Page numbers in italics denote tables, those in bold denote figures.
Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex-I Parties 52
Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-Term Cooperative Action (AWG-LCA) 52
Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform (ADP) 2, 4, 56, 59
adaptation 23–5, 132; ASEAN countries 148; Malaysia 139–43
Adaptation Committee 150
adaptation-friendly contexts 24–5
adaptation projects 24
advanced developing countries: context and overview 48–9; greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions 3; legal framework 55; low-carbon development strategy (LCDS) 59–60; post-2012 climate change regime building 49–56; summary and conclusions 65; see also China
Africa, water stress 37
agriculture: ASEAN countries 147; China 120
ASEAN Agreement on Disaster Management and Emergency Responses (AADMER) 142
ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution (2002) 149
ASEAN Climate Change Initiative (ACCI) 146, 150
ASEAN countries: adaptation 148; Adaptation Committee 150; adaptive capacity 149–50; agriculture 147; climate change negotiations 151–5; cooperation 143–51, 154; diversity 8–9; electricity 147; energy policies 145–6; environmental management 144; environmental programmes 144; forestry 147; gas 147; hydroelectric power 147; mitigation actions 146–7; non-legally binding declarations 145; nuclear power 147; subregional cooperation 148–9; summary and conclusions 155–6; technology 151; vulnerability 148; see also Malaysia
ASEAN Economic Community Blueprint (AEC) 144–5
ASEAN Socio-Cultural Blueprint (ASCC) 145
Asian Development Bank (ADB) model 140, 146
assessment, low-carbon development strategy (LCDS) 63
Bali Action Plan 59
BASIC countries 152
black boxes, governments as 14
Bonn MOP 132
bottom-up approaches 57, 153, 168
Brazil, National Plan on Climate Change 60
brown growth, vs. green growth 87–8
buildings, efficiency improvement 118–19
burden-sharing impasse 96
Cancun Adaptation Framework 150
capabilities, and international cooperation 17–18
capacity payments 76
carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) 147
carbon dioxide (CO2), and global warming 10–12
carbon footprint 154
carbon markets 154
carbon prices, political acceptability 89
carbon pricing 75
Cebu Declaration 144
centralized approach 166
China 8; 11th Five Year Plan 112, 121; 12th Five-Year-Plan 127–8; achievements 126–7; administration 126; agriculture 120; backward capacity 126; building design 121–2; challenges 127–8; coal consumption 114, 115; context and overview 112; costs of energy saving and emissions reduction 124–5; decarbonization 113–20; economic growth 127, 167; economic reform 112; efficiency improvement in buildings 118–19; emissions vs. emissions intensity 123–4, 125; energy consumption 124; energy intensity 112–13, 114; energy intensity and CO2 emission intensity of the manufacturing industry sector 117; factors contributing to low-carbon development 120–3; forestry 120; fossil fuels 114; greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions 52–3, 115–16, 167; growth rate of light industry 113; industrialization 127; infrastructure 121–2; institutional development 122–3; international cooperation 123; low-carbon development, characteristics 123–6; manufacturing industry 116–18; non-fossil energy generating capacity 116; non-fossil energy sources 114–16; opportunity cost 126; policy innovation 122; poverty alleviation 127; power generation 114–16; renewable energy 126; scale and effectiveness 124; technical and infrastructure foundation 121; transportation 119, 121; urban planning 121–2
China National Climate Change Plan 59
civil society, and international treaty 36–7
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) 19, 36
climate change: probable extent 23; responses to 69–71; threat from 40; unpredictability 25
climate change adaptation (CCA) 23–5; ASEAN countries 148; Malaysia 139–43
climate change negotiations: ASEAN countries 151–5; dynamics of 154–5; smaller group discussions 153
climate change regime: bottom-up approaches 153, 168; burden sharing 49–51; challenges 131–3; complexity 48; country grouping 53–4; enhancing effectiveness 2–3; equitable and effective 100–1; flexibility 3–4; legal framework 54–5; overcoming constraints 167–9; post-2012 regime building 49–56; potential evolution 152–3; two-track approach 52–3
climate change regime building, failure of 49
“Climate Change Vulnerability Mapping for Southeast Asia” 148
climate negotiations: achievements 42–3; conduct of 41–2; difficulties 38–42
climate policy, framework 69
climate regime, current 2
coal consumption: China 114; China vs. Japan 115; Japan 114
coal-fired power generation, China 115–16
collaboration, technology policy 20–3
COMETR project 82
common but differentiated responsibility 48, 49, 54–5, 131–2, 143, 144, 153, 155
Conferences of the Parties (COPs): achievements 42–4; composition of 36; legal instruments 4; see also Cancun COP; Copenhagen COP; Doha COP; Durban COP; Poznan COP
consumption, tracking 102
Contract-for-Difference 76, 77
cooperation 27; ASEAN countries 143–51, 154
Copenhagen Accord 2, 15, 24, 42–3, 69–70, 132
Copenhagen Principles 42
credibility 153
cross learning 142
Daly, H. 72
decarbonization: China 113–20; United Kingdom 92–5
decoupling 72
deep offshore wind energy 93
deforestation 70
deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) 147, 149
deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+) 70, 150, 154
developing countries: mitigation actions 1; unmet obligations and commitments to 39–40
development aid 6
diplomacy: central task of 29; failure of 10; gap between policy and implementation 14–15; mythology of 13
diplomatic strategy, redesign 26–9
disaster risk reduction (DRR), Malaysia 142
Doha COP 43
droughts 149
Durban COP 40, 42, 43, 45, 68, 70, 132
Durban Package 42
Durban platform 56–7, 70–1, 132
economic change 39
economic growth: China 127, 167; and emission reduction 7; green growth and environmental sustainability 71–2; Malaysia 133–4
economic instruments 75
Economic Transformation Program (ETP) (Malaysia) 136
economy as a subsystem of the biosphere 73
ecosystem functions, Malaysia 142–3
education and information instruments 76
efficiency improvement, in buildings 118–19
electricity market reform (UK) 76–7
emission control policies, bottom-up emergence 13
emission debt 100
emission reduction, and economic growth 7
emission targets 69
Emission Trading Scheme 18
emissions allowance system, per-capita emissions allowances 107–8
Emissions Performance Standard 76
emissions rights: Kyoto Protocol 97–100; post-2012 treaty 97
emissions rights and commitments 98 emissions tracking 101–9
emissions trading 36
energy, and information technology (IT) 22–3
energy consumption: China 124; Malaysia 133–4; reduction 95
energy efficiency 13, 78; ASEAN countries 146; Malaysia 137
energy intensity 112–13; China 114
energy intensity targets 69
energy policies: clarity 35; inconsistency 35; predictability and stability 33–5
energy policy and regulatory responsibilities Malaysia 138
Energy Technology Systems Analysis Program (ETSAP) 80
environment-degrading growth, vs. sustainable growth 87–8
environment management 25
environmental/ecological tax reform (ETR), 81, 81–7; effects on GHG emissions 82, 83, 85; GDP and GHG emissions 85; as key policy 88; results in PETRE project 84
environmental sustainability: costs of 77–88; economic growth and green growth 71–2; and politics 75–7; politics of 88–9
equity, per-capita emissions allowances 106
EU Emissions Trading System (ETS) 77
European Union: emission reduction commitment 33; Emission Trading Scheme 18
extinction 25
fallacies, technology policy 22
Fast Start Fund 62
feed-in tariffs (FIT) 76, 77, 137
financing, of low-carbon strategies 6
flexibility: climate change negotiations 153; climate change regime 3–4; international agreement 6; international treaty 35–6
forest degradation 70
forestry 154; ASEAN countries 147; China 120; Malaysia 143
fossil fuels: Africa 39; China 113, 114; costs of 41; greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions 100; Malaysia 134; prices 85; use of 11
Framework Convention on Climate Change 45
funding: low-carbon development strategy (LCDS) 62–3; research development and deployment (RD&D) 88–9
G77+China 152
GDP and domestically produced emissions indices 74
GDP percentage changes – UK MARKAL MACRO 81
geopolitics 11
geothermal energy 93
global agreements 13
global economy, and country grouping 53–4
global emissions reduction target, Kyoto Protocol 95–6
Global Green Growth Institute (GGGI) 64–5
governments: benefits of international treaty 37; as black boxes 14
Green Climate Fund (GCF) 43, 63, 150
Green Fiscal Commission (UK) 84
green growth: economic growth and environmental sustainability 71–2; and national interests 44; vs. brown growth 87–8
Green Transport Plan (Malaysia) 139
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions: advanced developing countries 3; China 115–16, 167; common but differentiated responsibility 49–51; effects of environmental tax reform (ETR) 82, 83, 85; environmental/ecological tax reform (ETR), 82–7; legally binding obligations 52–3; Malaysia 134–5; reduction 95–6
gridlock, causes 26
Heart of Borneo (HoB) initiative 148–9
historic responsibility 38–9, 48
human economy, and natural world 72
human–nature relation 71
human rights 97
hybrid outcomes 18
hydroelectric power, ASEAN countries 147
Hyogo Framework for Action 142
impasse 131; burden-sharing 96; limitations of renewable energy and technologies 92–5; overview 92; see also per-capita emissions allowances
implementation, international treaty 45
India, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions 53
India National Action Plan on Climate Change 60
individual emissions reduction 95–6
Indonesia 131–3, 152; UN-REDD program 150
industrialization, China 127
inequity: emissions allowances 101; Kyoto Protocol 97–100
information and education instruments 76
information sharing 142
information technology (IT), and energy 22–3
injustice, sense of 39
innovation, investment in 20–3
institutional development, China 122–3
interest groups 22
Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee for Framework Convention on Climate Change 49
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 71; emission reduction strategies 36; reporting guidelines 35
international agreement: flexibility 6; value of 6–7
international assistance, and climate change mitigation 44–5
international cooperation: enthusiastic and reluctant countries 17; per-capita emissions allowances 102; prospects for 15–18
international coordination 14
International Energy Agency (IEA) 80
international institutions, roles of 44–5
international negotiations 20
international treaty: benefits 32–8; and civil society 36–7; consistency and clarity 35; context and overview 32; difficulties of negotiation 38–42; flexibility 35–6; government benefits 37; implementation 45; level playing field 34; pooling knowledge and resources 37; predictability 33–5, 45; reaching agreement 42–6; reporting requirements 35; stability 33–5, 45
investment, in innovation 20–3
Jackson, T. 74
Japan, coal consumption 114, 115
knowledge, pooling 37
Korea, low carbon green growth policy 60, 136
Kyoto Protocol 1, 3, 152–3; adaptation 37; Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) 19–20, 36; commitment periods 166–7; common but differentiated responsibility 49–51, 131–2 (see also common but differentiated responsibility); emissions rights 97–100; global emissions reduction target 95–6; impasse 92; rigidity 152; side effects 100; weakening 166–7
land-use change and forestry (LULUCF) (Malaysia) 139
legal framework, climate change regime 54–5
legitimacy 153
level playing field 34
Like Minded Group (LMG) 155
low-carbon development 113; China 123–6; contributory factors 120–3; Malaysia 136
low-carbon development strategy (LCDS) 5–6, 7, 48–9, 168; advanced developing countries 59–60; assessment 63; bottom-up approach 57; consultation 64–5; Durban platform 56–7; features of 57–8; financing 62–3; international institutional framework 60–1; legal basis 57; post-2020 climate change regime building 56–65; registry 62; reporting requirements 63–4; summary and conclusions 65
low-carbon green growth 7
low-carbon technologies: cost models 80–6; costs of 79–80; model cost projections 86; potential of 79
low-emission development strategy (LEDS) see low-carbon development strategy (LCDS)
Malaysia 8–9; adaptation and risk reduction 139–43; biodiversity 142–3; challenges of climate change 133–5; climate change negotiations 152; climate modeling 140–1; cooperation within ASEAN 143–51; demand-side efficiency 137; disaster risk reduction (DRR) 142; economic and social policy and planning 135–9; economic growth 133–4; ecosystem functions 142–3; electricity generation 134–4; energy demand 133–4; energy policy and regulatory responsibilities 138; energy sector restructuring 136; forestry 143; fossil fuels 134; greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions 134–5; health risks 141–2; Initial National Communication (INC) 134; institutional structure 137; land use 139; low-carbon development 136; renewable energy 136–7; Second National Communication (NC2) 134; transportation 135, 137, 139; see also ASEAN countries
Manhattan project 21
manufacturing industry, China 116–18
marginalized groups, safeguarding 150
MARKAL model 80–1; GDP percentage changes – UK MARKAL MACRO 81
McKinsey & Company 121
McKinsey marginal abatement cost curve 78–9
measurable, reportable and verifiable manner (MRV) 54
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) 71
Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water (MEGTW) (Malaysia) 137
mitigation: economic costs 78; global challenge 72–4
mitigation actions: ASEAN countries 146–7; developing countries 1; international assistance 44–5; and national interests 40–1
monitoring, reporting, and verifying (MRV) 150
Multi-sectoral Framework on Climate Change and Food Security (AFCC-FS) 145–6
multilateral process, challenges of 131–3
National Energy Efficiency Master Plan (NEEMP) (Malaysia) 137
National Green Technology Policy (Malaysia) 136
National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia (NAHRIM) 140–1
national interests: and climate change mitigation 40–1; and green growth 44
national interests and emissions 16, 16–17
National Key Economic Areas (NKEAs) (Malaysia) 136
National Plan on Climate Change (Brazil) 60
National Policy on Climate Change (Malaysia) 143
national policy, viability 15
nationally appropriate mitigation actions (NAMAs) 54, 60–1, 152
natural selection 25
natural world, and human economy 72
nature, adaptation 25
negotiations, lessons learned 2–4
New Economic Model (Malaysia) 136
non-fossil energy generating capacity, China 116
non-fossil energy sources, China 114–16
non-governmental organizations (NGOs), management roles 25
nuclear power 94; ASEAN countries 147; China 115
oil palm industry 154
onshore wind energy 93
opportunity cost 126
Pareto principle 102
per-capita emissions allowances 8, 95–6, 100–1; emissions allowance system 107–8; equity 106; implementation 101–9; inclusion mechanisms 106; international cooperation 102; meeting costs 103; national authority 103; national systems 101–3; outline 103–6; political effects 103; summary and conclusions 107–8
per-capita emissions non-Annex 1
parties 99
PETRE project 82–4; results from environmental tax reform (ETR) 84
photovoltaic (PV) power generation, China 115
Plan M 94
Pledge and Review 27
policy debates, mythology of 12–14
policy innovation, China 122
political orphans 22
politics, of environmental sustainability 88–9
pooling, knowledge and resources 37
post-2012 treaty, emissions rights 97
post-2020 regime: approaches to 5–6; design issues 4–5; key issues 7; legal formality 4–5; per-capita emissions allowances 8
poverty alleviation, China 127
power, and international cooperation 15–17
power generation, China 114–16
power-law statistical distributions 102
Poznan COP 132
Project Catalyst 62
Providing Regional Climates for Impact Studies (PRECIS) 141
rainforest destruction 154
recognition, of low-carbon strategies 5–6, 62
registry, of low-carbon strategies 5–6, 62
regulation, options for 18
regulatory instruments 76
renewable energy 92–5; Malaysia 136–7
reporting requirements 35; low-carbon development strategy (LCDS) 63–4
research development and deployment (RD&D), investment in 88–9
research program, need for 26
resources, pooling 37
responsibilities: common but differentiated responsibility 48, 49; historic 38–9, 48; richer countries 24–5
richer countries, responsibilities 24–5
risk reduction, Malaysia 139–43
safeguarding, vulnerable and marginalized groups 150
science of global warming, importance of 10–12
shallow offshore wind energy 93
Singapore 152
single protocol 55
Socolow Wedges 79
solar biomass energy 93
solar thermal energy 93
solar voltaic farm 93
solar voltaic panels 93
Southeast Asia, vulnerability 139–40
spending, technology innovation 21–2
sustainable growth, vs. environment-degrading growth 87–8
technology 13–14; ASEAN countries 151; limitations 92–5; policy collaboration 20–3
technology innovation: China 121; funding 22; spending 21–2
technology transfer 151
temperature increase projections 140
temporal relationship between emissions and atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases 70
Tenth Malaysia Plan (10MP) 136
Thailand 152
thermal efficiency 147
tidal power 93
timescales 23
transportation: China 119, 121; Malaysia 135, 137, 139
triage 25
UN Human Development Report 2007–2008 148
UN-REDD program 150
United Kingdom: decarbonizing 92–5; Green Fiscal Commission 84; policy innovation 75–6
United Nations, role and purpose 45
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 1, 6–7, 45, 69, 156; see also climate change regime
United Nations General Assembly Resolution 44/228 131
United States, energy intensity 113
Universal Declaration of Human Rights 97
vector-capacity modeling, of health risks 142
voluntary agreements 76
vulnerability, ASEAN countries 148
vulnerable groups, safeguarding 150
water stress, Africa 37
wave power 93
wind power, China 115
World Bank study 19