81, 125
sharing
DSS (dynamic spectrum sharing), 154–155
Short Message Service Function (SMSF), 190–191
Short Message Service (SMS), 14
Shortest Path First (SPF), 220
sidelinks, 155
SIDs (segment IDs), 365, 368–370
Signal to Interference and Noise Ratio (SINR), 92
signaling radio bearer (SRB), 85
Signaling System 7 (SS7), 22–24
signaling transport, 23
SIM (subscriber identity module) cards, 11, 55
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP), 379
Simultaneous Multi-Threading (SMT), 270
single versus dual split architecture, 165–167
Single-Active multihoming, 291
Single-Active redundancy, 294
Single-Carrier Frequency-Division Multiple Access (SC-FDMA), 93
single-user MIMO (SU-MIMO), 98
SINR (Signal to Interference and Noise Ratio), 92
SIP (Session Initiation Protocol), 88
SLAs (service level agreements), 374
slave ports, 319
slice managers, 233
slicing, network. See network slicing
SMARTER (Study on New Services and Markets Technology Enablers), 131
smartphones, 120
SMF (Session Management Function), 189
SMO (Services Management and Orchestration) framework, 176–177
SMS (Short Message Service), 14
SMSF (Short Message Service Function), 190–191
SNDCP (SubNetwork Dependent Convergence Protocol), 67
SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol), 379
SNs (secondary nodes), 153
SOA (Service-Oriented Architecture), 186
Soft Frequency Reuse, 96
soft handover, 21
soft network slicing, 234
software-defined networking. See SDN (software-defined networking)
software-defined wide area network (SD-WAN), 125
sounding signals, 147
Spanning Tree Protocol (STP), 103–104
spatial diversity, 37
spectrum
5G technology enablers for, 127
SPF (Shortest Path First), 220
spine (network), 253
split bearer, 153
5G protocols stack overview, 163
cloud and orchestration, 176–177
definition of, 163
eCPRI
open versus vendor-specific, 174–175
impact on fronthaul network design, 341
NAS (Non-Access Stratum), 164–165
RIC (RAN Intelligent Controller), 175–176
single versus dual split architecture, 165–167
split options, 165–167, 168–169
spoke pseudowires, 111, 280, 283
SR (Segment Routing), 200, 212, 278–279, 297, 365–366
advantages of, 214
Flex-Algo (Flexible Algorithm), 235–238
goals of, 337
network slicing, 128–129, 186, 232–234, 378
hard, 234
NSACF (Network Slice Admission Control Function), 190
NSIs (network slice instances), 232–233, 378
NSSAAF ( Network Slice Specific Authentication and Authorization Function), 190
NSSF (Network Slice Selection Function), 190
NSSIs (network slice subnet instances), 232–233, 378
NSTs (Network Slicing Templates), 378
number of network slices, 234
QoS (quality of service), 232
slice managers, 233
soft, 234
toolkit, 232
policies, 217
SDN (software-defined networking), 228–232
application integration, 231–232
BGP (Border Gateway Protocol), 105–106, 213, 217–218, 222, 230–231, 263, 278, 360
BGP-LS (BGP Link State), 230–231
goals of, 337
hybrid, 229
hybrid SDN, 229
PCE (path computation element), 230
PCEP (Path Computation Element Communication Protocol), 231
segments
segment information, defining and distributing, 219–222
SRGB (Segment Routing Global Block), 219–220, 368–370
SRH (Segment Routing Header), 243
SRLB (Segment Routing Local Block), 220
SRm6 (Segment Routing Mapped to IPv6), 244
SR-MPLS, 216
SR-TE (Segment Routing Traffic Engineering), 217, 222–228, 286, 365–366
navigation maps, 224
SID-lists, 224
traffic-steering mechanisms, 226–228
waypoints, 224
SRv6 (Segment Routing for IPv6), 200, 216, 242–247
IPv6 adoption and challenges, 242
IPv6 extension headers, 243–244
micro-segment (uSID), 244
segment information as IPv6 addresses, 242–243
segment instructions (behaviors) in, 244–246
service implementation, 246–247
TI-LFA (Topology-Independent Loop-Free Alternate) mechanism, 239–240
BFD (Bidirectional Forwarding Detection), 240–241
loop-avoidance mechanism, 241–242
SRB (signaling radio bearer), 85
SS7 (Signaling System 7), 23
Start of Frame Delimiter (SFD), 303
steering, automated, 227
S-TMSI (SAE Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity), 85
STP (Spanning Tree Protocol), 103–104, 261
Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP), 370
Strict SPF algorithm, 220
structure-agnostic line-code-aware mode (RoE), 196
structure-agnostic tunneling mode (RoE), 196
structure-aware mode (RoE), 196
Study on New Services and Markets Technology Enablers (SMARTER), 131
subcarriers, OFDMA, 90–94, 139–140
allocation to different subscribers, 93
SubNetwork Dependent Convergence Protocol (SNDCP), 67
Subscriber Concealed Identifier (SUCI), 192–193
subscriber identity module (SIM) cards, 11, 55
SUCI (Subscriber Concealed Identifier), 192–193
SU-MIMO (multi-user MIMO), 98
super-spine nodes, 253
SUPI (Subscriber Permanent Identifier), 192
S-VLAN (service provider VLAN), 261–262, 279
switching devices, stages of, 253
symmetry, path, 323
SyncE (Synchronous Ethernet), 312–313, 316–318
synchronization. See also timing
SyncE (Synchronous Ethernet), 316–318
Synchronization Architecture and Solution Specification, 325
synchronization plane (S-Plane), 298, 300
Synchronous Ethernet (SyncE), 312–313, 316–318
syslog messages, 330
T
TAC (Tracking Area Code), 85
TACS (Total Access Communication System), 6
TAI (Tracking Area Identifier), 85
Tail-F, 267
Targeted LDP (T-LDP), 278
T-BC (Telecom Boundary Clock), 325
TC (transparent clock), 324
TCH (traffic channel), 15
TCO (total cost of ownership), 338
TCXO (temperature-compensated crystal oscillators), 307, 309
TDD (Time Division Duplex), 33–35
TDM (Time Division Multiplexing), 302–303
TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access), 18
TE (traffic engineering), 104–105. See also VPNs (virtual private networks)
MPLS-TE, 223
SR-TE (Segment Routing Traffic Engineering), 217, 222–228, 286, 365–366
navigation maps, 224
SID-lists, 224
traffic-steering mechanisms, 226–228
waypoints, 224
TED (traffic engineering database), 230
Technical Specification Groups (TSGs), 18
technology enablers, 5G, 126–130
automation, 129
IMT-2020 specification, 126
network slicing. See network slicing
NGMN (Next Generation Mobile Network), 127
RAN and mobile core decomposition, 127–128
spectrum and advanced antenna features, 127
TED (traffic engineering database), 230
TEID (Tunnel Endpoint ID), 68
telco DCs (data centers), 159, 257
Telecom Boundary Clock (T-BC), 325
Telecom Grandmaster (T-GM), 325, 329
Telecom Infra Project (TIP), 127, 173
Telecom Timing Slave Clock (T-TSC), 325
Telecom Transparent Clock (T-TC), 325
Telefonica, 173
temperature-compensated crystal oscillator (TCXO), 307, 309
Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI), 56
text, cells with, 5
T-GM (Telecom Grandmasters), 329
three-dimensional beamforming, 145
TIA (Telecommunications Industry Association), 251
TID (Tunnel Identifier), 68
TI-LFA (Topology-Independent Loop-Free Alternate) mechanism, 239–240, 365
BFD (Bidirectional Forwarding Detection), 240–241
loop-avoidance mechanism, 241–242
Time Division Duplex (TDD), 33–35
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA), 11, 18
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM), 302–303
time error budget, 305
time errors, 305
Time Sensitive Networking (TSN), 344, 353–354
timer transfer, 310
timing. See also synchronization
GNSS antenna installation, 314–315
implementation in mobile networks, 311–313
NTP (Network Time Protocol), 330–331
PTP (Precision Time Protocol), 318–330
BMCA (Best Master Clock Algorithm), 320–323
definition of, 318
versions compatibility, 319
TDM (Time Division Multiplexing), 302–303
time error budget, 305
time errors, 305
time of day (ToD), 304
TIP (Telecom Infra Project), 127, 173
T-LDP (Targeted LDP), 278
TLV (type-length-value), 219
T-Mobile
5G Extended Range, 130
5G Ultra Capacity, 130
TMSI (Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity), 56
TNGF (Trusted Non-3GPP Gateway Function), 191
toolkits, network slicing, 232
top of rack (ToR) devices, 254
Topology-Independent Loop-Free Alternate mechanism. See TI-LFA (Topology-Independent Loop-Free Alternate) mechanism
ToR (top of rack) devices, 254
Total Access Communication System (TACS), 6
total cost of ownership (TCO), 338
total uplink bandwidth, 340
TPs (transmission points), 151–153
Tracking Area Code (TAC), 85
Tracking Area Identifier (TAI), 85
traffic channel (TCH), 15
traffic engineering. See TE (traffic engineering)
traffic flows, in DCs (data centers), 264–265
traffic-steering mechanisms, 226–228
transient loops, 241
transparent clock (TC), 324, 325
Transparent Interconnection of Lots of Links (TRILL), 262
transport, 195–202. See also MBH (mobile backhaul networks); VPNs (virtual private networks)
in 1G network architectures, 8
in 2G network architectures, 12–13
in 3G network architectures, 21–22
network design and implementation, 370–372
interface types, 370
MTU (Maximum Transmission Unit) recommendation, 371–372
SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol), 370
transport technology choices, 345–346
overview of, 335
VXLAN (Virtual Extensible LAN), 295–297
xHaul, 111–116, 195–202. See also fronthaul networks
distributed peering across, 202
FHGW (Fronthaul Gateway), 197–198
incorporating data centers into, 201–202
network design and implementation, 346–350
networks and their characteristics, 159–160
optical fiber-based transport, 199–200
propagation delay over fiber, 113
RoE (Radio over Ethernet), 195–197
transport services, 298
transport technology choices, 345–346
xHaul Packet Switched Architecture and Solution Specification, 177, 202, 234
trends. See emerging trends
TRILL (Transparent Interconnection of Lots of Links), 261–262
Trusted Non-3GPP Gateway Function (TNGF), 191
Trusted WLAN Access Gateway (TWAG), 99
Trusted WLAN Interworking Function (TWI), 191
TSGs (Technical Specification Groups), 18
TSMA (Time Division Multiple Access), 11
TSN (Time Sensitive Networking), 344, 353–354
T-TC (Telecom Transparent Clock), 325
T-TSC (Telecom Timing Slave Clock), 325
Tunnel Endpoint ID (TEID), 68
Tunnel Identifier (TID), 68
tunneling, GTP (GPRS Tunneling Protocol), 67–69
TWAG (Trusted WLAN Access Gateway), 99
TWAMP (Two-Way Active Measurement Protocol), 236
TWI (Trusted WLAN Interworking Function), 191
Type 10 Opaque LSAs, 222
type-length-value (TLV), 219
U
UCMP (UE radio Capability Management Function), 189
UDM (Unified Data Management), 189
UDR (Unified Data Repository), 189
UDSF (Unstructured Data Storage Function), 189
UE radio Capability Management Function (UCMF), 189
UICC (Universal Integrated Circuit Card), 85
Ultra-Reliable Low-Latency Communications (URLLC), 132–133, 258
UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System), 17–18
UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN), 18
Unified Data Management (UDM), 189
Unified Data Repository (UDR), 189
Unified MPLS, 106
United Kingdom, 5G Rural First initiative in, 123
universal connectivity, emerging trends and expectations for, 123–124
Universal Integrated Circuit Card. See UICC (Universal Integrated Circuit Card)
Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS), 17–18
Universal Subscriber Identity Module (USIM), 84–85
Unstructured Data Storage Function (UDSF), 189
UPF (User Plane Function), 187–188, 259, 275, 352
U-Plane (user plane), 127–128, 335
upstream frequency, 31
URLLC (Ultra-Reliable Low-Latency Communications), 132–133, 258
URR (Usage Reporting Rule), 193
User Plane Function (UPF), 187–188, 259, 275, 352
user plane (U-Plane), 127–128, 181, 298, 335
uSID (SRv6 micro-segment), 244
USIM (Universal Subscriber Identity Module), 84–85
UTC (Coordinated Universal Time), 309
UTRAN (UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network), 18
V
V2I (Vehicle-to-Infrastructure), 155
V2N (Vehicle-to-Network), 155
V2P (Vehicle-to-Pedestrian), 155
V2V (Vehicle-to-Vehicle), 155
vBBU (virtual BBU), 156
VCS (Virtual Cluster Switching), 261–262
vCU (virtualized CU), 157
vDU (virtualized DU), 157
Vehicle-to-Everything communication, 155
Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I), 155
Vehicle-to-Network (V2N), 155
Vehicle-to-Pedestrian (V2P), 155
Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V), 155
vendor-specific eCPRI, 174–175
vEPC (virtual EPC), 179
Verizon, 173
5G Nationwide, 130
5G Ultra Wideband, 130
VFI (Virtual Forwarding Interface), 282
video-streaming services, 121
virtual BBU (vBBU), 156
Virtual Cluster Switching (VCS), 261–262
virtual EPC (vEPC), 179
Virtual Extensible LAN. See VXLAN (Virtual Extensible LAN)
Virtual Extensible LAN (VXLAN), 263, 264–265, 296
Virtual Forwarding Interface (VFI), 282
virtual hub-and-spoke topology, 280
Virtual Leased Line (VLL), 277
virtual network (VNET), 376
virtual private cloud (VPC), 376
Virtual Private LAN Services (VPLS), 111, 282–284
virtual private networks. See VPNs (virtual private networks)
virtual private wire service (VPWS), 277, 293–294
Virtual RAN. See vRAN (Virtual RAN)
virtual reality (VR), 132
Virtual Routing and Forwarding (VRF), 284
Virtual Topology System (VTS), 296
virtual tunnel endpoint (VTEP), 264–265
virtualized CU (vCU), 157
virtualized DU (vDU), 157
Visited Location Register (VLR), 57–58
Visitor Location Register (VLR), 5, 8, 57–58, 84
VLANs
C-VLAN (customer VLAN), 261–262
S-VLAN (service provider VLAN), 261–262, 279
VLL (Virtual Leased Line), 277
VLR (Visitor Location Register), 8, 57–58, 84
VMs (virtual machines), 295
VNET (virtual network), 376
VNI (VXLAN network identifier), 295
Vodafone, 173
Voice over LTE (VoLTE), 88
Voice over Wi-Fi (VoWiFi), 99
VPC (virtual private cloud), 376
VPLS (Virtual Private LAN Services), 111, 282–284
VPNs (virtual private networks), 103, 104–105, 263, 277. See also VRF (Virtual Routing and Forwarding)
EVPN (Ethernet VPN), 263–265, 275–276, 287–294
VPWS (virtual private wire service), 293–294
L2VPNs (Layer 2 VPNs), 276–284
multipoint L2VPN services, 280–284
point-to-point L2VPN services, 277–279
in pre-4G mobile networks, 276
L3VPNs (Layer 3 VPNs), 284–287
network slicing compared to, 128
VPWS (virtual private wire service), 277, 293–294
VR (virtual reality), 132
architecture, 158
data center naming conventions, 158
common deployment scenarios, 350–352
QoS (quality of service), 353–355
5G protocols stack overview, 163
cloud and orchestration, 176–177
definition of, 163
NAS (Non-Access Stratum), 164–165
RIC (RAN Intelligent Controller), 175–176
single versus dual split architecture, 167–168
split options, 165–167, 168–169, 178–179
IEEE 1914.1 standards, 161
VRF (Virtual Routing and Forwarding), 284
VTEPs (VXLAN tunnel endpoints), 264–265, 296
VTS (Virtual Topology System), 296
VXLAN (Virtual Extensible LAN), 263, 264–265, 295–297
VNI (VXLAN network identifier), 295
VTEPs (VXLAN tunnel endpoints), 296
W
W-AGF (Wireline Access Gateway Function), 191
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM), 113–114, 337–339, 346
WCDMA (Wideband Code Division Multiple Access), 18–20
WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing), 113–114, 337–339, 346
WGs (Working Groups), 18
Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA), 18–20
wireless LAN. See WLAN (wireless LAN)
Wireline Access Gateway Function (W-AGF), 191
Working Groups (WGs), 18
WTWI (Trusted WLAN Interworking Function), 191
X
xApps, 176
xHaul, 111–116, 195–202. See also fronthaul networks
distributed peering across, 202
FHGW (Fronthaul Gateway), 197–198
incorporating data centers into, 201–202
midhaul
definition of, 159
network characteristics, 159–160
network design and implementation
transport technology choices, 345–346
networks and their characteristics, 159–160
optical fiber-based transport, 199–200
propagation delay over fiber, 113
RoE (Radio over Ethernet), 195–197
transport services, 298
xHaul Packet Switched Architecture and Solution Specification, 177, 202, 234
XML (eXtensible Markup Language), 378
xPipe, 277
Y-Z
YANG, 378
ZTD (zero-touch deployment), 377