activity ratios measure the sales productivity and utilization of assets.
advertising creating and maintaining brand awareness and brand loyalty.
advertising appeals telling why the consumer wants to purchase the sports product.
advertising budgeting budgeting methods stemming from the objectives the advertising is attempting to achieve.
advertising execution the format of the advertising.
advertising objectives direct or indirect actions designed to inform, persuade, remind, and cause consumers in the target market to take action.
aesthetic value one of Wann’s 8 basic motives for watching sport: to appreciate the beauty of the performance and the pleasure of the art form.
affective component the part of attitude based on feelings or emotional reactions.
agent intermediary whose primary responsibility is leveraging athletes’ worth or determining their bargaining power.
AIO dimensions statements describing consumers’ activities, interests, and opinions.
amateur sporting event sporting competition for athletes who do not receive compensation for playing the sport.
ambush marketing a planned effort by an organization to associate itself indirectly with an event to gain some of the recognition and benefits associated with being an official sponsor.
antecedent states temporary physiological and mood states that a sports consumer brings to the participant situation.
arbitrary allocation setting a promotional budget without regard to other critical factors; allocating all the money the organization can afford.
assurance the knowledge and courtesy of employees and their ability to convey trust and confidence.
athletic platform for sponsorship, the choice of team, sport, event, athlete, or level of competition.
attitudes learned thoughts, feelings, and behaviors toward a given object.
attractiveness characteristics of personality, lifestyle, and intellect of the source (athlete) that lead the target audience to identify with him or her in some fashion.
availability of substitute products as the number of substitute products increases, demand for the product will decrease.
awareness consumers’ knowledge of a company’s product and services, product lines, or corporate name.
behavioral component the part of attitude based on actions.
behavioural leaning concerned with how various stimuli (information about sports) elicit certain responses (feelings or behaviours) within an individual.
behavioral segmentation grouping consumers based on how much they purchase, how often they purchase, and how loyal they are to a product or service.
benefits the goods or services consumers derive from a product.
benefits segmentation describing why consumers purchase a product or service or what problem the product or service solves for consumers.
brand awareness making consumers in the target market recognize and remember the brand name.
brand equity the value that the brand contributes to a product in the marketplace.
brand image consumers’ set of beliefs about a brand, which shape attitudes
brand loyalty a consistent preference or repeat purchase of one brand over all others in a product category.
brand mark the element of a brand that cannot be spoken.
brand name the element of the brand that can be vocalized.
branding a name, design, symbol, or any combination that a sports organization on individual athlete uses to help differentiate its products from the competition.
branding process establishing brand awareness; developing and managing brand image; developing brand equity; and sustaining brand loyalty.
budgeting obtaining the resources necessary to achieve the marketing plan goals, and making allocation decisions among the marketing activities and functions.
buying influences the various roles of individuals involved in the buying process.
classic type of product life cycle characterized by continuous stage of maturity.
coach’s role acting as a guide for the salesperson making the sale.
cognitive component the part of attitude concerned with beliefs.
cognitive dissonance experiencing doubts or anxiety about the wisdom of a decision.
cognitive learning concerned with the ability to solve problems and use observation as a form of learning.
commercialization final phase of the new product development process in which full-scale production and distribution of the product begins.
communication allowing and encouraging an understanding of the marketing plan by all members of the marketing plan by all members of the marketing team; also, the process of establishing a commonness of thought between the sender and the receiver.
community involvement community activities in which the sports organization sponsors public programs, requires time commitments from its employees, partially funds programs, provides personnel at no charge, and so on.
comparative advertisements contrasting one sports product with another.
comparative messages directly or indirectly comparing a sports product with one or more competing products in the promotional message.
competition the attempt all organizations make to serve similar customers; also, a threat that is thought to be reduced by sponsorship.
competitive objectives those that are directly linked to final pricing decisions.
competitive parity setting a promotional budget based on what competitors are spending.
concomitant variation the extent to which a cause and an effect vary together.
consumer demand the quantity of a sports product that consumers are willing to purchase at a given price.
consumer income consumers’ ability to pay the price of the product.
consumer pricing evaluation process using consumers’ expectations to determine acceptable price ranges.
consumer socialization learning the skills, knowledge, and attitudes necessary to be a consumer.
consumer tastes trends and desires of consumers.
contingency control scanning the relevant environments for internal and external contingencies that could affect the marketing plan.
contingency framework for strategic sports marketing a model for predicting and strategically aligning the marketing process with internal and external contingencies.
continuous innovations ongoing, commonplace changes such as minor alterations of a product or introduction of an imitation product.
continuous schedule continually running the advertisement during the advertising period without any breaks.
control phase of the strategic sports planning process model
control phase the phase of the strategic sports marketing process of evaluating the response to plans to determine their effectiveness.
convenience sampling techniques choosing sample data collection units that are easy to reach but may not be representative of the population of interest.
coordination the effective organization of people and their tasks to implement the marketing plan.
cost of information search affects a consumer’s determination of the acceptable price of a product.
costs factors associated with producing, promoting, and distributing the sports product.
coupons certificates that offer reductions in price to induce sales.
creative brief tool used to guide the creative process toward a solution to serve the interests of the client and the customers.
creative decisions the advertising campaign.
creative process the source of innovative ideas; knowledge accumulation, incubation, idea generation, and evaluation and implementation; also; generating the ideas and concepts of the advertising.
creativity a distinctive way of looking at the world, seeking relationships between things that others have not seen.
credibility a source’s perceived expertise and trustworthiness.
crisis plan well-defined organizational procedures and strategies to deal with problems that could occur.
cross-sectional studies surveys that describe the characteristics of a sample at one point in time.
cultural values widely held beliefs that affirm what is desirable by members of society.
culture the set of learned values, beliefs, language, traditions, and symbols shared by members of a society and passed down from generation to generation.
data collection techniques methods of collecting information about a population of interest.
decision maker in the buying center, the person with the ultimate responsibility to accept or reject proposals.
decision-making process problem recognition; information search; evaluation of alternatives; participation; and post-participation evaluation.
decline stage of product life cycle when sales are diminishing.
decoding the interpretation by the receiver of the message sent by the source.
demographic environment population trends such as total number of consumers, age, ethnic background, geographic dispersion, and so on.
demographic factors variables such as population, age, gender, education, occupation, ethnic background.
demographic segmentation grouping consumers on the basis of demographic variables such as age, gender, ethnic background, or family life cycle.
dependent variable the variable to be explained, predicted, or measured.
developing the sports product phase of the new product development process in which basic marketing decisions are made.
diffusion of innovation the rate at which new sports products spread throughout the marketplace.
dimensions of service quality reliability, assurance, empathy, responsiveness, and tangibles.
direct competition competition between sellers producing similar products and services.
direct objectives designed to elicit a behavioral response from the target audience.
direct sponsorship objectives objectives that have a short-term impact on consumption behavior and focus on increasing sales.
discontinuous innovations products that are so new and original that they require major learning by consumers and new consumption and usage patterns.
diversion from everyday life one of Wann’s 8 basic motives for watching sport: to “get away from it all.”
dynamically continuous innovations new products that represent changes and improvements but do not strikingly change buying and usage patterns.
early adopters consumers who adopt a new sports product after innovators and communicate its value to others.
early majority consumers who adopt a sports product after being influenced by innovators and early adopters.
easily defined segments grouping people with active interest across neatly split markets.
economic activity the flow of goods and services between producers and consumers.
economic buying role a position that governs final approval to buy and that can approve a sale even when others say no, and vice versa.
economic factors controllable (such as the price of tickets) and uncontrollable (such as average income) factors that affect game attendance.
economic value one of Wann’s 8 basic motives for watching sport: the potential for economic gains from gambling on sporting events.
economy the current economic cycle, which influences pricing decisions.
elastic demand the principle that small changes in price will produce large changes in quantity sold.
elements in the communications process sender, encoding, message, medium, decoding, receiver, feedback, and noise.
emotional appeals using such emotions as fear, humor, pleasure, or identification with a team or athlete in advertising.
emotional versus rational appeal attempting to make consumers feel a certain way about a product, or providing information so consumers can make an analytical decision.
empathy the caring, individualized attention a firm provides to its customers.
encoding translating the sender’s thoughts or ideas into a message.
entertainment value one of Wann’s 8 basic motives for watching sport: sports as a form of entertainment.
environmental scanning a firm’s attempt to continually acquire information on events occurring outside the organization so it can identify and interpret potential trends.
esteem according to Maslow, the need for recognition and status.
estimating demand studying consumer tastes, availability of substitute products, and consumers’ income to determine the relationship between price and the amount of product sold.
ethnic background a type of market segmentation that groups consumers on the basis of having a common race, religion, or nationality.
eustress one of Wann’s 8 basic motives for watching sport: because it is enjoyable and exciting to the senses.
evaluation of alternatives considering and judging the acceptability of a range of criteria.
evaluative criteria the features and characteristics that a decision maker looks for.
even keel mode characterized by a buyer that is experiencing no discrepancy between the current and ideal states.
evoked set alternatives given the greatest consideration by a decision maker.
exchange a marketing transaction in which the buyer gives something of value to the seller in return for goods and services.
expected price range of substitute products the prices of competitive products have a major influence on what consumers deem an acceptable price.
experiential source an external information source.
experimentation research in which one or more variables are manipulated while others are held constant: the results are then measured.
expertise the knowledge, skill, or special experience possessed by the source of a message.
extensive problem solving (or extended problem solving) comprehensive information search and evaluation of many alternatives on many attributes.
external contingencies all influences outside the organization that can affect its strategic marketing process.
external (or environmental) factors factors beyond the control of the organization that influence pricing decisions, such as consumer demand, competition, legal issues, the economy, and technology.
external source a personal, marketing, or experiential source of information.
facility aesthetics the exterior and interior appearance of a stadium, which can play a role in fan satisfaction and attendance.
fad type of product life cycle characterized by accelerated sales and acceptance of the product by consumers followed by decline.
family influence the influence of family members on decisions.
family life cycle the concept describing how individuals progress through various life stages.
family ties one of Wann’s 8 basic motives for watching sport: to foster family togetherness.
fan identification the personal commitment and emotional involvement customers have with a sports organization.
fan motivation factors reasons why individuals are sports fans or sports consumers.
fear appeals telling what negative consequences man occur if the sports product or service is not used or is used improperly.
feedback the response of a target audience to a message.
financial analysis comparing present with past financial performance, and collecting and processing financial information that can be used to make strategic decisions.
fixed costs the sum of the producer’s expenses that are stable and do not change with the quantity of the product consumed.
flighting schedule advertising expenditures vary in some months and zero is spent in other months.
focus group a moderately structured discussion session with 8 to 10 people.
frequency the number of times an individual or household is exposed to the media vehicle.
game attractiveness a situational factor that varies from game to game; its perceived quality based on the skill level of participants.
gatekeepers in the buying center, those who control the flow of information to other members.
geodemographic segmentation grouping consumers by combining geographic and demographic characteristics.
geographic segmentation grouping consumers on the basis of local, regional, national, or international characteristics.
global events at the top of the Sports Event Pyramid; events that have the broadest international coverage and generate a great deal of interest among consumers.
goal a short-term purpose that is measurable and challenging, yet attainable and time specific.
goods tangible, physical products that offer benefits to consumers
growth stage of product life cycle when sales increase.
growth mode characterized by a buyer wanting to improve an already good situation.
habitual problem solving (or routinized problem solving) limited information search and evaluation of alternatives; a decision becomes a habit or routine.
harvesting (or milking) when an organization retains the product but offers little or no marketing support.
health appeals telling why purchasing the product will be beneficial to consumers’ health.
hierarchy of effects seven steps of leading consumers to purchase the product: unawareness, awareness, knowledge, liking, preference, conviction, action.
idea generation initial phase of the new product development process; consideration of any and all ideas.
idea screening phase of the new product development process in which ideas are evaluated on how well they fit the organization’s goals and consumer demand.
ideal customer a hypothetical customer model against which all potential customers can be evaluated to determine where salespeople should invest time and energy.
idle product capacity “down time” in which a service provider is available but there is no demand.
image building a sponsoring organization associates itself and/or its brands with the positive images generated by the unique personality of the sporting event.
implementation putting strategy into action; executing the plan.
implementation phase phase of the strategic sports marketing process of deciding who will carry out the plans, when the plans will be executed, and how the plans will be executed.
income objectives concerned with achieving maximum profits or simply organizational survival.
independent variable the variable that can be manipulated or altered in some way.
indirect competition sports marketers’ competition with all other forms of entertainment for the consumers’ dollar.
indirect objectives establishing pre behavioral responses to advertising that should lead to direct behavioral responses.
indirect sponsorship objectives objectives that ultimately lead to the desired goal of enhancing sales; generating awareness, beating competition, reaching new target markets, building relationships, and improving image.
inelastic demand the principle that changes in price will have little or no impact on sales.
influencers in the buying center, those who can affect the decision-making process.
information accurate information is essential for decision making and necessary in all phases of the strategic sports marketing process.
information search seeking relevant information to resolve a problem.
innovations new sports or sports products.
innovators consumers who are the first to adopt a new sports product as it enters the marketplace.
integrated marketing communications how a sports organization integrates and coordinates its promotional mix elements to deliver a unified message.
internal contingencies all influences within the organization that can affect its strategic marketing process.
internal factors factors controlled by the organization, including other marketing mix elements, costs, and organizational objectives, which influence pricing decisions.
internal source information recalled from memory, based on previous experience.
international events the second level of the Sports Event Pyramid; events that have a high level of interest in a broad but not global geographic region, or that are global in scope but have a lower level of interest in some of the countries reached.
intrapreneurship the process of creating and innovating within an organization, or corporate entrepreneurship.
introduction initial stage of product life cycle when the product is introduced in the marketplace.
judgment sample study participants chosen subjectively based on the researcher’s judgment that they will best fit the purpose of the study.
just noticeable difference (JND) the point at which consumers detect a difference between the original price and the adjusted price.
laggards consumers who adopt a sports product in its declining stage.
late majority consumers who adopt a sports product in its late stages of maturity.
law of demand the principle that consumers are more likely to purchase products at a lower price than a higher price.
layout accessibility referring to whether spectators can move freely about a stadium.
learning a relatively permanent change in response tendency due to the effects of experience.
legal issues factors such as legislation that affect pricing.
leverage ratios measure the extent to which creditors finance the organization.
licensing a contractual agreement whereby a company may use another company’s trademark in exchange for a royalty or fee; also, a practice whereby a sports marketer contracts with other companies to use a brand name, logo, symbol, or characters.
lifestyle advertisements portraying the lifestyle of the desired target audience.
limited problem solving internal and sometimes limited external information search and evaluation of a small number of alternatives on few criteria.
liquidity ratios indicate the organization’s ability to pay short-term obligations without selling assets.
local events the lowest level of the Sports Event Pyramid: events that have the narrowest geographic focus and attract a small segment of consumers who have a high level of interest.
logo see brand mark.
logotype see brand mark.
longitudinal study a study conducted over time in which several measurements are made.
love and belonging according to Maslow, the social need to be a respected part of a group.
macroeconomic elements the big picture, such as the national income.
majority fallacy assuming that the largest group of consumers should always be selected as the target market.
market niche a very homogenous group of consumers as reflected by their unique need.
market segmentation identifying groups of consumers based on their common needs.
market selection decisions decisions made to segment markets, choose targeted consumers, and position the sports product against the competition. These decisions that dictate the direction of the marketing mix.
marketing environment the competitive forces to be assessed in the strategic sports marketing process.
marketing mix integrating sports products, pricing, promotion, and place to meet identified sports consumer needs.
marketing mix variables factors that must be considered when determining the price of a sports product.
marketing myopia the practice of defining a business in terms of goods and services rather than in terms of the benefits sought by customers.
marketing orientation concentration on understanding the consumer and providing a sports product that meets consumers’ needs, while achieving the organization’s objectives.
marketing research the systematic process of collecting, analyzing and reporting information to enhance decision making throughout the strategic sports marketing process
marketing sources information from advertisements, sales personnel, brochures, Web sites, and so on.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs a theory of human motivation based on classification of needs.
match-up hypothesis Belief that states the more congruent the image of the endorser with the image of the product being promoted, the more effective the message
mature market adults, age 55-plus, about 21 percent of the U.S. population.
maturity stage of product life cycle when sales stabilize.
media scheduling continuous, flighting, pulsing, or seasonal types of advertising schedules.
media strategy determining what medium or media mix will be most effective in reaching the desired target audience, and how this media should be schedules to meet advertising objectives.
medium a communications channel, such as television, radio, newspapers, signage, billboards, Web sites, and so on.
message the exact content of the words and symbols to be transmitted to the receiver.
message characteristics the attributes of the promotional message.
methodology description of how a study is conducted.
microeconomic elements smaller elements of the big picture, such as consumer income level.
milestone review evaluation of critical events, major allocations, achievements, or the passage of a certain amount of time as part of process control.
mob effect a situation in which consumers feel it is socially desirable to attend “special” sporting events
model of participant consumption behavior model that tries to understand how consumers arrive at their decisions.
monitoring strategic thrusts evaluating the strategic direction of the marketing plan.
monopolistic competition an environment where numerous brands with identical products are sold requiring both price competition and non-price competition.
monopoly when one seller sets the price for a unique product.
motivation an internal force that directs behavior towards the fulfillment of needs.
national events in the Sports Event Pyramid, events that have an extremely high level of interest among consumers in a single country or two countries.
need for affiliation fans’ need to feel connected to the community and to identify with the team.
new product category entries sports products that are new to the organization, but not to consumers. The sample units are chosen subjectively by the researcher
new product development process idea generation, idea screening, analysis of the concept, development of the product, test marketing, and commercialization.
new-to-the-world products brand new sports innovations such as the first in-line skates, the first sailboard, or the advent of arena football.
niche marketing the process of carving out a relatively tiny part of a market that has a very special need that is not currently being filled
noise interference in the communications process.
nonprice competition the creation of a unique sports product through the packaging, product design, promotion, distribution or any marketing variable other than price
nonprobability sampling the researcher chooses sample units subjectively so there is no way of ensuring that the sample represents the population of interest.
objective and task method identifying promotional objectives, defining the communications tools and tasks needed to meet those objectives, and then adding up the costs of the planned activities.
objectives the long-range purposes of the organization that are not quantified or limited to a time period.
oligopoly a small number of firms controlling a market.
one-sided versus two-sided messages that convey either just the positive or both the positive and negative features of the product.
organizational culture the shared values and assumptions of organizational members that shape an identity and establish preferred behaviors in an organization.
organizational objectives Signposts along the road which help an organization focus on its purpose as stated in the mission statement.
organizational strategies the means by which the organization achieves its objectives and marketing goals.
organized sporting events Sporting competitions that are sanctioned and controlled by a controlling authority such as a league, association or sanctioning body.
overconfident mode characterized by a buyer that believes it is already exceeding its goals.
participant consumption behavior actions performed when searching for, participating in, and evaluating the sports activities that consumers feel will satisfy their needs
participants those who take part in a sport.
perceived risk the uncertainty associated with decision making and the concern for the potential threats of making the wrong decision
percentage of sales determining a standard percentage of promotional spending and applying this proportion to past or forecasted sales to arrive at the amount to be spent.
perception the complex process of selecting, organizing and interpreting sports-related stimuli.
perception of value the acceptable price ranges for sports products, which varies from person to person and is based on perceived benefits.
perceptual maps created through advanced marketing research techniques to examine product positioning.
perishability the ability to store or inventory “pure goods,” whereby services are lost if not consumed.
personal selling a form of person-to-person communication in which a salesperson works with prospective buyers and attempts to influence their purchase needs in the direction of his or her company’s products or services
personal source information from friends and family.
personal training products designed to benefit participants in sports at all levels of competition (e.g., fitness centers, health services, sports camps, and instruction).
personality a set of consistent responses an individual makes to the environment
physical environment natural resources and other characteristics of the natural world that have an impact on sports marketing.
physical surroundings the location, weather, and physical aspects of the participation environment.
physiological needs according to Maslow, the biological needs to eat, drink, and meet other physiological needs, such as have some level of physical activity.
planning assumptions control monitoring the validity of the assumptions used to develop the marketing plan.
planning phase phase of the strategic sports marketing process of understanding sports consumers through marketing research and identifying their wants and needs.
pleasure or fun appeals directed at target audiences that participate in or watch sports for fun, social interaction, or enjoyment.
political, legal, and regulatory environment legal and political issues that affect sports and sports marketing.
point-of-purchase or P-O-P displays a promotional display designed to attract consumers’ attention to a particular product or retail display area
positioning fixing the sports product in the minds of the target market by manipulating the marketing mix
postparticipation evaluation evaluation of a decision after making it and participation has begun.
premiums items given away with the sponsors product as part of the sales promotion.
pretest a “trial run” for a questionnaire to determine if there are any problems in interpreting the questions.
price a statement of value for a sports product
price adjustments changing the price of a product to stimulate demand.
price competition stimulating consumer demand primarily by offering consumers lower prices
price discounts incentives offered to buyers to stimulate demand or reward behaviors that are favorable to the seller
price elasticity the extent to which consumer purchasing patterns are sensitive to fluctuations in price
price increases raising established prices to keep up with inflation or if there is excess demand for the product.
price inelasticity see price elasticity.
price reductions efforts to enhance sales and achieve greater market share by directly lowering the original price
primary data data gathered for the specific research question at hand
primary reference group those people, such as friends and coworkers, who have frequent contact with us and have the power to influence our decisions
probability sampling objective procedures in which sample units have a known and nonzero chance of being selected for study and the accuracy of the results can be estimated.
problem definition specifying what information is needed to assist either in solving problems or identifying opportunities
problem recognition the result of a discrepancy between a desired state and an actual state large enough and important enough to activate the entire decision-making process
process control measuring and evaluating the effects of actions that have already been taken to execute the marketing plan.
producers and intermediaries the manufacturers of sports products or the organizations that perform some function in the marketing of sports products.
product characteristics the important attributes or characteristics that, when taken together, create the total product.
product design the aesthetics, style and function of the sports product
product form product variations within a category.
product life cycle a useful tool for developing marketing strategy and then revising this strategy as a product moves through the stages of introduction, growth, maturity and decline
product line a group of products that are closely related because they satisfy a class of needs, are used together, are sold to the same customer groups, are distributed through the same type of outlets or fall within a given price range
product mix the total assortment of product lines the sports organization sells
product quality consumers’ perception of the performance, features, reliability, conformance, durability, serviceability, aesthetics, and perceived quality of a product.
product warranties statements indicating the liability of the manufacturer for problems with the product.
professional sports sporting competitions in which athletes receive compensation, commonly classified as major or minor league status.
profitability ratios indicate how profitable the organization is during a period of time.
projective techniques methods that allow respondents to project their feelings, beliefs, or motivations onto a relatively neutral stimulus.
promotion all forms of communication to consumers.
promotional budgeting determining the amount to spend on promotion based on maximizing the monies available.
promotion mix elements the combination of elements, including advertising, personal selling, sponsorship, public relations and sales promotion designed to communicate with sports consumers.
promotional objectives informing, persuading, and reminding the target audience.
promotional planning identifying target market considerations; setting promotional objectives; determining the promotional budget; and developing the promotional mix.
psychographic segmentation grouping consumers on the basis of a common lifestyle preference and personality.
public relations the element of the promotion mix that identifies, establishes and maintains mutually beneficial relationships between the sports organizations and the various publics on which its success or failure depends
pull strategy any method a company uses to generate demand for a product. A pull marketing campaign is customer-focused, but should still start with the analysis of the product the company wants to sell. The company needs to determine what the product’s key features are and who is most likely to demand it through extensive market research. Often used to stimulate demand for the sports product so that retailers are forced to stock the sports product, target audience is the ultimate consumer.
pulsing schedule ad expenditures may vary greatly, but some level of advertising is always taking place.
purchasers responsible for negotiating and formally carrying out the terms of the sponsorship.
pure competition a market structure that has so many competitors that none can singularly influence the market price. It does not exist in the sports industry.
pure monopoly one seller who sets the price for unique product.
push strategy focuses on taking the product through the channel of distribution to the customer, and putting the product in front of the customer at the point of purchase. This type of marketing strategy hopes to minimize the amount of time between a customer discovering a product and buying that product. To accomplish this, companies use aggressive and wide-reaching ads to make the biggest and most immediate impact they can on customers.
quality dimension of goods how well a product conforms to specifications related to design and function.
quantity discounts rewarding buyers for purchasing large quantities of a sports product by lower prices.
quota sampling sample elements chosen on the basis of some control characteristic or characteristics of interest to the researcher
ratio analysis quantitative analysis of information based on line items in financial statements like the balance sheet, income statement and cash flow statement; the ratios of one item – or a combination of items – to another item or combination are then calculated. Ratio analysis is used to evaluate various aspects of a company’s operating and financial performance such as its efficiency, liquidity, profitability and solvency.
reach the number of people exposed to an advertisement in a given medium
receiver the audience or the object of the source’s message.
regional events in the Sports Event Pyramid, events that have a narrow geographic focus but high interest levels in the region.
reference groups individuals who influence the information, attitudes, and behaviors of other group members
relationship marketing the process of creating, maintaining, and enhancing strong, value-laden relationships with customers and other stakeholders.
reliability the ability to perform promised service dependably and accurately.
reposition to change the image or perception of the sports entity in the minds of consumers in the target market.
research design the framework or plan for a study that guides the collection and analysis of data.
research objectives the various types of information needed to address a problem or opportunity.
research problem statement definition of the problem to be solved or opportunity to be identified.
research proposal a written blueprint that describes all the information necessary to conduct and control the study.
response modes the various reactions of buyers in a sales situation.
responsiveness the willingness to help customers and provide prompt service
rewards as part of an implementation plan, used to motivate behavior that supports the strategy.
roles patterns of behavior expected by people in a given position.
safety needs according to Maslow, the need to feel physically safe and to remain healthy.
sales funnel a model of organizing clients so that sales people can allocate their efforts in the most efficient and effective manner.
sales objectives concerned with maintaining or enhancing market share and encouraging sales growth.
sales promotions a variety of short term, promotional activities that are designed to stimulate immediate product demand.
sample a subset of the population of interest from which data is gathered to estimate some characteristic of the population.
sampling inducing customers to try new products by giving away a product or putting on an exhibition game.
sanctioning authoritative permission or approval that makes a course of action valid, often surrounding a consideration, influence, or principal that dictates an ethical choice.
scientific advertisements featuring the technological superiority of the advertised product or using research or scientific studies to support these claims.
scoreboard quality a dimension of the stadium that is sometimes seen as the focal point of the interior.
seasonal type of product life cycle characterized by rise and fall of sales according to opening and closing dates of the sports season.
seasonal discounts reduction in prices to stimulate demand in off-peak periods
seating comfort perceived comfort of the seating and the spacing of the seats relative to each other in a stadium.
secondary data data that has already been collected, but is still relevant to the research question.
second screening a supplementary social, and synchronized experience that delivers enhanced content to a tablet or smartphone, engaging a consumer through a second screen (Second Screen Society, 2014).
selective attention a consumer’s focus on a specific marketing stimulus based on personal needs and attitudes.
selective interpretation consumers perceive things in ways that are consistent with their existing attitudes and values.
selective retention the tendency to remember only certain information.
self-actualization according to Maslow, the individual’s need to fulfill personal life goals.
self-esteem enhancement one of Wann’s 8 basic motives for watching sport; to enhance or maintain self-esteem through associating with a winning team.
separability the ability to separate the quality of a good from the quality of a service.
service quality the physical, interactive, and corporate dimensions of a product.
services intangible, non-physical products.
sex appeals type of emotional appeal used in advertising.
sidedness based on the nature of the information presented to the target audience; only positive features of the product, or both benefits and weaknesses.
signage a factor of the sportscape that affects spectators’ enjoyment of the game experience.
simplified model of the consumer-supplier relationship Framework for describing the consumers of sport, the sports products that they consume, and the suppliers of the sport product.
simulated test market nontraditional test market approach in which respondents participate in a series of activities in a laboratory environment.
situational factors factors that may affect a consumer’s acceptable range of prices; presence or absence of time, usage situation, and social factors.
situational factors temporary factors within a particular time or place that influence the participation decision-making process
slice-of-life advertisements showing an athlete or consumer in an everyday situation in which the consumer might be using the advertised product.
social class the homogeneous division of people in a society sharing similar values, lifestyles, and behaviors that can be hierarchically categorized.
social concerns a type of organizational objective that influences pricing.
social learning watching others and learning from their actions.
social surroundings the effect of others on a participant during participation in an event.
socialization learning the skills, knowledge, and attitudes necessary for participation.
socializing agents direct and indirect influences on children.
socioeconomic segmentation grouping consumers on the basis of social class and income.
sociological or external factors influences outside an individual that affect the decision-making process.
source sender of a message; beginning of the communication process.
space allocation a factor of the sportscape that affects spectators’ enjoyment of the game experience.
spectators consumers who derive their benefit from the observation of the event.
sponsor the individual or group that provides the support, similar to a benefactor.
sponsorship investing in a sports entity (athlete, league, team, event, etc.) to support overall organizational objectives, marketing goals, and/or more specific promotional objectives
sponsorship budgeting methods determining competitive parity, arbitrary allocation, percentage of sales, and the objective and task method.
sponsorship evaluation process of determining the sponsorship decision by the buying center in the organization.
sponsorship objectives direct or indirect objectives.
sponsorship program one element of the promotional strategy.
sport a source of diversion or a physical activity engaged in for pleasure.
sport sponsorship acquisition model of the corporate sponsorship decision-making process by Arthur, Scott, and Woods.
sporting event the primary product of the sports industry – the competition.
sporting goods tangible products that are manufactured, distributed, and marketed within the sports industry.
sports equipment manufacturers responsible for producing and sometimes marketing the sports equipment used by consumers.
Sports Event Pyramid Shani and Sandler’s model of categorizing various sponsorship opportunities.
sports information news, statistics, schedules, and stories about sports.
sports involvement the perceived interest in and personal importance of sports to an individual participating in a sport.
sports marketing applying marketing principles and processes to sports products and nonsports products associated with sports.
sports marketing mix the coordinated set of product and service strategies, pricing decisions, and distribution issues that sports organizations use to meet marketing objectives and satisfy consumers’ needs.
sports product a good, a service, or any combination of the two designed to provide benefits to a sports spectator, participant, or sponsor.
sports product map the intersection of the dimensions of goods–services and body—mind.
sports sponsorship exchanging money or product for the right to associate a name or product with a sporting event.
sportscape the physical surroundings of the stadium that impact spectators desire to stay at the stadium and ultimately return to the stadium.
stacking using both a manufacturer’s coupon and a store coupon for purchase.
stadium access issues such as availability of parking, ease of entering and exiting the parking areas, and location of parking relative to the stadium.
stadium factors variables such as newness of the stadium, stadium access, aesthetics of the stadium, seat comfort, and cleanliness of the stadium, which are all positively related to game attendance.
stadium signage on-site advertising.
staffing and skills having a leader who can champion and communicate the marketing strategy and a staff that cares about and can implement the strategy.
standardization receiving the same level of quality over repeat purchase.
strategic control the critical evaluation of plans, activities, and results, thereby providing information for future strategic action
stategic selling a personal selling strategy that takes into account buying influences, red flags, response modes, win results, the sales funnel, and the ideal customer profile.
strategic sports marketing process the process of planning, implementing, and controlling marketing efforts to meet organizational goals and satisfy consumers’ needs.
strategic windows a limited period of time during which the characteristics of a market and the distinctive competencies of a firm fit together well.
sweepstakes and contests sales promotional tools; games of chance or luck and competitions that award prizes on the basis of contestants’ skills and ability.
tangibility the ability to see, feel, and touch the product.
tangibles the physical facilities, equipment, and the appearance of the service personnel
target market considerations identifying the target market and planning promotions to reach that specific market.
target marketing choosing the segment(s) that will allow an organization to most efficiently and effectively attain its marketing objectives
task definition the reasons that occasion the need to participate in a sport, which affect the decision-making process.
TEAMQUAL a survey instrument used to evaluate spectators’ perceptions of service quality for an NBA team.
technical buying role screening potential suppliers on the basis of meeting or failing to meet a variety of technical specifications that have been determined in advance.
technology a rapidly changing environmental influence on sports marketing; it can have an indirect or direct influence on pricing decisions.
test marketing introducing a new product or service in one or more geographic areas on a limited basis.
testimonials statements about the sports product given by endorsers.
time a situational influence on the decision-making process.
total cost sum of the variables and fixed costs.
Total Quality Management (TQM) an integrative management concept for continuously improving the quality of goods and services at all levels of the organization.
trademark identifies that a sports organization has legally registered its brand name or brand mark and thus prevents others from using it.
trouble mode characterized by a buyer experiencing difficulties.
trustworthiness the honesty and believability of the athlete endorser.
types of adopters various groups of consumers likely to try a product at any given stage.
unitary demand the situation when price changes are offset exactly by changes in demand; price and demand are perfectly related.
unorganized sports the sporting activities people engage in that are not sanctioned or controlled by some external authority.
user buying role making judgments about the potential impact of the product on job performance.
values widely held beliefs that affirm what is desirable in a culture.
variable costs the sum of the producer’s expenses that vary and change as a result of the quantity of the product being consumed
vision a long-term roadmap for where the organization is headed.
win-results in the strategic selling process, an objective result that gives one or more of the buying influences a personal win.