Motivation is a cornerstone of most advancement and achievement. Becoming and staying motivated, however, is often a very complex process, especially over a long period compared with a short burst of time. Motivation is also arguably one of the most discussed aspects of human behaviour, spanning school learning environments, relationships, work, health, even thrill seeking. Behind the scenes of a sporting endeavour, motivation is required to stay determined and to overcome multiple challenges that are often not apparent when a score or hit is made, a catch taken or a race time achieved.

A person who can understand and manage their motivation is on the way to maximising their experience in sporting or other endeavours. This is because motivation influences behaviour.

The seven summits

Brigitte Muir was awarded an Order of Australia medal for good reason. Not only was she the first Australian woman to conquer Mount Everest, but she was also the first Australian, male or female, to summit the highest mountain peak on each of the seven continents. This project was over a decade in the making, but the idea that became a goal to make an assault on the seven summits was born in 1984. ‘It was a way to see the world,’ Brigitte said with a smile when she spoke with me from her western Victorian base where she now lives. In 1997, following three unsuccessful attempts on Everest, she achieved her dream. It was a feat of mental endurance, perseverance and motivation as much as, or more than, it was physical.

Brigitte recounted where her drive was ignited. ‘I grew up around factories in a Belgian town and the best way to get out of it was through books,’ she said. ‘I read all the Tintin stories, about the boy reporter who travelled around the world having adventures. That ignited my adventurous spirit. I also had a turning point in a French class at school when the teacher said, “We must live our dreams, not dream our lives.” Once you think like that enough, it has a habit of becoming reality.’

The next link that spurred her journey was a trip to the local fair with a friend when she was 16 years old, where she spotted a flyer about caving: ‘I thought I'd like to do that, and it took three weeks of convincing my mum that I should go. Eventually she did let me, and it started from there. I already felt there was no limit to what someone could do. Or imagination was the only limit, and for me that was fed by what I read and the people I was with.’

Brigitte also spoke about her ‘curiosity and hunger for learning’. Such an attitude fed her drive. Other factors that fuelled her motivation included having a mentor, whom she talks about fondly and remains in contact with to this day. ‘The culture in the Himalaya also inspired me and gave me that little bit of extra motivation,’ she added. ‘When I set my mountain climbing goals, I also had to build a team. I did that from people I had met along the way. As we went forward, they showed belief in me, which helped.’ Her motivation was fed by a wide range of influences.

‘Once I set the long‐term goal of climbing the seven peaks, it also became a full‐time job of finding sponsors to fund the dream. It became an obsession, and I was very single‐minded. But I loved what I was doing. And I had emotional and mental support.’ In 1997, after realising her dream, her passion for the Himalayan people and culture remained. To this day she regularly visits and supports a local community there, funding women's literacy and other projects. It adds meaning to what she has done and continues to do.

When speaking with Brigitte, it is evident that she has lost none of the spark that was ignited by the Tintin stories and her French teacher. Now, though she has her own adventures to share and reflect on, her motivation for life remains as strong as ever.

Action ignites motivation

Motivation doesn't have to be on a grand scale to begin with. Any small action can enhance motivation and lead to something more. Put another way, a person's own actions can build, reinforce and increase motivation. When working with casual fitness enthusiasts who want to achieve a personal goal of running in a fun run or reaching a health target from a low base, I encourage them to start small. For example, a consistent five‐ or ten‐minute jog‐walk will enhance motivation.

Regularly doing something will help because consistency builds habits. Habits in turn reduce the demand for extrinsic and intrinsic energy to help action become more automatic. To assist this process and reinforce habits, managing as many variables as possible to get going is a great strategy. To build your running, for example, leave running shoes at the front door, organise to meet a friend on the run, and choose a time of day when it will be easiest to get going. Build in accountability structures to support your efforts. Over time it becomes easier to find the shoes and go on your own, at any time of day. Using as many external variables as possible to build internal drive can be very helpful.

If it's not possible to manage and manipulate the environment, use any spark to ignite action. Consider the benefits of taking action. Even in high‐performance environments, motivation will not necessarily be high all the time. When it wavers, continuing to focus on small things can become self‐fulfilling. Drawing on established supports and environmental influences balances and sustains internal energy. Even in team sports, motivation varies between individuals. For some, motivation on one particular day may be driven by the enjoyment of being with the group. For others, it may be a session in which they want to master a craft or challenge themselves. For others it may be the lure of a contract or selection.

Percy Cerutty emphasised the importance of ‘doing’ in his book Athletics: how to become a champion: ‘I am an apostle of the now, the everlasting present. Do today all that you reasonably can — in your training, your affairs. Do not attempt to see the end of the road. Keep your “ends” or goals in mind, but direct your brains to the solving and satisfactorily doing of all that your hands or feet find to do today … it is true that imagination is an essential quality, but not when it stops at just imagining ourselves as great athletes or persons, and entirely lacks the next step — action — the getting up and doing — in the rain, in the heat, in the cold, in the dark!’¹

I can imagine Percy preaching this philosophy to Herb and his other athletes at their Portsea training base. It reinforces the point that action — big or small — can feed motivation and lead to bigger things.

Intrinsic and extrinsic drivers

Motivation laid bare can be viewed as ‘intrinsic’ or ‘extrinsic’. Intrinsic is commonly understood as motivation from within or internally driven. In contrast, extrinsic motivation is derived from externally driven factors and forces outside oneself. Intrinsic drivers include personal satisfaction, enjoyment, mastering a skill, personal accomplishments and fulfilment. Extrinsic drivers include achieving a place or time, a contract, an award, a ranking, money or status, or striving for a goal or standard for someone other than oneself. Extrinsic motivators also include other people encouraging, pushing and prodding. I have always recommended to people that they find their internal drivers and maximise any external ones to sustain motivation.

Consider how motivation is impacted by extrinsic forces, such as time or media scrutiny, as an event gets closer. The last six months, six weeks or six days prior to an Olympic trial are different motivators compared with three years before the event. For a team, the start or middle of the season is different from the last game of a season that needs to be won to secure a finals position. The change in circumstances based on the event, time and other factors reflects how different factors influence motivation. Deadlines can help to enhance motivation but they are useless if not enough motivation has contributed to solid work leading to the deadline, especially in high‐performance sport. Sometimes there is a need to create artificial deadlines to help motivation. Keeping an eye on the bigger picture can help. External commentary can also influence motivation, either positively or negatively, no matter how irrelevant some opinions are.

Doing something for the sheer joy of it or because you are convinced it's the right thing to do are simple examples of intrinsic drivers. A desire to test yourself is another. Running a marathon because it's something you've always wanted to do is another example of an intrinsic driver. The key point is that managing intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is a necessity and skill.

As already noted, elite performers are not solely intrinsically motivated. It's a myth that they are. Multiple motives are likely to exist. Environmental, social and personal factors can all influence intrinsic or extrinsic motivation. For this reason, I often view the maintenance of motivation as a skill that can be optimised by self‐knowledge and self‐management. How and when does your inner desire glow or fade? What factors around you help to maintain the glow and manage a fade? Athletes, coaches and support teams who know the answers to these questions are best placed to sustain motivation. The key is to know oneself. In a squad or team, the key is also to know each other.

To feed their motivation, at times athletes may focus on a point to prove. This could be real or artificially created. A widely cited example is basketball legend Michael Jordan. His Hall of Fame speech in 2009 reflects how multiple motivators, both internal and external, contributed to his drive. It's worth listening to this on the Official Hoophall site, if you haven't already. After rapturous applause, Jordan begins the speech in an emotional way. He says that ‘people added wood to that [competitive] fire … there is Leroy Smith, now you guys think that's a myth … when I got cut he made the [varsity] team … when he made the team and I didn't, I wanted to prove not just to Leroy Smith, not just to myself, but to the coach who actually picked Leroy over me, I wanted to make sure you understood, you made a mistake dude’. These remarks illustrate how Jordan was not just skilled at basketball — he was highly skilled at managing his drive.

This study confirms that motivation is very personal: what motivates one person may not motivate another. How receptive a person is to different motivators is also relevant. Different motivators at different stages of the lifespan of an athlete are also likely to exist, so adapting to and using different motivators as a sporting career progresses is relevant. However, having something to strive for consciously and deliberately is important to igniting action and sustaining motivation.

Multiple motivators

Many athletes report that when they have struggled to sustain intrinsic motivation they have drawn upon extrinsic motivation from a person or group of people supporting their journey and encouraging them. These could be coaches, family members, friends, other athletes or support people. This is one reason why support networks are important. Extrinsic motivators can help limit the drain on intrinsic drive. Indeed, to return to Michael Jordan, extrinsic drivers help fuel the fire along the journey.

This is noteworthy as it reflects the importance of identifying multiple motivators to sustain energy. It is helpful to look beyond winning or getting drafted or achieving a certain place, time or distance to simply fuelling motivation. Having a single focal point is important, but other motivators are also helpful to sustain energy, especially as achievement in any endeavour, including sport, has many hurdles and takes a long time.

Herb Elliott provided insight into this line of thinking in an interview with Brian Lenton: ‘… I wanted to be a better human being. That was my number one thing … at training you'd be exhausted, but you knew that was a moment of weakness challenging you. So, if you were going to grow, your motivation had to be more than just winning or getting money.’³

While this was a clear intrinsic drive, there is little doubt that Herb also had a very strong extrinsic drive as his focal point — to win the Olympic gold in Tokyo in 1960. In his book with Alan Trengrove, The Golden Mile, he described his thoughts the day before his 1500 metre race in Rome.⁴ ‘Tomorrow is the day. The day I marked down as my day four years ago.’ He added, ‘when the Australian flag was hoisted … the pride that filled my heart was for my country, not myself. The tears welled up and I realised I'd been fooling myself. I am an Australian and I'd been running for my country no matter how strongly cold reason told me I'd been running for myself.’ Clearly, multiple motivators drove Herb to his victory.

Tennis player turned coach Nicole Pratt, who walked across a few courts in Perth to speak to a young Storm Sanders, hailed from sugarcane farming country one hour from the north Queensland town of Mackay. It was a far cry from representing Australia in the Federation Cup (now the Billie Jean King Cup) and the Olympic Games, the grass courts of Wimbledon, or reaching the top 50 tennis players in the world. As a teenager Nicole could not have imagined she would have a sporting career that would take her around the world and last almost 20 years. It was built on a reputation as a ‘fox terrier, nipping at opponents’ heels’, she reflected when I interviewed her.

‘My motivation was to try to be the best version of myself I could be. I wanted to turn over any stone to be better. It started with my family. Growing up I was instilled with a sense of hard work and pride. I used to work in the sugarcane fields and walk in front of the tractor my dad drove. My job was to pick up rocks to avoid damage to the machinery. Seeing all the rocks in the back of a truck gave me a sense of accomplishment. From another perspective, planting and growing sugarcane helped me to learn that growth is built on hard work. Being a professional athlete requires discipline and monotony. I realised you need character to embrace the small things that matter on a day‐to‐day basis that others might see as boring. That mindset helped me sustain my motivation.’

When Storm Sanders reflected on her motivation, she told me, ‘Not having many extrinsic motivators early on kept me planning and trying to find ways to improve. Because I was behind others through my junior years, I realised I was on my own journey. I didn't get caught up with comparing myself to others, who seemed to have amazing opportunities. If I had had a lot of extrinsic motivation early on, I'm not sure how it would have influenced me. I don't think my intrinsic motivation would have been as good.’

These stories reinforce the importance of multiple intrinsic and extrinsic drivers in life and sport. In my work I have sat with many athletes consolidating and building their motivation. What I have found is that over time, motivation will change. In these conversations, high‐performing athletes constantly identified multiple motivators to maintain high‐quality training while working towards their goals.

Competence, autonomy and relatedness

‘Self‐determination theory’ (SDT) offers a broad framework for understanding factors that help or hinder intrinsic or extrinsic motivation and psychological wellness. Developed by psychologists Richard Ryan and Edward Deci, SDT has been used to help understand and grow motivation in education and work as well as in sport.⁵ They emphasise that the basic psychological needs of competence, autonomy and relatedness are critically important to maximising motivation:

• Competence reflects a level of proficiency. It's about feeling like you have attained a level of skill or strengths in what you do and can keep growing.
• Autonomy involves a sense of choice and endorsement. It's about being empowered and involved in what you are doing.
• Relatedness is based on a sense of connection and belonging. It's about positive relationships.

Research has suggested that these factors enhance task perseverance and wellbeing, and reduce stress, anxiety and self‐criticism.

For individuals, coaches and sporting organisations, I recommend reinforcing competence by embracing self‐referenced standards and growth with other evaluation methods, as well as by monitoring personal development.

Autonomy can be facilitated by involving athletes in decision making related to aspects of their overall direction, training and performance plans. Being consulted or acknowledged is empowering.

Relatedness can be established through building connections, relationships and a sense of belonging. It makes a big difference for an athlete to feel like others care about them as a person, not just an athlete. To feel a part of something, rather than simply making up the numbers, also strengthens feelings of relatedness.

Engagement

Engagement is about a person's relationship with and investment in what they are doing. In sport, as well as other fields, higher engagement has been associated with positive health, learning and performance outcomes. I often ask athletes how their relationship with their sport is going. At first it seems an odd question. However, it encourages consideration about why their sport is important to them and why they devote so much energy to it. It also considers reflection on what you get back from sport, as well as what you give, which can be motivating. There are many benefits people derive from being involved in sport, beyond winning. These should be identified.

Exploring why you do what you do can be a valuable starting point to a conversation about engagement and motivation. Being aware of these variables helps athletes reflect on and develop personal management skills, as well as understand the influence of their environment on motivation and wellbeing. It also encourages reflection on how they interact and influence the environment they are in so they are able to see themselves as participants, rather than simply recipients, in an environment.

Choices and sacrifices

Balancing ‘choices’ and ‘sacrifices’ is relevant for many athletes. At times sacrifice is essential when pursuing a goal. Time away from family and friends, time spent training, early mornings, evenings, weekends, social gatherings may all be important sacrifices. Depending on the sport, sacrifices might include postponing further education or earning an income.

I believe that feeling as though you are making constant and high‐level sacrifices is draining and eventually demotivating. Australian runner Debbie Flintoff‐King, who won gold in the 400 metres hurdles at the 1988 Seoul Olympics, sees missing out on things not as sacrifices but as choices. In the book Winning Attitudes she shares her view that ‘your life fits around your sport. Your sport is your life. In my case I would eat, sleep, breathe athletics. I guess I was lucky in this respect in that I had my husband Phil to help me do all this. If I'd had a boyfriend or husband who wasn't interested in it, it would have been extremely hard to do. Phil always told me that what I was missing out on were not sacrifices, they were my choices — which is so true. You make your own choice to do this, and if you've made the choice, then do it 100%.’⁷

Garth Tander is one of the most successful V8 Supercar drivers in Australia, being credited with the second–most race starts (641 at the end of 2021) in the history of the sport. He has been a championship winner and is a four‐time Bathurst winner. He still competes, but only as an endurance driver teammate. In this role he stood on top of the podium at Bathurst as recently as 2020 with Shane van Gisbergen. During my interview with Garth he explained, ‘When I was about 15 or 16 years old, I enjoyed going out with friends and socialising, but there was a specific moment on a Saturday night before a party that I had a decision to make. I remember not going to the party because I was worried about how it would affect me the next day, and I didn't want to get caught in a bad social cycle. I made a choice. Once a professional athlete, there were times I felt like I was making sacrifices. If I had a 80 km bike ride to do and was in bed early, instead of doing something else, I used to think it was a sacrifice, but as my career progressed, I realised, it wasn't really a sacrifice – it was what I wanted to do’.

In line with the earlier discussion on autonomy, encouraging and empowering people to make choices can increase motivation and longevity. It can also help people enjoy what they are doing. As a simple example, think of running in the rain for a fun runner. They may initially see it as unpleasant, but the experience can become enjoyable once they reflect on all the reasons they are choosing to do it. Even if it isn't fully enjoyable, recognising that it serves a goal provides motivation to do it. Mind you, running in the rain can be great fun.

Dave Andersen, former basketball player in the NBA and four‐time Australian Olympic Boomers team member, described how he missed 16 consecutive Australian summers to maintain his international professional career. ‘I called it the eternal winter,’ he said when I spoke with him back at his Melbourne base. ‘Sure, there was missing Christmas, but we worked around it. I never saw it as anything other than what I did to stay at the highest level — playing in the USA and Europe. It ended up extending my career. When I was younger it was easy, but once I had a family and we all travelled around the world to different countries, I had to make a conscious decision to stay on that path. It wasn't easy, not seeing family and friends back in Australia. It was a choice and a sacrifice. Many people find it hard to make that choice and sacrifice, but being prepared to make those choices and sacrifices helped me.’

No one is superhuman

Sasa Ognenovski is not well known outside soccer circles in Australia, but he is renowned within them. He forged a professional career that took him from working as a carpenter to travelling all over the world, determined to ‘make the most of every opportunity to get another contract’. He debuted for the Australian Socceroos at age 31 and played 22 matches in the green and gold, ‘giving everything’ on each occasion. When I spoke with him he had just started as a part‐time coach at Melbourne Victory, casting his experienced eye over their upcoming youth.

‘I was not the most talented at all,’ he admitted. ‘I knew others were faster or stronger and technically better, but I had a driven mindset. My goal was to be better than others mindset‐wise and never to break mentally at crucial moments. That's what allowed me to achieve more than others who were more talented. I was willing to push more and do more than others. From when I was young I always told myself no one is superhuman. My opponent might be a better footballer but with my mentality I thought I could beat anyone. I focused on my strengths and treated every game as a battle.’

Even after he was selected for the national team, Sasa would do an extra 30 minutes of his own drills after training sessions. ‘I remember being in Japan with the national team and kicking left foot–right foot against a wall for 30 minutes. I did it because I was driven and wanted to be the best I could. That enabled me to look back at the end of my career and say I did all I could to be the best I could.’

He left school at 15 to become a carpenter, but was always focused on pursuing and forging a professional sport career. ‘I didn't have a mentor or a lot of support, so I made sure I pushed myself. That helped me and I made sure I was prepared to do whatever it took, regardless of finances or where in the world an opportunity arose.’

Sasa's story illustrates the importance and power of sustaining an inner drive over a long period of time. It also reinforces the importance of being very clear about your goal, even if your path is not clear or is, at times, rocky.

Goal setting

When introducing goal‐setting sessions with individuals and teams, I often draw from Percy Cerutty's advice on ‘doing’, quoted at the beginning of this step. It gives notion to the simplest mode of goals. Have an overall outcome goal — where you want to get to or what you want to achieve — and link it to process goals, the actions required to achieve the outcome. From such a starting point, there are multiple variations available for individuals and teams to set their goals.

Many aspiring Olympians set their goals four, eight or twelve years ahead of time. Such long‐term goals require a map to ensure the athletes stay on track. There could be many mini‐goals along the way, small milestones to tick off as they progress. Depending on the environment, the goals and actions may be open‐ended or framed within specific categories. Pre‐season, in‐season, physical, mental, technical or personal are some categories I have suggested athletes think about. Long, medium or short term, specific, measurable and realistic are also frequently discussed in relation to goals.

Individual, small‐group or whole‐team goals can also be considered. Coaches, wellbeing, and conditioning staff can and should be involved in these processes. For individuals, too often planning isn't recorded, shared or reviewed. It's not compulsory, of course, but science has demonstrated that these strategies work, and that goal setting is one of the most essential ingredients of motivation and performance.

Benchmarking

Swimmer Ariarne ‘Arnie’ Titmus achieved a dream at the Tokyo Olympics when she defeated Katie Ledecky to win both the 200 and 400 metres freestyle finals. The effort, magnitude and significance of the result were a product of her determination. They were also reflected in her coach Dean Boxall's emotion post‐race. The rivalry with Ledecky was built up well before the competition. The two athletes had previously faced off at the world championships in 2019. Such was the anticipation for the Olympics that a US film crew flew out to Queensland to document Arnie's preparation.

‘In 2016 it was not even reasonable to consider that Arnie would defeat Katie or set that as a goal,’ Dean told me a few months after Tokyo. ‘Arnie had a very good blade, but it needed to be sharpened. Her mindset was very good, but in 2016 she was still a novice. Arnie is also not as talented as Katie,’ he added. ‘Katie has a ruthless attention to detail and loves the pursuit of excellence. I discussed that with Arnie for two reasons: to help her improve her mindset and to recognise that she needed to work hard. Arnie's talent was her capacity for work. Her most important ingredient was her mindset.

‘In May 2016 Arnie was 8 seconds off Katie in the 200, 16 seconds off her in the 400 and a huge 38 seconds off her in the 800. If I'd set a goal for her to beat Katie then, I would have felt like a fraud, a fake. There's no way I could have said it,’ he insisted. ‘What I did try to do was set a benchmark. That's what I put to Arnie then. If you want to improve, here's the standard. There are only a few genuine trailblazers in most sports, and Katie was one of them.

‘It was only after some small wins and small gains that I thought I could sell the dream. That was after the Pan Pacific competition in 2018. After that we discussed that maybe she could medal. Those small wins and gains fed the story.’

Dean's strategy of timing the discussion speaks to the art of coaching and goals. When and how to discuss them is a big part of that. It wasn't an outcome. The early focus was based purely on standards and mindset. Using Katie as a benchmark to fuel Ariarne's motivation and focus was another.

Benchmarking is a strategy that can be and has been used in many sports and pursuits. Identifying someone in a similar field who sets the performance or personal standard can provide both an example of what to do and motivation. The skill is in ensuring that the focus comes back to the individual and that they don't feel overwhelmed. Striving for a time, or looking to work on a standard that could lead to a particular time, is another strategy. The four‐minute mile and two‐hour marathon are two examples. A rival or benchmark can make this challenge more real for many, though.

Benchmarking can be readily applied to team sports too, even when benchmark players may never be direct competitors. Cricket and football are two obvious examples where players can look to an athlete in their position to use as motivational fuel. A small forward in Australian rules football, for example, can identify a small forward in the competition they can relate to and strive to be like, or to defeat. In a way it is an artificial competition, because the two will never actually compete directly against each other. A batter can monitor a rival's statistics, using them as a personal challenge. This provides an opportunity for learning, as well as a challenge when statistics or processes of performance are reviewed. It creates an extra layer, in addition to the obvious ones of beating a direct opponent, winning a game or meeting their own standards to focus on. It can also be applied when an athlete is the best in a country and only competes against their rivals once every one, two or four years. They can be on the other side of the world but still offer inspiration. Benchmarking can also fuel the drive of athletes in different squads. Such rivalries can elevate world standards. In addition to Arnie and Katie Ledecky, runners Sebastian Coe and Steve Ovett, swimmers Kieran Perkins and Daniel Kowalski, and cyclists Anna Meares and Victoria Pendleton come to mind.

Some athletes enjoy and embrace this approach, while others are reluctant. Many industries strive to use positive comparisons and benchmarks for progress. Examples are schools comparing data in a range of areas, or businesses comparing themselves with other businesses. The key is to manage the process effectively to fuel, rather than detract, from motivation. Dean Boxall did this with Arnie to perfection in the lead‐up to and at the 2021 Olympics.

Expectation and motivation

Expectation can be a self‐fulfilling prophecy and drive motivation. In sport, when a coach or significant individual develops an expectation about an athlete, it can help them to elevate their efforts to meet that expectation. This may be based on a wide range of true or biased opinions. These expectations influence how a coach, or others, will work with an athlete, including their attention, communication and time given, as well as their interaction style. As a result of this expectation, an athlete behaves in a way that reinforces it. Motivation can be heightened, self‐belief enriched and goals enhanced. Overall effort can increase as a result of the expectation. This behaviour by the athlete, in turn, reinforces the coach's expectation, and so the cycle continues. Over time motivation is enhanced and both parties increase their effort.

In this way, expectation is a kind of multiplier effect. As Geoff Colvin explains in Talent Is Overrated, the multiplier effect refers to a very small advantage that can spark a series of events that produce far larger advantages.⁹ For example, a multiplier effect may begin when, for any reason, a person is given an opportunity, such as being selected for a specific training squad or environment. That experience can expose the athlete to higher levels of training and support, which enables them to improve more rapidly. This too can fuel motivation.

The opportunity may not necessarily be a training squad. It may be increased knowledge about a pathway or what needs to be done. It may simply elevate motivation. Many people start out motivated without knowledge. A lack of knowledge and guidance can stall development and reduce motivation. Poor direction can also diminish an experience and motivation. As I've discussed with many athletes, you can be given good advice or bad advice — the challenge is to know the difference. Taking good advice can set your direction for advancement.

With a positive multiplier effect the improvement reinforces or multiplies motivation, opportunities, growth — and, ultimately, performance. Sure, the athlete must maximise the opportunity provided. The balance is that opportunities provided to athletes, while extremely appealing, need to be managed so as not to drain them emotionally or physically. This applies particularly to junior athletes in development pathways. Understanding and knowing the athlete as a person, not just as a performer, helps to ensure that the opportunities provided are motivating over time and not inadvertently demotivating.

Our understanding of expectation effects can be traced back to a popular, and at times debated, research study published in 1968 under the title Pygmalion in the Classroom.¹⁰ Robert Rosenthal, a professor of social psychology at Harvard University, teamed up with Lenore Jacobson, who at the time was an elementary school principal in San Francisco. In the study of 320 students over a full calendar year, teachers were informed that, based on the results of a previous test, certain children could be ‘growth spurters’. In fact, no such test was conducted and students were randomly assigned to different groups.

Rosenthal and Jacobson reported that the results ‘provide further evidence that one person's expectations of another's behaviour may come to serve as a self‐fulfilling prophecy. When teachers expected that certain children would show greater intellectual development, those children did show greater intellectual development’.

In my experience in sport, expectation theory operates in more than one direction. Low expectations can lead to reduced motivation and opportunities for that athlete. High expectations of athletes can lead to increased motivation and development opportunities. One example is when experienced athletes transition to new clubs or squads, and they flourish. A refreshed mindset and new expectations of the athlete play a big part in bringing about this uplift in performance, as does the athlete's fresh approach to the new environment.

Rewards and positive feedback

Effectively, positive reinforcement rewards desired behaviour, with the aim of increasing the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated. These rewards could be verbal or tangible, such as prizes or awards, but feelings of satisfaction can also serve as intrinsic rewards. For example, positive encouragement, feedback or praise can keep athletes in a state of high intensity or help them increase or correct technical skills. A simple ‘well done’, clap or fist pump from the sidelines can serve as a positive reinforcer. Many people find this motivating. Individual athlete styles need to be considered, however.

Athletes may specifically request coaches and others respond verbally and behaviourally in a certain way to assist them, particularly during competition. This may include encouragement or even speaking less. It can be a trap to overuse verbal feedback. At times, silence can be equally effective. It allows head space for key points to be absorbed.

Verbal feedback just for the sake of it, or that is not genuine, can be counterproductive. Some athletes prefer a simple corrective discussion so they can get on with it. How the message is delivered can be as important, if not more important, than what is said, but when positive reinforcement is used authentically and appropriately, it can be reassuring and motivating.

Ways to enhance verbal feedback include linking it with the specific behaviour and including feedback on specific instructions, such as technical elements of a skill. Using vision of the desired or successful behaviour is another positive reinforcement technique. Many coaches use a phone or tablet to record successful movement patterns or repeat efforts to reflect positive energy, for example. Alternatively, a squad or team may recognise standards or behaviours a group is striving for. The reward may also be as simple as recognition and acknowledgement in peer or group meetings. This not only serves as reinforcement for the individual, but consolidates for the group what is valued.

Some coaches avoid giving positive reinforcement for fear it will reduce motivation or effort and risk complacency. I have also heard stories from athletes fearing going to meetings that review game performances where an overly negative reel of behaviours is highlighted. While it is meant to be educational, the experience can be deflating and actually drain motivation, particularly when this is a constant theme. Offsetting corrective feedback with positive reinforcement is a balancing act in sport, and especially in motivation. Naturally corrective feedback is necessary, but balance assists it to lead to improve behaviour and performance as well as sustain enjoyment and engagement.

Self‐positivity and celebration

Ideally athletes themselves can provide their own positive reinforcement to feed their motivation. This can be enhanced when coaches and others with whom an athlete has a positive relationship use language such as ‘Give yourself a pat on the back for that effort’ or ‘Be proud of the way you approached that solid block of repetitions and worked through until the end’. This can be followed up with a question such as ‘What specifically do you think you did well in the session?’ In effect, this kind of language can help transfer the ownership of positive reinforcement to the athlete and enhance intrinsic motivation. It encourages an athlete to congratulate themselves or celebrate an achievement, whether small or big.

Celebrations are an underutilised form of positive reinforcement. They can add fun and enjoyment, but of course they can't be hollow or false. Recognising when and what to celebrate can also help maintain wellbeing. Celebrations don't need to be reserved for dizzy achievements such as breaking records and winning major events, or they are likely to be too infrequent. I often recommend that athletes record ‘daily positives’, even for short periods of time, to encourage them to recognise and celebrate what they are doing well. This serves to counterbalance harsh self‐criticism that can gradually and unwittingly wear people down. Celebrating even small experiences is a quality that many athletes have recognised as necessary to maintain motivation and wellbeing.

Embracing endeavour, rather than overly focusing on outcome, is a way to find positives and sustain motivation. It relates to outcome and process. Embracing endeavour encompasses the whole experience of striving for something. Recognising opportunities that arise from an experience, including relationships formed and the enjoyment of the journey, is part of this. Identifying what is enjoyable plays a significant part in sustaining motivation and wellbeing. This is another activity that I regularly conduct with athletes at all levels, as mentioned in ‘Made not born’. I'll ask them what they find enjoyable about their journey and experience of being involved in the sport. What has been one (or more) of the enjoyable experiences for them? This may be from junior days, training or open competition and may or may not relate to performance. It is an idea worth exploring, because it also helps to open many athletes’ minds to the daily positives of activity.

Motivational dynamics

Motivational dynamics is a concept introduced by education researchers E.A. Skinner and J.R. Pitzer.¹¹ Like some other models used in sport, it has foundations in education but has been investigated with athletes, with interesting results. The model suggests that peers have a significant positive or negative influence on engagement in addition to coping and resilience. This has applications for both team and individual sports, particularly because even within groups of individual athletes there is a team environment.

I have seen many athletes become disengaged because they've felt unsupported by or disconnected from peers in both sporting and educational environments. I have found that this often extends beyond peers to coaches and teachers, who play an important role not only in forming relationships but also in mediating and managing the relationships of the group. Many coaches underestimate how important group dynamics are for an individual's motivation. By the same token, many athletes underestimate the importance of forming friendships with people they train with or compete against. Other squad members are too readily seen as rivals, and athletes become protective and guard against building relationships.

Environment and culture

As I'll go on to discuss in step 5 on culture, the environment and culture are key extrinsic drivers. In some squads or teams, the culture can be dispiriting or even toxic. A positive and healthy environment and culture, however, can be extremely fulfilling, rewarding and motivating. Athletes want to be involved in such an environment; it becomes a motivation for staying in the sport and striving to grow and perform well. Enthusiasm and energy for training can be enhanced by a positive environment. In‐turn, positive environments drive and elevate performance.

For many athletes, managing their environment is not easy. Often athletes cannot choose the environment they are in, but an awareness that they can contribute to the environment and the impact it has on them can help them to feel more in control and to manage or deal with the situation better.

Even the most intrinsically driven person can be negatively impacted by their environment. Interests and values that conflict with those of others or the organisation, unhealthy internal competition, low stimulation from training, peer and coach relationships and leadership are factors that influence the environment. Left too long, a demotivating environment can eventually drain intrinsic motivation. On the other hand, establishing and maintaining an environment that emphasises mastering new skills and new levels of performance more than outcome can positively impact motivation. This is discussed further in step 5 on culture.

Task and ego

A mastery focus considers that energy is directed towards one's own efforts, standards and performances, rather than those of others. Athletes with this motivation compete against themselves and their own standards as much as, if not more than, an opponent. It shifts how energy is directed and what is evaluated.

Much work has been done by psychologists and researchers on achievement goal theory, which was first conceptualised by motivational psychologist John Nicholls in the late 1980s. This model suggests that self‐referenced evaluations and standards, such as personal improvement and learning, create a link to success from a focus on the task and high effort. Alternatively, an ego orientation leads to normative evaluations and standards that emphasise winning or position.

A study from 2000 found that elite players were more task oriented and less ego oriented than sub‐elite participants.¹⁴ A later study from 2016 suggested that task‐oriented athletes more readily link success with effort than ego‐oriented athletes.¹⁵

It is important to recognise that, at times, either a task or ego focus will serve to assist motivation, but understanding the role each plays assists overall. As mentioned earlier, knowing when and how to utilise multiple motivators including task or ego motivation, can assist athletes greatly.

Managing motivational challenges

All athletes experience challenges to their motivation. Factors that negatively impact motivation include injury, lack of support, loss of confidence that goals can be achieved, and new and competing interests. Lack of patience and understanding of what may be needed to achieve a sporting goal can also have an impact, as can non‐selection, lack of opportunity, lack of financial support or even bureaucracy or other real or perceived barriers.

Emotional fatigue can also be demotivating. Over time it can be mentally and physically draining to maintain a certain lifestyle. Some will find striving to perform at training and in competition, constant scrutiny, travelling and living a regulated lifestyle can become too challenging or unfulfilling. Being an athlete is not always exciting, glamorous or fun.

Taking breaks and stepping back from training and competition are as important as key training blocks and sessions. The lifestyle of being a high‐performing athlete spans 365 days a year, but that doesn't mean training has to. Blocks of time to stay physically and mentally fresh are important to maintain wellbeing and reduce the accumulation of challenges. Ideally these are planned to maximise energy, although that is not always possible. At times I have said the most important training day is the day off.

Anyone who has worked with teams and individuals understands the role of rest. Don't underestimate the importance of down time. Good decisions about when and how much down time an athlete enjoys or requires can help sustain their energy and motivation, and their relationship with their sport. Some athletes are by nature extremely rigorous and serious, while others are more laid back and casual. One person may need extra time off training, while others may need an extra session. One person may need to spend some time with their family and away from training, while another person may simply need a short break. Knowing and respecting difference and individuality helps prevent challenges from mounting. Failure to acknowledge individualism can also be demotivating. Naturally, this conforms with recognising the balance of quality and quantity of work required by the athlete to achieve their goals and maintain standards.

At times, a person may choose not to pursue a sporting endeavour. It's a personal choice of course and there are many reasons to leave a sport, as discussed earlier. These include a change in life direction or a lack of desire to pursue a goal, race or competition. Loss of motivation over time or too many competing challenges should be listened to, rather than ignored. It doesn't mean failure. It means it may be time to reassess and make changes, or to take the lessons learned into the next stage of their life. Personal circumstances or simply timing can influence a decision to step back from a sport. In these instances, athletes need to give themselves permission to do so in a positive way rather than with regrets, keeping in mind that during this decision‐making and transition phase they can be more vulnerable. Supports are important at these times. This is discussed further in step 6 on wellbeing.

Passion, meaning and purpose

What are you truly passionate about? What does it mean to pursue or achieve something? These are questions I often ask athletes at all levels. Identifying and clarifying the purpose, passion and meaning of doing something can provide lasting fuel for intrinsic drive. Why do you do what you do? is another way to look at it.

I was at the Olympic track and field trials in 2012 in Melbourne, working and watching the events. As a matter of interest, I had a keen eye on Youcef Abdi in the steeplechase. As he crossed the line in first to secure his spot on the Olympic team, he knelt down and kissed the track. Having followed his story from afar I appreciated the significance of that moment.

When I interviewed Youcef he explained that he began running with his older brother in a tiny village in Algeria. ‘My brother did athletics at school and my dad wanted me to accompany him on some runs in the holidays because it wasn't safe to run alone. There was a lot of terrorist activity in Algeria at the time,’ he explained. ‘The 1992 Olympics were on TV about that time, and that also inspired me. My dad said if I wanted to be a runner it was another reason I should run with my brother.’ Over time his motivation and training earned him a position on Algeria's national junior team.

Youcef first visited Sydney as a competitor at the World Junior Athletics Championships in 1996. His team officials missed the entry deadline for his 1500 metres event, so they entered him in the 800 metres instead. ‘It wasn't my event and I finished fourth in the heats.’

On Youcef's return from Sydney to Algeria, another paperwork mess‐up meant Youcef was called up to do his military training instead of continuing his athletics training. ‘My dream was to go to the Olympics, not to fight terrorists. I had 24 hours to decide what to do.’ With his visa for Australia still valid, he decided his only option was to escape Algeria and return to Sydney. ‘My parents were very worried and concerned, as I was only 18 at the time. It was difficult for them to let me go to the other side of the world, where I didn't know a single person or speak the language. But I was very motivated and determined, and they realised they couldn't stop me.

‘When I landed, I didn't know where to go so I asked a taxi to take me to the Ibis Hotel at Darling Harbour because that was the only place I knew, from the World Juniors. I almost fainted when I saw the price for one night because it was a high percentage of all the money I had. The next night I went to a youth hostel but my money was running out fast, so I also slept on the beach some nights. I was lucky it was November and the weather was warm.’

Eventually Youcef met an Algerian and then secured a job at Marrickville Metro, collecting trolleys. ‘Some days I worked from 8 am to 10 pm to get by. It was a good job because I didn't need to communicate!’ As his English improved and he began to feel more comfortable he got a job at a factory. About nine months later he started to do some training again. ‘I slowly made some friends and then joined a training squad. Despite all the barriers, I knew my greatest asset was my motivation to get to the Olympics. I felt no matter what, I had to work towards that goal.’

By 2000 Youcef was running well. He also received his Australian citizenship, which enabled him to chase his dream. At the Olympic trials he missed the qualifying mark by 0.2 seconds. He won another trial race, but ultimately, ‘I didn't get selected and watched the games from my couch’.

Undeterred, he pushed on and qualified for the 2002 Manchester Commonwealth Games, finishing third. Representing Australia for the first time was a proud moment. Then in 2004 he qualified for the Athens Olympics, but a discretionary selection method meant he wasn't chosen. ‘It was a turning point,’ he recalled. ‘I was drained physically and mentally. I stopped athletics because I didn't see a future or feel supported. It lasted a month, but then a voice inside my head said, “keep trying”. I was 28 years old, and I realised I needed a fresh start. I had never jumped a hurdle in my life but I decided to switch to the 3000 metre steeplechase.

‘There were two reasons why I chose that event. The first reason was because 5000 metres was too far for me. The second reason was that the steeplechase reflected my life. It was flat, with barrier after barrier that had to be jumped. If I had all these barriers to get over, it was up to me if I wanted to keep going or stop. The event reflected how I was living in real life.’

And his choice paid dividends. After two years of specific steeple training he qualified for the 2008 Beijing Olympics. ‘My heart almost stopped when I got selected. I was the last person to be added to the whole Olympic team so I had begun to think, here we go again. It was a huge relief.’

By 2012 the selection policy had changed, so anyone who had a qualifying time and finished first was automatically selected. ‘That's why I kissed the ground,’ he explained. ‘It meant an non‐discretionary automatic selection.’

‘The whole time I kept thinking the reason I left Algeria was to achieve a goal. I had wondered what the reason was for leaving my family and friends. But chasing the goal also gave me a purpose. It gave me a life lesson, and it made my life. In addition to my athletics goal, my other dream was to have a better life. I wanted to live in a country where you can have a life. My athletics gave me life. A life where you can safely walk to the shops. Some of my friends back in Algeria don't have a life. They are living but they don't have a life.’

Youcef faced many obstacles. But time and again his motivation, his sense of being driven by a higher purpose, helped him to overcome them. A higher purpose may be short term or have longer‐lasting impact. It may be for oneself, others or something quite independent. Finding purpose in what one is doing typically embraces the idea that an experience has a meaning beyond simply winning. It reflects why participation is so important; it adds motivational layers.

Higher purpose or meaning can be driven by associating value with representing a community, representing a culture, a team, a family or a nation. Many athletes have described to me the importance of representing or standing for something and how it fuelled their motivation. Dedicating a performance to a family member or the passing of a loved one can certainly create such meaning. I have worked with many athletes who have dedicated a game or a single performance to such a personal experience. You may have seen an athlete pointing skyward, reflecting their dedication at these times.

For some people, identifying and staying in touch with the meaning or purpose of why they are doing what they are can sustain their energy for years across a sporting career, or even a lifetime. Ultimately, whether or not the goal is achieved is of less relevance to its meaning. The journey itself matters. Even if Youcef had not achieved his goal of being an Olympic athlete, his commitment created a new life for him. ‘That's what was really priceless,’ he said.

Summary

Sustaining motivation over long periods of time is both very individual and complex. Knowing yourself and managing multiple internal and external drivers are key to managing motivation. Your personal background and circumstances, your experiences within the sporting environment, and what your participation in the sport means to you are only some of the contributing factors influencing your motivation.

Harnessed effectively, motivation is an essential and powerful tool. Once athletes become aware of the factors that influence their motivation and how they can sustain higher levels of motivation for longer, they will find it easier to enjoy the experience of being involved in their sport. It also fuels commitment and higher standards.