INDEX
Page references followed by fig indicate an illustrated figure; followed by t indicate a table; followed by e indicate an exhibit.
A
ACCESS (software), 99
Acculturation, 350
ACESAS (African American Culturally Responsive Evaluation System for Academic Settings): acronym of the, 348–349; description of, 347–348, 360–362; framework for, 362–363; logic model components, 364–370; purpose of the, 363–364; sankofa bird model of, 361fig–362
ACESAS logic models: contextual analysis component, 365–366; CRE action steps component, 368–369; CRE products component, 369; CRE team component, 366–367; CRE team resources component, 367–368; cultural and sociopolitical influences component, 364–365; evaluation impact component, 369; influence and impact on cultural group component, 370
Acting (practitioner research), 299, 300–301
Action research, 292, 400. See also Practitioner action
research
Active listening, 409
Activism stance, 381
Activities (logic model), 360
Aesthetic qualities of arts-based
research, 286
African American communities: CRE (culturally responsive evaluation) implemented in, 357–358; culture of, 350–352; worldview of, 354
African American culture: characteristics of, 350–352; individualism to collectivism continuum of, 350
African Americans: acculturation of, 350; Brown v. Board of Education decision on education desegregation of, 350; double consciousness of, 350; implications of racial group classification for, 353–354; narrative inquiry into experiences of, 220–221; Tuskegee experiments (1933–1972) on, 21–22
African Ancestry, 122
The Afrocentric Idea (Asante), 358
Afrocentricity, 358
Agency: biography and life story, 112; critical ethnography, 374, 377–378; historical, 148–149; relationship of structure and, 378
Alternative representations, 267
American Anthropological Association (AAA), 34, 98, 169
American Educational Research Association (AERA), 31, 273, 294
American Evaluation Association (AEA), 31, 326, 329, 357, 358
American Indian Higher Education Consortium, 360
American Journal of Sociology, 425
American Psychological Association (APA), 31, 357–358
American Sign Language, 23
American sociological Association (ASA), 31
Analytic induction, 179
Analytic summaries, 99
Androcentric (male-centered) assumptions, 393–394
Anthropology as Critique: An Experimental Moment in the Human Sciences (Marcus and Fisher), 181
Anthropometry, 398
APA's Council of National Psychological Association for the Advancement of Ethnic Minority Interests, 31
APA's Joint Task Force of Division, 17, 31
Archival research, 90
Argonauts of the Western Pacific (Malinowski), 180
Artifacts: ethnographic data collection using, 175–176; as primary sources, 152
Arts-based research: background of, 272–274; Boundary Bay: A Novel (Dunlop) example of, 280–282; description of, 271–272; Evidence of Utopianizing Toward Social Justice in Young People's Community-Based Art Works (Chappell) example of, 282–284; genre blurring technique used in, 273; learning from, 284–285; planning and conducting, 277–279; purposes of, 274–276; trusting, 285–286
Assent, 35. See also Informed consent
Atlas-ti (software), 99
Audiences: cast study research outcomes for, 244; program evaluation, 322
Audiovisual documentation, 90, 95t, 312t
Audit trails, 418
Authenticity: catalytic, 30; as deliberate democratic research caveat, 465; description of, 29; educative, 30; ontological, 30; tactical, 30
“Autobiography and the Necessary Incompleteness of Teachers' Stories” (Miller), 238
Autoethnography: benefits of, 204–206; Carolyn's introduction to, 193–195; community, 203; crisis of confidence concerns about, 196; critical responses to, 206–209; epiphanies recorded by, 198–200; ethnography aspect of, 199; forms of, 202–204; generalizability of, 207; helping insiders and outsiders to understand the culture, 199; identity politics of, 196; methods used for, 198–200; narrative inquiry through, 238; origins and development of, 196–198; outcomes for Tony and Carolyn, 209–210; participant observers in, 199; reliability and validity of, 207; Tony's introduction to, 190–193; writing, 200–201. See also Ethnography; LGBTQ youth
Autonomy: feminist oral history on female, 410–411; researcher, 303, 314e
Axiological belief systems, 22–23
Axiologies: as consideration in research, 431–434; definition of, 425
B
Balance (or fairness), 30
Belmont Report: on norms for research, 19–20; three ethical principles identified in, 19, 22, 23–28; on voluntary informed consent, 32–33
Beneficence: definition of, 22; transformative perspective of, 23–24
Biases: CRE (culturally responsive evaluation) approach to, 356; minimizing, 255e; program evaluator, 339; researcher, 255; triangulating analyst to minimize, 340
Biography: definition of, 142; as narrative inquiry genre, 225, 226
Biography and life story research: contemporary design of, 112–116; data analytic methods used for, 125–131; data collection methods and tools used for, 116–123; data processing used in, 124–125; description of, 107–108; dissemination of findings, 133; historical roots in psychology, 109–110; key theoretical underpinnings of, 110–112; reliability and validity issues of, 131–133. See also Historical research; Life story research study
“Black English,” 351
Body Knowledge and Curriculum: Pedagogies of Touch in Youth and Visual Culture (Springgay), 276
Body maps, 96t
Bottom-up view of history, 146–147
Boundary Bay: A Novel (Dunlop) [arts-based research], 280–282
Bounded system, 91
Bracketed interview, 255
Brown v. Board of Education, 350
C
Case histories (or case records), 244
Case method, 244
Case studies: characteristics of, 245–247; description of, 244; instrumental, 246–247; intrinsic, 246; purposes of, 246–247; types of, 247
Case study reports: alternative representations of, 267; descriptive and interpretive, 266–267e; naturalistic generalization of, 267; thick description of, 267
Case study research: case study reports component of, 266–268; description of, 243–244; implementing, 261–265; planning, 247–261. See also Dental hygiene student tutor study
Case study research implementation: coding, 263–264e; data analysis, 263–264e; data collection, 261–262t; member checking, 265–266e; two-column journaling template for, 262t; validity issues, 265
Case study research planning: bounding or limiting the case, 248–249; data collection, 251–255; dental hygiene student tutor study, 248e; writing study questions, 249–250e
Cases: bounding of the, 245–246, 248–249; description of, 243; seeking discrepant, 419
casework, 244
Catalytic authenticity, 30
Catalytic validity, 419
Categories: core, 48; defining gaps among, 60; ethnographic typologies and taxonomies from, 178; focused coding, 46, 48–51; generating and refining grounded theory, 50; historical categories of analysis, 157–158; initial (or open) coding, 44–46, 47t; tentative conceptual, 49–50; theoretical coding, 51–54; theoretical saturation of, 61–62, 178–179, 253; theoretical sensitivity to relationships between, 62–63
Categories of analysis, 157–158
Census, 74
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 360
Certainty: epistemological predisposition toward, 272–273; John Dewey on quest for, 272
Certificate of confidentiality, 35
Change the Nation(Youth Movement Records album), 283–284
Chicago School, 6
Child informed consent, 35
CIPP Evaluation Model, 325, 333, 362
CIRM (critical indigenous research methodologies): colonization and call for (re) claiming, 424–427; critical component of, 442–443; description of, 424, 434; empiricism and multisensory listening approach of, 440–441; epistemological, ontological, and axiological research considerations, 431–434; future directions of, 443–444; impact of traditional research on indigenous communities, 428–431; indigenous methodologies paradigm of, 442; reciprocity of, 439–440; relationality of, 436–437; research as a service approach of, 435–436; resistance and critique of, 444–446; respect of, 438–439; response to critiques of, 446–447; responsibility of, 438. See also Indigenous/native communities
Civic capacity, 368
Class issues: classical Marxism approach to, 375; as The Denver Study issue, 452–454
Classical Marxism, 375
Co-constructed narratives, 204
Code of Ethics of the American Sociological Association (ASA), 169
Coding: Atlas-ti or NVivo software used for, 98–99; case study research, 263–264e; description of, 44, 98–99; ethnographic data analysis, 177–178; focused, 46, 48–51, 57e–58e; initial (or open coding), 44–46, 47t; thematic content analysis, 129–131; theoretical, 51–54. See also Data; Data analysis
Collaborative (or participatory) approach: deliberate democratic research, 466–467; description of, 78
Collective memory, 354
Collectivism culture, 350
Colonization: of indigenous/ native communities, 424–427; reclaiming indigenous identity/ knowledge from, 431–434
Communication: active listening, 409; CIRM's practice of multisensory listening, 440–441; deliberative democratic principle of dialogue, 459–460, 468, 469e–470e
Community autoethnographies, 203
Community mapping, 90
Comparative case studies, 247
Competency: cultural, 31–32; researcher, 31–32
Conceptual models: case study research, 249–250e; data analysis approach for, 99; domains identified using, 80–81; formulating, 79–81; HIV/AIDS study, 81, 86–87fig; strategies used to create, 86. See also Theoretical (or conceptual) frameworks
Confidentiality: certificate of, 35; IRB requirements for, 37; research issue of, 36–37
Confirmability, 29
Conflict of interest validity, 7
Congress of Hispanic Educators, 462
Consequence (narrative), 221
Constant comparative method, 46, 178
Construct: of culture, 349; of race, 349, 353
Constructivist paradigm: biography and life story research, 113; data collection in grounded theory, 44; description of, 22–23; grounded theory research using, 43
Contemporary Ethnography Across the Disciplines (CEAD) conference [2010], 184
Context: case study research observation, 257; CRE logic model component on, 365–366; cultural, 355; definition of historical, 143–144; historical research, 143–145
Contextual analysis (CRE model), 365–366
Convenience sampling, 60
Core category, 48
Council for World Mission/ London Missionary Society, 176
Counterevidence, 150
Counterhegemonic, 445
CRE (culturally responsive evaluation): ACESAS logic model components used for, 364–370; benefits of, 358–359; description of, 348, 349, 355; implementing in African American community settings, 357–358; origin of, 355. See also Culture/cultures
CRE evaluators: characteristics of, 355–357; cultural competencies of, 356–357
Credibility: description of, 29; program evaluation, 338. See also Trustworthiness; Validity
Crisis of confidence, 196
Criterion sampling, 84
Critical component of CIRM, 442–443
Critical ethnography: comparing traditional ethnography and, 374–375; critiques of, 386–388; elements of, 377–383; introduction to, 374–375; practices of doing, 383–385; theoretical and historical foundations of, 375–377; validity and trustworthiness of, 386–387. See also Ethnography
Critical ethnography elements: drawing on and building theory, 378–379; focus on power-related identities and oppressions, 379–380; micro and macro phenomena, 378; reflecting on representation and positionality, 380–382, 387; structure and agency, 374, 377–378; taking a stand against inequity, 382–383
Critical events: description of, 219; narrative inquiry using, 219–221
Critical life episode, 117
Critical (or interpretive) traditions, 296
Critical persuasion, 274
Critical social action, 296
Cultural acceptability, 464
Cultural competencies: ACESAS approach to, 363–364; CRE evaluators, 356–357; description of, 31–32
Cultural consensus modeling, 89
Cultural context, 355
Cultural diversity, 465
Cultural egoism, 354
Cultural history, 142
Cultural interpretation, 165
Culturally responsive evaluation product, 369
Culturally responsive evaluation review, 369
Culture/cultures: characteristics of African American, 350–352; code-switching between two different, 350–351; construct of, 349; definition of, 349; deliberate democratic research caveates related to, 464–465; difference between race and, 352–353; helping insiders and outsider to understand the, 199; individualism and collectivism, 350; informants on their, 165–166; as issues in The Denver Study, 452–454; meaning in context of, 126; respectful research in relationship of language and, 26. See also CRE (culturally responsive evaluation); Society
Custer Died for Your Sins: An Indian Manifesto (Deloria), 425, 426
Cyclical philosophy of history, 156
D
Data: critical ethnographic approach to “hot,” 380; ethnographic, 176–180; process of biography and life story, 124–125; quantitative historical, 153–154; transcription of audio or video, 125. See also Coding; Information; Triangulation
Data analysis: analytic summaries used during, 99; Atlas-ti or NVivo software used for, 98–99; biography and life story approaches to, 125–131; case study research, 263–264e; critical ethnography, 385; description of, 98; discourse analytic question asked during, 127; ethnographic, 176–180; general analytic mind-set adopted during, 126–127; interpretation, 125–126; Ke Aka Ho'ona project evaluation, 334, 336; thematic content analysis approach to, 129–131; triangulating for, 99–100. See also Coding
Data collection: audit trails of, 418; case study research, 251–255, 261–262t; constructivist grounded theory on, 44; cultural level of, 89–90; example of depression study, 74–75; individual level of, 90–91; issues to consider for, 43–44; Ke Aka Ho'ona project evaluation, 334, 335t; main classes of individual and community levels of, 88t; participation element of qualitative, 70–71; practitioner action research, 308–312t; researcher position in, 88–91
Data collection instruments: case study research, 255–261; designing valid, 256; Developmental Success Matrix (DSM), 122; Flanders Interaction Analysis, 257, 259; guided autobiography, 118–119, 121, 126; Guided Race Autobiography (GRA), 121–123; Identity and Success Life Story Method (ISLSM), 120–121fig, 133; law of the instrument tendency to reuse, 311–312; Life Story Interview, 117–119, 127; Life Story Telling (LST), 121; NEO Personality Inventory, 122; program evaluation use of, 334; Self-Defining Memory Task, 119–120, 126
Data collection methods: archival research, 90; audiovisual documentation, 90, 95t, 312t; Biography and life story research design, 112–116; bounded system and semibounded system, 91; case study research, 255–261; community mapping, 90; cultural consensus modeling, 89; data recording, 123; ethnographic research, 171–176; focus groups, 173; individual-level network data, 91; journaling, 262t, 312t; logs, 312t; network research, 89–90; nonparticipant participant observer, 172; selecting, 92–97; surveys, 91, 173–174, 256–257. See also Interviews; Methods; Observation
Data recording: biography and life story research use of, 123; case study research use of, 260e
Decolonizing Methodologies (Smith), 425
Deductive analysis, 177
Deficit orientation, 305
Deliberate democratic research: The Denver Study example of, 452–459; description and principles of, 459–461; guidelines for conducting, 467–470e; research methods and democratic procedures of, 461–464; ten caveats for using, 464–467
Deliberate democratic research caveates: authentic processes, 465; balance of power, 467; collaboration, 466–467; constraints on self-interest, 467; cultural acceptability, 464; cultural diversity, 464; faithful representation, 465; focusing on issues, 466; rules and principles, 466; structured interaction, 465–466
Deliberate democratic research guidelines: deliberation, 468, 470e; dialogue, 468, 469e–470e; inclusion, 468, 469e; overview of, 467–468
Deliberate democratic research principles: deliberation, 460; dialogue as, 459–460; inclusion as, 459
Deliberation guideline, 468, 470e
Dental hygiene student tutor study: case, limits, and purpose, 248e; case study research questions used in, 250e; coding during the, 264e; contrary findings of, 265e; data recording during, 260e; descriptive statement of patterns and findings, 267e; example of questions linked to data sources/types, 252e; excerpt of tutor interview protocol, 258e–259e; member checking during, 266e; minimizing bias, 255e; pilot and field testing interview protocol of, 27e; researcher skill development in, 254e; theoretical or conceptual framework, 2250e. See also Case study research
The Denver Study: background information on, 452; bilingual language debate during, 452–453; constant change impact school district during, 457; district's English Language Acquisition (ELA) program, 452, 455–456, 457; language, class, and cultural politics impacting, 452–454; research plan used for, 457; school district power shifts during, 458–459; stakeholder groups in the, 452
Dependability, 29
Depression study in older population, 72–75t
Descriptive case study reports, 266, 267e
Design. See Methodology
Designing Evaluations (GAO manual), 337–338
Deterministic (Marxism), 375
Developmental Success Matrix (DSM), 122
Dewey, John, 272
Dialogue principle, 459–460, 468, 469e–470e
Dilthey, Wilhem, 6
Diplomatic (or political) history, 142
Discourse analytic question, 127
Discrepant cases, 419
Dissemination: biography and life story research, 133; critical ethnography findings, 385; culturally responsive evaluation product for, 369; program evaluation, 336–337
Documentation: archival, 151–152; audiovisual, 90, 94t, 312t; cameras and digital recorders for, 97; “ethnographic broadside” desire for, 167; ethnographic use of written records and, 175–176; network research, 89–90; photography, 95t
Domains: description of, 80; portrayed as causal chains, 80–81; predictor and outcomes, 80
Dora case study (Freud), 128
Double consciousness, 350
Doughboys, the Great War, and the Remaking of America (Keene), 141
Duration, 82
E
Ecological validity, 7
Educative authenticity, 30
Emic perspective (insiderparticipant), 12, 87, 165
Empiricism/empirical information: description of, 4–5; feminist research, 393; indigenous, 440–441
Epistemological research, 7
Epistemologies: as consideration in research, 431–434; definition of, 425
Equity: critical ethnographic stand against, 382–383; definition of, 382; women's movement for, 392–393
Erickson, Erik, 110
Ethical and equitable research, 398
Ethical issues: axiology study of, 22; Code of Ethics of the American Sociological Association (ASA), 169; confidentiality, 36–37; constructivist paradigm framing of, 22–23; ethical norms for research, 28–37; ethical principles of research, 21–28; feminist research practices, 398–399; guidance for ethical conduct of research, 20–21; informed consent, 32–36; IRB (institutional review board) role in, 21, 33, 34, 97–98; program evaluators and, 327t–328t; relational ethics, 204, 205–206; research dilemmas related to, 20; researcher as instrument, 21; transformative paradigm framing of, 22, 23–28. See also Research
Ethical norms: of feminist research, 398–399; validity, rigor, and qualitative research, 28–30
Ethical principles: Belmont Report's identification of three, 19, 22; beneficence, 22, 23–24; justice, 22, 27–28; respect, 22, 25–26
Ethnic Differences: Schooling and Social Structure Among the Irish, Italians, Jews and Blacks in an American City, 1880–1935 (Perlmann), 154
Ethnographers: cultural interpretation of, 165; emic perspective of, 12, 87, 165; ethnographic realism style of writing by, 180–181; etic perspective of, 12, 165; fieldwork of, 169–170; how they begin their research, 167–169; participantobserver role of, 172, 175
Ethnographic data: iterative nature of, 176; organizing, 176–177
Ethnographic data analysis: analytic induction approach to, 179; coding used for, 177–178; constant comparative method of, 178; deductive and inductive, 177; theoretical saturation outcome of, 178–179; typologies or taxonomies developed during, 178
Ethnographic data collection: focus groups, 173; interviews, 172–173; key informants used for, 175; non-participant participant observer, 172; participant observation, 171–172; projective techniques used in, 174; surveys, 173–174; written records and artifacts used during, 175–176
Ethnographic interviews, 172–173
Ethnographic mapping, 85
Ethnographic research: current state of, 183–184; data collection methods used in, 171–176; data and data analysis in, 176–180; emic perspective (insider-participant) of, 12, 87, 165; how to begin, 167–169; introduction to, 163–164; overview of, 165–167; thick description characterization of, 165, 201; validity of, 182–183
Ethnographic writing: polyphonic or heteroglossic styles of, 181; realism of, 180–181; reflexivity strategy used in, 181; representation used in, 181; trope (or common theme) of, 180; vignettes of, 180
Ethnographies: indigenous/ native, 202; narrative, 202; reflexive, 203
Ethnography: comparing critical and traditional, 374–375; definition of, 165; feminist research use of, 412; informed consent requirements of, 169; institutional review boards (IRBs) role in, 169; as iterative, 176; multi-sited, 166–167; naturalistic, 166; salvage, 167. See also Autoethnography; Critical ethnography
Etic perspective (outside-rresearcher), 12, 165
Evaluation: autoethnography, 206–209; culturally responsive evaluation (CRE), 348, 349; description of, 322. See also Program evaluation
Evaluation Center of Western Michigan University, 325, 330–331
Event-specific life experience, 116
Evidence of Utopianizing Toward Social Justice in Young People's Community-Based Art Works (Chappell) [arts-based research], 282–284
Executive summary, 336
Experience: biographical and life story research use of, 116–117; critical life episode from, 117; event-specific life, 116; feminist research questions drawn from lived, 405; lifetime period, 116; narrative specificity on, 116; transactional, 222–223; understood through stories, 218–219. See also Narrative inquiry; Stories
Exploitative system, 375
External evaluations, 339
External validity: representativeness and, 132; transferability parallels to, 29
Extreme (or midpoint) sampling, 84–85
F
Fairness (or balance), 30
Feminism: definition of, 392; research evolution of, 27–28
Feminist ethnography: description of, 412; methodology used for, 412–413; narrative practices used in, 414–415; navigating thee setting, 414; Reluctant Avon Lady study, 415–417; researcher access and entry in, 413–414
Feminist oral history: emancipatory potential of, 408; Grandmother goes to the Racetrack (Borland interview), 410–411; revelations possible from, 409–410
Feminist research: design and questions used for, 405–411; ethnographic approach used in, 412, 415–417; gender studies of, 397; guiding principles of, 395–400; historical roots of, 392–394; methodology used for, 395, 409, 412–413; nonobjectivity of, 396; overview of, 392; qualitative approaches used in, 407–408; trusting validity of, 418–419; Women Living with HIV/AIDS, 400–404. See also Women
Feminist researchers: access and entry by, 413–414; narrative practices used by, 414–415; navigating the setting, 414
Feminist standpoint theory, 396
Field tests: case study research, 256; tutor study example of, 257e
Fieldwork: ethnographic, 169–170; four stages of, 171; full cycle of activities required for, 170–171
Findings. See Dissemination
Flanders Interaction Analysis, 257, 259
Focus groups, 173
Focused coding: description and overview of, 46, 48–51; example of memo taken during, 57e–58e; examples of, 49t; following comparisons which may help during, 50
Focused in-depth interviews, 94t
Focusing (practitioner research), 298, 300
Formative evaluation questions, 332
Formative model of research, 73fig
Full cycle of activities, 170–171
“The Future of Narrative” (Munro-Hendry), 236
G
Gandhi's Truth (Erikson), 110
Gaps among categories, 60
Gatekeepers, 168
Gayness experience. See Authoethnography
Gender issues: evolution of research on, 27–28; feminist oral history revelations on, 409; feminist research focus on, 397
General analytic mind-set, 126–127
Generalizability: arts-based research naturalistic, 285; autoethnography, 207; case study research naturalistic, 267; narrative inquiry, 231, 232; psychological, 285; sampling, 84
Generativity, 286
Genre blurring, 273
GIS mapping software, 99
“Grand tour question,” 116
Grounded theory: analytic induction similarities to, 179; description of, 12, 41–42; inductive logic of, 41, 42; iterative method of, 41–42
Grounded theory research: coding data in, 44–54; constructivist perspective of, 43; data gathering in, 43–44; issues to consider for, 42–43; memos and memo writing during, 54–59; theoretical sampling and saturation during, 60–62; theoretical sensitivity and using the literature during, 62–63
Guided autobiography instrument, 118–119, 121, 126
Guided Race Autobiography (GRA), 121–123
Guiding principles: Belmont Report's three ethical, 19, 22, 23–28; feminist research, 395–396; program evaluation, 326–328t
Guiding Principles for Evaluators (APA), 357–358
Gulf Coast oil spill disaster (2010), 244
H
Haiti earthquake (2010), 234, 235
Heteroglossic text, 181
Heuristic purpose, 274
Historical imagination, 144
Historical research: context of, 143–145; finding a topic, 139–141; sources used to find evidence, 149–155; specialized topic areas of, 142–143; topic categories, 142–143. See also Biography and life story research
Historical truth, 132
History: case histories (or case records), 244; the how of historical research evidence, 149–155; investigative drama of, 138–139; oral, 225, 229–230, 408, 409–410; philosophies of, 156; types of, 142–143; the what of, 139–143; the when and historical context of, 143–145; the where and foci of, 145–147; the who of historical actors, 147–149; the why of historical interpretation and analysis, 155–158
HIV/AIDS studies: conceptual model designed for, 81, 86; initial conceptual model of older adults and exposure to, 87fig; Women Living with HIV/AIDS, 400–404
“Hot” data, 380
Housing/injection drug users study, 77–78
Human individuality, 111
Human Relations Area Files (HRAF), 177
Husserl, Edmund, 6
Hypothesis, description of, 5
I
Identity: critical ethnographic focus on power-related, 379–380; Menominee, 223–224; policies of, 196
Identity and Success Life Story Method (ISLSM), 120–121fig, 133
Identity and Success Research Lab (ISRL), 130–131
Idiographic approach to personality, 109
Illumination, 286
Immigration law case study, 244
Impact (logic models), 360
In-depth ethnographic interviews, 173
In-depth interviews: cameras and digital recorders to record, 97; description of, 90; focused, 94t; open-ended, 94t; sampling plan for depression study, 75t; semistructured, 94t; structured, 94t
Incident-by-incident coding, 45–46
Incisive arts-based research, 286
Inclusion principle, 459, 468, 469e
Indigeneity, 434
Indigenous empiricism, 440–441
Indigenous methodologies paradigm, 442
Indigenous/native communities: CIRM for reclamation of voice by, 443–444; CIRM serving research needs as defined by, 435–436; colonization of, 424–427; ethnographies of, 202; hegemony used as denial of, 444–445; negative connotation of research to, 428–431; political and social justice goals of, 443. See also CIRM (critical indigenous research methodologies)
Individual-level network data, 91
Individualism culture, 350
Inductive analysis, 177
Inductive process: description of, 12; of grounded theory, 41, 42
Informants: case research study, 252–253; ethnography, 166–167, 175; program evaluation, 334. See also Participants
Information: empirical, 4–5; quantitative historical, 153–154; ventriloquist stance by researchers on, 381; Vestehen approach to gathering, 6. See also Data; Knowledge
Informed consent: Belmont Report on voluntary, 32–33; children and, 35; ethnographic research and, 269; feminist research, 398; obtaining signatures for, 33–34; older adults and, 35–36; qualitative research designs and, 34–35; role of IRBs in, 33, 34. See also Assent; Qualitative research
Initial (or open) coding: analytical questions to aid in, 45; constant comparative method used for, 46; description of, 44–45; examples of, 47t; incident-by-incident, 45–46; line-byline, 45–46
Injection drug users/housing study, 77–78
Inputs (or resources): ACESAS logic model on, 367–368; logic model component of, 360
Insider/outsider status, 402
Institute for Community Research, 81
Institutional review boards (IRBs): confidentiality requirements of, 37; data collection review and approval by, 97–98; description of, 21; ethnographic research permissions from, 169; voluntary informed consent role of, 33, 34
Instrumental case studies, 246–247
Instrumental (or technical) transfer, 295
Instruments. See Data collection instruments
Intellectual history, 142
Interactive interviews, 203
Interdisciplinary research, 405
Internal reliability, 183
Internal validity, 132
Interpretation: critical ethnography, 385; data analysis, 125–126; ethnographic cultural, 165; historical analysis and, 155–158
Interpretive case study reports, 266–267
Interpretive (or critical) traditions, 296
Interpretivist perspective: defining the research questions using, 79; description of, 8–9; methodological decisions guided by, 76–77
Interrogatory purpose, 274
Intersubjective modes of knowledge production, 237
Interview instruments: Developmental Success Matrix (DSM), 122; Guided Race Autobiography (GRA), 121–123; Identity and Success Life Story Method (ISLSM), 120–121fig; Life Story Interview, 117–119; Life Story Telling (LST), 121; Self-Defining Memory Task, 119–120; stimulated recall (S-R), 308–312. See also Data collection methods
Interview protocol: case study research, 257; tutor study excerpt of, 258e–259e
Interviews: bracketed, 255; cameras and digital recorders to record, 97; case study research, 256–257e; ethnographic, 172–173; guided autobiography method of, 118–119; incident-by-incident coding of, 45–46; interactive, 203; line-by-line coding of, 45–46; member checks for accuracy of, 183; oral, 152–153; practitioner action research, 312t; reflexive, dyadic, 203; sampling plan for depression study in-depth, 75t; selecting methods for in-depth, 94t; semistructured, 90, 117; stimulated recall (S-R) approach to, 308–312; unstructured, 116–117
Intrinsic case studies, 246
Introspection (or reflexivity): critical ethnographic, 381–382; ethnographic, 181; feminist research, 397–398
Intuitionist/pluralist evaluation perspective, 323–324
Items for classifications, 96t
Iterative (ethnography), 176
J
Jeffersonian method, 125
Jottings, 413
Journals: case study template for keeping, 262t; practitioner action research, 312t
Jung, Carl, 128
Justice: definition of, 22, 27; indigenous/native goals for social, 443; transformative perspective on, 27–28
K
K&M (Kemmis and McTaggart) design models, 305t
Ke Aka Ho'ona project evaluation: background information on, 330–331; criteria used for, 332e; data analysis during, 334, 336; data collection during, 334, 335t; evaluation questions used during, 333t; feedback workshops held during, 337; selecting standards for, 333–334. See also Program evaluation
Kellogg Foundation, 330, 331, 360
Key informants: case research study, 252–253; ethnographic, 165–166, 175; program evaluation, 334
Knowledge: indigenous empirical, 440–441; intersubjecctive modes of producing, 237; narrative inquiry outcome of reflexive, 225–226; personal practical, 224–225; program evaluation used to generate, 341; research-based, 4. See also Information
Knowledge gaps of research, 406
Krackplot (software), 99
Ku Klux Klan, 351
L
Language: “Black English” and “Standard English,” 351; as The Denver Study issue, 452–454; respectful research in relationship of culture and, 26
Law of the instrument, 311–312
Learning from the Past: What History Teaches Us About School Reform (Ravitch and Vinovskis), 141
Learning to Labor (Willis), 376, 378
Leonardo da Vinci and a Memory of his Childhood (Freud), 109–110
LGBTQ youth: certificate of confidentiality provided to, 35; narrative inquiry research on, 237. See also Autoethnography
Life course perspective, 112
Life Story Interview, 117–119, 127
Life story research study, 225, 228–229. See also Biography and life story research
Life Story Telling (LST), 121
Life-story model of identity, 115
Lifetime period experience, 116
Listening: active, 409; CIRM's practice of multisensory, 440–441
Listings and pilesorts, 96t
Logic models: ACESAS, 364–370; description of, 359–360; diagram illustration of simple, 331fig; evaluation stages represented by, 348; program evaluation, 329–330
Logs (practitioner action research), 312t
Longitudinal case studies, 247
Low-inference descriptors, 183
M
Macro phenomena, 378
Mapping: maps not to scale, 95t; maps to scale, 95t; social maps, 96t
Marxism, 375
Masking, 124
Master, universal narratives, 197
Mauritius Family Planning Association, 81
MDMA (Ecstasy) research, 77
Meaning, 126
Mechanistic (Marxism), 375
Member checking: case study research, 265–266e; ethnographic, 183; feminist research, 418; practitioner action research, 316; program evaluation, 340
Memo writing: description of, 54–55; early example, 55e–56e
Memory sorting, 59
Memory/memories: critical life episode, 117; event-specific life, 116; guided autobiography of, 118–119; Life Story Telling (LST), 121; lifetime period, 116; narrative specificity on, 116; self-defining, 115
Memos: description of, 54; example taken during focused coding, 57e–58e
Metaphorical purpose, 279
Method selection: guide to qualitative research tool and, 93t–96t; in-depth interview, 94t; issues to consider for, 92, 97; mapping, 95t–96t; observation tools and, 93t; other elicitation techniques, 96t; visual documentation, 95t
Methodological decisions: defining the research questions, 79; formulating a conceptual model, 79–81; issues to consider when making, 75–76; paradigms guiding, 7–9, 22–28, 43, 44, 76–78; sampling in qualitative research, 84–85; on where, when, and with whom study is conducted, 81–84
Methodology: ACESAS, 347–349, 362–370; biography and life story research design, 112–116; CIPP Evaluation Model, 325, 333, 362; CIRM (critical indigenous research methodologies), 423–448; CRE (culturally responsive evaluation), 348, 349, 355, 357–359; critical ethnography, 384–385; description of, 10, 70, 71–72; distinguishing methods from, 11, 427; feminist research, 395, 409, 412–413; making decisions related to, 75–85; mixed-method design, 10, 113–114; narrative inquiry use of qualitative, 221–225; practitioner action research, 303–305t; program evaluation, 329–337; sampling plan for in-depth interviews, 75t; study population used in, 72–74
Methods: deliberate democratic research, 461–463; description of, 10, 70, 85–86; distinguishing methodology from, 11, 427; feminist research, 395; hegemonic, 444–445. See also Data collection methods
Micro phenomena, 378
Microsoft ACCESS, 99
Midpoint (or extreme) sampling, 84–85
Minority report, 336
Mixed-methods design: biography and life story research, 113–114; description of, 10
Mixed-paradigm research, 77
Moderator (ACESAS), 363
Move-testing, 294
Mules and Men (Hurston), 415
Multi-sited ethnographies, 166–167
Multicultural validity, 369
Multiple case studies, 247
Multiple site case studies, 247
Multisensory listening, 440–441
Multivocal texts, 400
Mumbai health study, 79, 83, 84–85
Muslim cultural center near WTC site study, 89
N
Narrative ethnographies, 202
Narrative inquiry: authentic representation and reproduction in, 234–235; Christine Lemley's position on, 216–217; critical events approach to, 219–221; description of, 215, 216; generalizability in, 231, 232; genres of, 225–230; how to begin, 236–238; objectivity in, 231–232; positivist approach to, 236; qualitative research methodology used for, 221–225; reflexive knowledge outcome of, 225–226; reliability in, 231; research questions to ask for, 233; responses to critique of, 230–235; Roland Mitchell's position on, 217–218; therapeutic benefits of storytelling in, 234; understanding experiences through stories and, 218–219; validity in, 231, 232–234. See also Experience; Stories
Narrative inquiry genres: autobiography as, 225, 227–228; biography as, 225, 226; life story research as, 225, 228–229; oral history as, 225, 229–230, 408; overview of, 225–226
Narrative mode of thought, 111
Narrative specificity, 116
Narrative theories of personality, 114–115
Narrative truth, 132
Narratives: authentic representation and reproduction of, 234–235; co-constructed, 204; feminist researcher use of, 414–415; master, universal, 197; personal, 202; qualitative research use of, 221; raw, 219; specificity of, 116; truth of, 132. See also Stories
National Commission (1979), 28
National Institutes of Health, 35
National Science Foundation (NSF), 355
Native Americans. See Indigenous/native communities
Naturalistic ethnography, 166
Naturalization generalizability: arts-based research, 285; case study research, 267
Nazi medical experiments, 21
NEO Personality Inventory, 122
Nomothetic approach to personality, 109
Non-participant participant observer, 172
The Nuer: A Description of the Modes of Livelihood and Political Institutions of a Nilotic People (Evans-Pritchard), 166
NVivo (software), 99
O
Objectivity: confirmability parallels, 29; narrative inquiry, 231–232
Observation: autoethnographic, 199; cameras and digital recorders used in, 97; case study research use of, 257, 259–260; emic perspective (insider-participant) of, 12, 87, 165; etic perspective (outsider-researcher) of, 12, 165; guide to selecting tools for, 93t; network research, 89–90; non-participant participant observer, 172; obtrusive, 88; open-ended nonparticipatory, 93t; participant, 171–172; participatory, 93t; practitioner action research, 299, 301, 312t; structured, 93t. See also Data collection methods
Observation plan, 257
Observe in real time, 260
Observing (practitioner action), 299, 301
Obtrusive observations, 88
Office of Strategic Services (OSS), 110
Ontological authenticity, 30
Ontological research, 7
Ontologies: as consideration in research, 431–434; definition of, 425
Open coding. See Initial (or open) coding Open-ended in-depth ethnographic interviews, 173
Open-ended in-depth interview, 94t
Open-ended nonparticipatory observation, 93t
Oppression: classical Marxism on, 375; critical ethnographic focus on, 379–380; resistance to, 377–378. See also Power/ power dynamics
Oral histories: description of, 225; example of, 229–230; feminist, 408, 409–411. See also Stories
Outcome domains, 80
Outcomes (program), 348
Outputs (logic models), 360
Outsider/insider status, 402
P
Pajek (software), 99
Paradigmatic mode of thought, 111
Paradigmatic science, 275
Paradigms: constructivist, 22–23, 43, 44, 113; description of, 7, 76; feminist, 393; guiding methodological decisions, 76–78; indigenous methodologies, 442; interpretivists, 8–9, 76–77, 79; mixed-paradigm, 77; positivists, 7, 76, 236, 393, 432; quantitative and qualitative, 11; transformative, 22, 23–28
Participant observers/ observation: autoethnographic, 199; ethnographic, 171–172
Participants: informed consent of, 2–36; masking, 124; positionality of, 71; pseudonyms used for, 124; voices stance taken by, 381. See also Informants; Sampling; Study population
Participatory action research: description of, 292; respect demonstrated during, 26. See also Practitioner action research
Participatory observation, 93t
Participatory (or collaborative) approach: deliberative democratic research and, 466–467; description of, 78
Peer debriefings, 418
Person-centered psychology, 109
Personal narratives, 202
Personal practical knowledge, 224–225
Personality: idiographic approach to, 109; narrative theories of, 114–115; NEO Personality Inventory, 122; nomothetic approach to, 109
Personaology, 109
Phenomenologically truthful, 285–286
Philosophy: definition of, 156; philosophies of history, 156
Photographic documentation, 95t
Pilesorts and listings, 96t
Pilot tests: case study research, 256; tutor study example of, 257e
Planning (practitioner research), 298, 300
Pluralist/intuitionist evaluation perspective, 323–324
Political (or diplomatic) history, 142
Politics of representation, 399
Polyphonic text, 181
Population validity, 7
Positionality: critical ethnography, 380–382; description of, 12
Positivists/positivism: assumptions regarding truth of taxonomies, 432; description of, 7, 76; feminist research, 393; narrative inquiry using, 236
Postmodernism, 156
Power/power dynamics: critical ethnographic focus on, 379–380; critical ethnographic stand against inequity of, 382–383; deliberative democratic research and issues of, 467; The Denver Study on school district shifts in, 458–459; feminist oral history revelations on, 409. See also Oppression
Practical reasoning, 207
Practices (people's), 170
Practitioner action research: characteristics of, 302–303; choosing the study questions, 306–307t; data collection for, 308–312t; designs of, 303–305t; guidelines and suggestions for, 314e–315e; historical perspective of, 293–294; Mr. Crane, Sixth-Grade Teacher scenario of, 298–299, 301–302; Ms. Drake, Courtroom Lawyer scenario of, 299–302; overview of, 292–293; professional practice of, 294–298; spiral (or spiraled) cycle of, 301–302, 303; structure for, 312–313; traditions shaping, 296–297; validity and member checking of, 315–316. See also Action research; Participatory action research
Practitioner research, 298
Practitioner self-reflection, 298, 302
Praxis, 429
The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Clifford), 181
Predictor domains, 80
Presentism, 144
Primary sources: archival documents as, 151–152; artifacts as, 152; description of, 150, 151; oral interviews as, 152–153; public records as, 151; quantitative information as, 153–154
Problem focus, 167
Problem solving: practitioner action research conceived bas, 294; qualitative, 277–279
Program antecedents, 324
Program evaluation: audience and stakeholder interest in, 322; CIPP Evaluation Model, 325, 333, 362; culturally responsive evaluation (CRE), 348, 349; description of, 322–332; design of, 329–337; Historical foundations of, 324–326; member checking during, 340; perspectives of, 323–324; reporting results of, 336–337; stages represented by logic model, 348; uses of, 341; validity of findings, 337–340. See also Ke Aka Ho'ona project evaluation; Research
Program Evaluation and Methodology Division (U.S.GAO), 337
Program evaluators: bias of, 339; competence of, 327t; CRE (culturally responsive evaluation), 355–357; external, 339; guiding principles for, 326–328t; integrity and honesty of, 327t; internal, 339–340; respect for people, 328t; responsibilities of, 328t; systematic inquiry by, 327t. See also Researchers
Program outcomes, 324
Program transactions, 324
Programs: countenance model of, 324; description of, 322; evaluation used to improve, 341; outcomes of, 348
Progressive philosophy of history, 156
Providential philosophy of history, 156
Pseudonyms, 124
Psychobiography, 110
Psychodynamic approach to questions, 127
Psychological generalizability, 285
Psychology: biography and life story research historical roots in, 109–110; biography and life story research theoretical basis from, 110–112; person-centered, 109
Psychosocial construction, 115
Public records, 151
Purposeful (or purposive) sampling, 334
Purposeful sampling, 253
Q
Qualitative control, 279
Qualitative problem solving: phase one: random qualities, 277–278; phase two: tentative relationships between qualities, 278; phase three: an emerging theme, 278–279; phase four: a developing theme, 279; phase five: work that is judged complete, 279; definition of, 277
Qualitative research: axiological belief systems and, 22–23; democratizing, 451–471; emic perspective (insider-participant) used in, 12, 87, 165; Etic perspective (outsider-researcher) used in, 12; feminist applications of, 407–408; historical roots of, 6–9; informed consent issue of, 34–35; interpretivist or critical perspectives of, 8–9; introduction to, 3–4; methodology and methods used in, 10, 11, 70–101; narrative inquiry use of methodological, 221–225; truth as contextual and time-specific in, 8; validity, rigor, and ethics in, 28–30. See also Informed consent; Research
Qualitatively based surveys, 92
Quantitative research: description of, 4; true experiments as characterizing, 5
Questionnaires, 312t. See also Research questions
R
Race: collective memory of, 354; construct of, 349, 352, 353; difference between culture and, 352–353
Racial group classification, 353–354
Raw narratives, 219
Reasoning (practical), 207
Reciprocity: as CIRM component, 439–440; definition of, 439
Recovering Language, Reclaiming Voice: Menominee Language Revitalization Programs (Lemley), 223
Reflexive, dyadic interviews, 203
Reflexive ethnographies, 203
Reflexivity (or introspection): critical ethnographic, 381; ethnographic, 181; feminist research, 397–398
Refocusing (practitioner action), 299, 301
Relational ethics, 204, 205–206
Relationality of CIRM, 436–437
Relevance of Culture in Evaluation Institute (RCEI), 367
Reliability: autoethnography, 207; biography and life story research, 131–133; dependability parallel to, 29; external, 182–183; internal, 183; narrative inquiry, 231
Reluctant Avon Lady research (feminist ethnography), 415–417
Representation: case study research alternative, 267; critical ethnography, 380–382, 387; deliberate democratic research caveat of faithful, 465; ethnographic, 181; external validity relationship to, 132; feminist research, 395; narrative inquiry, 234–235; politics of, 399
Research: androcentric (malecentered) assumptions driving, 393–394; archival, 90; arts-based, 271–286; autoethnography, 189–210; biography and life story, 107–134; case study, 243–268; CIRM approach to, 424–448; critical ethnography, 373–389; deliberative democratic, 452–471; ethical norms for, 28–37; ethnographic, 163–188; feminist, 391–420; grounded theory, 43–54; historical, 138–158; interdisciplinary, 405; methods and methodology of, 10–11; mixed-paradigm, 77; narrative inquiry, 215–239; negative connotation to indigenous peoples, 428–431; network, 89–90; paradigm frameworks used in, 7, 11, 22, 23–28, 43, 44, 76–77; participatory action, 26; practitioner action, 291–317; quantitative, 3–9, 12. See also Ethical issues; Program evaluation; Qualitative research
Research methodology. See Methodology
Research methods. See Methods
Research questions: defining the qualitative, 79; discourse analytic, 127; feminist approach to, 405–407; formative, 332; narrative inquiry, 233; practitioner action, 306–307t; program evaluation, 331–333t; psychodynamic approach to, 127; summative, 331–332; writing case study, 249–250e. See also Questionnaires
Research questions “grand tour,” 116
Research-based knowledge, 4
Researcher biases: case study research, 255; CRE (culturally responsive evaluation) approach to, 356; program evaluation, 339; triangulating analyst to minimize, 340; tutor study approach to minimizing, 255e
Researcher competencies: case study research, 254e; cultural, 31–32, 356–357, 363–364; description of, 31–32; program evaluators, 327t
Researcher as instrument, 21
Researcher position, 255
Researchers: activism stance by, 381; autonomy of, 303, 314e; biases of, 255e, 339, 340, 356; critical, 77–78; data collection position of, 88–91; ethnographers, 12, 87, 163–185; instrument role of, 21; knowledge gaps from disproportionate attention of, 406; memos/memo writing by grounded theory, 54–59; participatory or collaborative approach by, 78; reflexivity of, 181, 381, 397–398; traditional, 293; ventriloquist stance taken by, 381. See also Program evaluators
Resources (or inputs): ACESAS logic model on, 367–368; logic model component of, 360
Respect: as CIRM component, 438–439; definition of, 22; transformative perspective on, 25–26
Respondent-driven sampling, 85
Responsibility of CIRM, 438
Revision (practitioner action), 299, 301
Revisionist histories, 157
Rigor norms, 28–30 The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order (Fraser and Gerstle), 141
S
Safed pani (white discharge) compliant (Mumbai women), 79
The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research (Denzin and Lincoln), 22
Salvage ethnography, 167
Sampling: convenience, 60; criterion, 84; extreme or midpoint, 84–85; for in-depth interviews in depression study, 75t; initial, 60; purposeful, 253; purposeful (or purposive), 334; qualitative research approach to, 84–85; random, 253, 334; respondent-driven, 85; targeted, 85; theoretical, 60–62, 84; thought, 129. See also Participants
Sankofa bird (ACESAS model), 361fig–362
Saturation: case study research, 253; ethnographic research, 178–179; grounded theory research, 60–62
Schooling in Capitalist America (Bowles and Gintis), 376
Scientific method: description of, 5; origins of, 5
“Second Chair: An Autoethnodrama” (Saldaña), 285
Secondary sources: description of, 150, 154–155; historiography of, 155
Selective coding, 48
Self-defining memories, 115
Self-Defining Memory Task, 119–120, 126
Self-interest constraints, 467, 467
Semibounded system, 91
Semistructured in-depth interview, 94t
Semistructured interviews, 90, 117
Sensitizing concepts, 53
Sequence (narrative), 221
“The Shattered Mirror: Curriculum, Art and Critical Politics” (Blumenfeld-Jones), 275
Showing writing technique, 200–201
Simmel, Georg, 6
Single case studies, 247
Site mapping, 85
Social capital, 366
“The Social Elements of the Indian Problem” (Parker), 425
Social history, 142
Social maps, 96t
Social reproduction, 376
Socially significant arts-based research, 286
Society: critical ethnographic support of equity in, 382–383; gatekeepers of, 168; key informants of, 165–166, 175; people's practices in, 170. See also Culture/cultures
The Souls of Black Folk (Du Bois), 350
Specialized topic areas, 142–143
Spiral (or spiraled) cycle, 301–302, 303
SPSS (software), 99
Stakeholders: cast study research outcomes for, 244; CRE consideration of civic capacity of, 368; The Denver Study, 452; intrinsic case studies communicated to, 246; program evaluation, 322
Standpoint theory, 396
Stimulated recall (S-R), 308–311
Storied thought, 112
Stories: autoethnography, 189–210; biography and life story research, 107–134; canonical, 204–205; historical truth of, 132; master, universal narratives, 197; narrative truth of, 132; showing and telling techniques, 200–201; therapeutic benefits of, 234; understanding experiences through, 218–219; witnessing through, 205. See also Experience; Narrative inquiry; Narratives; Oral histories
Street Corner Society (Whyte), 175
Structuralism, 375
Structure: critical ethnography focus on, 374, 377–378; deliberative democratic research, 465–466; relationship of agency and, 378
Structure in-depth interviews, 94t
Structured interaction, 465–466
Structured observation, 93t
Study population: case examples of depression research, 72–74; description of, 72, 83; methodological decisions related to, 83–84; selecting the, 73fig–75. See also Participants
Study validity, 315. See also Validity
Subjectivity: CIRM and role of, 436–437; critical ethnographic, 381
Subtractive Schooling (Valenzuela), 37–379
Summative evaluation questions, 331–332
Surveys: case study research, 256–257; ethnographic, 173–174; qualitatively based, 91
T
Tactical authenticity, 30
Targeted sampling, 85
Taxonomies: ethnographic, 178; narrative inquiry to form, 221; positivist research assumptions about, 432
Technical (or instrumental) transfer, 295
Telling writing technique, 200–201
Temporal order, 112
Thematic content analysis, 129–131
Theoretical coding: description and overview of, 51–54; examples of Glaser's coding families, 52t–53; sensitizing concepts related to, 53
Theoretical generalizations, 132
Theoretical (or conceptual) frameworks, 249–250e. See also Conceptual models
Theoretical sampling, 60–62, 84
Theoretical saturation: case study research, 253; ethnographic research, 178–179; grounded theory research, 60–62
Theoretical sensitivity, 62–63
Theories: biography and life story research, 114–116; classical Marxism, 375; critical ethnography, 375–377; critical ethnography's drawing on and building, 378–379; culturalists, 375–376; feminist research, 395; feminist standpoint, 396; instrumental case studies used to build cases for new, 246–247; life-story model of identity, 115; narrative theories of personality, 114–115; praxis intersection of practice and, 429; psychosocial construction, 115; structuralism, 375
Thick description: autoethnography, 201; case study reports, 267; ethnography, 165
“Things of Use and Things of Beauty” (arts-based research), 277
Thought: narrative mode of, 111; paradigmatic mode of, 111; storied, 112
Thought sampling, 129
Timing: determining study, 82; practitioner action research, 303; recall time consideration, 82–83
Tinkering Toward Utopia: A Century of Public School Reform (Tyack and Cuban), 141
Title IX, 407
Top-down view of history, 146–147
Traditional researchers, 293
Transactional experience, 222–223
Transactive space, 283
Transcription of data, 125
Transferability, 29
Transformative paradigm, 22
Triangulating analyst, 340
Triangulation: case study research data, 251–252; description of, 99–100; ethnographic data, 182–183; feminist research data, 418; practitioner action research data, 316; program evaluation data, 338–339. See also Data
Trope (common theme), 180
Troubling the Angels: Women Living with HIV/AIDS (Lather and Smithies), 400–404
True experiments, 5
Trustworthiness: critical ethnography, 386–388; feminist reports, 418–419. See also Credibility; Validity
Truth: deliberate democratic research faithful representation of, 465; historical, 132; narrative, 132; phenomenologically truthful, 285–286
Tuskegee experiments (1933–1972), 21–22
Tutor study. See Dental hygiene student tutor study
The 2002 User-Friendly Handbook for Project Evaluation (NSF), 355
Typologies (ethnography), 178
U
UCINET (software), 99
Unit of analysis, 81
United Way, 360
Universality, 393
University of Connecticut Health Center, 81
University of Mauritius, 81
University of Waikato (New Zealand), 184
The Unknown City (Fine and Weis), 379–380
Unstructured interview, 116–117
Up Against Whiteness (Lee), 380
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 35
U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO), 337
U.S. Gulf Coast oil spill disaster (2010), 244
U.S. Justice Department, 462
Utilitarian evaluation perspective, 323
V
Valid instrument design, 256
Validity: autoethnography, 207; biography and life story research, 131–133; case study research, 265–266e; catalytic, 419; conflict of interest, 7; critical ethnography, 386–387; ecological, 7; ethical norms of qualitative research, 28–30; ethnographic, 182–183; external, 29; feminist research, 418–419; internal, 132; member checking for, 183, 265–266e, 316, 340, 418; multicultural, 369; narrative inquiry, 231, 232–234; population, 7; practitioner action research, 315–316; program evaluation, 337–340; sampling, 84; seeking discrepant cases to establish, 419. See also Credibility; Study validity; Trustworthiness
Value negation, 276
Ventriloquist stance, 381
Vestehen research, 6
Vignettes, 180
Visual Culture Jam: Art, Pedagogy and Creative Resistance (Darts), 276
Voice in Qualitative Inquiry: Challenges Conventional, Interpretive, and Critical Conceptions in Qualitative Research (2008), 220
Voices stance, 381
Voluntary informed consent: Belmont Report on, 32–33; children and, 35; ethnographic research and, 169; feminist research, 398; obtaining signatures for, 33–34; older adults and, 35–36; qualitative research designs and, 34–35; role of IRBs in, 33, 34
W
W. K. Kellogg Foundation, 330, 331, 360
Weber, Max, 6
Western Michigan University Evaluation Center, 325, 330–331
Whig histories, 157
White, Robert, 110
Witnessing, 205
Women: feminism argument on historic exclusion of, 393–394; Title IX mandate on equality of, 407; Women Living with HIV/AIDS study on, 400–404; women's movement for equal rights of, 392–393. See also Feminist research
World Trade Center (WTC) attacks [2001], 89
Worldview: African American communities, 354; biography and life story research and, 113; historical analysis and interpretation research and, 155–158; postmodernism philosophy on, 156
Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (Clifford and Marcus), 181
Writing reports. See Dissemination
Y
Young Man Luther (Erikson), 110
Youth Movement Records (Oakland), 283