Use the information from the Student LPI to better understand how you currently behave as a leader, both from your own perspective and from the perspective of others. Note where there are consistencies and inconsistencies. Understand which leadership behaviors and practices you feel comfortable engaging in and which you feel uncomfortable with. Determine which leadership behaviors and practices you can improve on, and take steps to improve your leadership skills and gain confidence in leading other people and groups. The following sections will help you to become more effective in leadership.

About the Authors

James M. Kouzes is chairman of TPG/Learning Systems, which makes leadership work through practical, performance-oriented learning programs. In 1993 The Wall Street Journal cited Jim as one of the twelve J most requested “nonuniversity executive-education providers” to U.S. companies. His list of past and present clients includes AT&T, Boeing, Boy Scouts of America, Charles Schwab, Ciba-Geigy, Dell Computer, First Bank System, Honeywell, Johnson & Johnson, Levi Strauss & Co., Motorola, Pacific Bell, Stanford University, Xerox Corporation, and the YMCA.

Barry Z. Posner, PhD, is dean of the Leavey School of Business, Santa Clara University, and professor of organizational behavior. He has received several outstanding teaching and leadership awards, has published more than eighty research and practitioner-oriented articles, and currently is on the editorial review boards for The Journal of Management Education, The Journal of Management Inquiry, and The Journal of Business Ethics. Barry also serves on the board of directors for Public Allies and for The Center for Excellence in Non-Profits. His clients have ranged from retailers to firms in health care, high technology, financial services, manufacturing, and community service agencies.

Kouzes and Posner are coauthors of several best-selling and award-winning leadership books. The Leadership Challenge: How to Keep Getting Extraordinary Things Done in Organizations (2nd ed., 1995), with over 800,000 copies in print, has been reprinted in fifteen languages, has been featured in three video programs, and received a Critic's Choice award from the nation's newspaper book review editors. Credibility: How Leaders Gain and Lose It, Why People Demand It (1993) was chosen by Industry Week as one of the five best management books of the year. Their latest book is Encouraging the Heart: A Leader's Guide to Rewarding and Recognizing Others (1998).

STUDENT LEADERSHIP PRACTICES INVENTORY – SELF

How frequently do you typically engage in the following behaviors and actions? Circle the number that applies to each statement.

STUDENT LEADERSHIP PRACTICES INVENTORY – OBSERVER

Name of Leader:____________________________________________________

Instructions

On the next two pages are thirty descriptive statements about various leadership behaviors. Please read each statement carefully. Then rate the person who asked you to complete this form in terms of how frequently he or she typically engages in the described behavior. This is not a test (there are no right or wrong answers).

Consider each statement in the context of the student organization (for example, club, team, chapter, group, unit, hall, program, project) with which that person is most involved or with which you have had the greatest opportunity to observe him or her. The rating scale provides five choices:

• (1) If this person RARELY or SELDOM does what is described in the statement, circle the number one (1).
• (2) If this person does what is described ONCE IN A WHILE, circle the number two (2).
• (3) If this person SOMETIMES does what is described, circle the number three (3).
• (4) If this person does what is described FAIRLY OFTEN, circle the number four (4).
• (5) If this person does what is described VERY FREQUENTLY or ALMOST ALWAYS, circle the number five (5).

Please respond to every statement.

In selecting the response, be realistic about the extent to which this person actually engages in the behavior. Do not answer in terms of how you would like to see this person behaving or in terms of what this person should be doing. Answer in terms of how he or she typically behaves. The usefulness of the feedback from this inventory will depend on how honest you are about how frequently you observe this person actually engaging in each of these behaviors.

For example, the first statement is, “He or she looks for opportunities that challenge his or her skills and abilities.” If you believe this person does this “once in a while,” circle the number 2. If you believe he or she looks for challenging opportunities “fairly often,” circle the number 4.

When you have responded to all thirty statements, please turn to the response sheet on the back page and transfer your responses as instructed. Thank you.

STUDENT LEADERSHIP PRACTICES INVENTORY – OBSERVER

How frequently does this person typically engage in the following behaviors and actions? Circle the number that applies to each statement:

ASSESSMENT 1

Managerial Assumptions

Instructions

Read the following statements. Write “Yes” if you agree with the statement, or “No” if you disagree with it. Force yourself to take a “yes” or “no” position for every statement.

1. Are good pay and a secure job enough to satisfy most workers?
2. Should a manager help and coach subordinates in their work?
3. Do most people like real responsibility in their jobs?
4. Are most people afraid to learn new things in their jobs?
5. Should managers let subordinates control the quality of their work?
6. Do most people dislike work?
7. Are most people creative?
8. Should a manager closely supervise and direct work of subordinates?
9. Do most people tend to resist change?
10. Do most people work only as hard as they have to?
11. Should workers be allowed to set their own job goals?
12. Are most people happiest off the job?
13. Do most workers really care about the organization they work for?
14. Should a manager help subordinates advance and grow in their jobs?

Scoring

Count the number of “yes” responses to items 1, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12; write that number here as [X =___]. Count the number of “yes” responses to items 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 14; write that score here [Y =___].

Interpretation

This assessment gives insight into your orientation toward Douglas McGregor's Theory X (your “X” score) and Theory Y (your “Y” score) assumptions. You should review the discussion of McGregor's thinking in Chapter 1.1 and consider further the ways in which you are likely to behave toward other people at work. Think, in particular, about the types of “self-fulfilling prophecies” you are likely to create.

ASSESSMENT 2

A Twenty-First-Century Manager

Instructions

Rate yourself on the following personal characteristics. Use this scale.

1. Resistance to stress: The ability to get work done even under stressful conditions.
2. Tolerance for uncertainty: The ability to get work done even under ambiguous and uncertain conditions.
3. Social objectivity: The ability to act free of racial, ethnic, gender, and other prejudices or biases.
4. Inner work standards: The ability to personally set and work to high-performance standards.
5. Stamina: The ability to sustain long work hours.
6. Adaptability: The ability to be flexible and adapt to changes.
7. Self-confidence: The ability to be consistently decisive and display one's personal presence.
8. Self-objectivity: The ability to evaluate personal strengths and weaknesses and to understand one's motives and skills relative to a job.
9. Introspection: The ability to learn from experience, awareness, and self-study.
10. Entrepreneurism: The ability to address problems and take advantage of opportunities for constructive change.

Scoring

Give yourself 1 point for each S, and 1/2 point for each G. Do not give yourself points for W and ? responses. Total your points and enter the result here [PMF =___].

Interpretation

This assessment offers a self-described profile of your management foundations (PMF). Are you a perfect 10, or is your PMF score something less than that? There shouldn't be too many 10s around. Ask someone who knows you to assess you on this instrument. You may be surprised at the differences between your PMF score as self-described and your PMF score as described by someone else. Most of us, realistically speaking, must work hard to grow and develop continually in these and related management foundations. This list is a good starting point as you consider where and how to further pursue the development of your managerial skills and competencies. The items on the list are recommended by the American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB) as skills and personal characteristics that should be nurtured in college and university students of business administration. Their success—and yours—as twenty-first-century managers may well rest on (1) an initial awareness of the importance of these basic management foundations and (2) a willingness to strive continually to strengthen them throughout your work career.

ASSESSMENT 3

Turbulence Tolerance Test

Instructions

The following statements were made by a 37-year-old manager in a large, successful corporation. How would you like to have a job with these characteristics? Using the following scale, write your response to the left of each statement.

• — 1. I regularly spend 30 to 40 percent of my time in meetings.
• — 2. Eighteen months ago my job did not exist, and I have been essentially inventing it as I go along.
• — 3. The responsibilities I either assume or am assigned consistently exceed the authority I have for discharging them.
• — 4. At any given moment in my job, I have on average about a dozen phone calls to be returned.
• — 5. There seems to be very little relation between the quality of my job performance and my actual pay and fringe benefits.
• — 6. About 2 weeks a year of formal management training is needed in my job just to stay current.
• — 7. Because we have very effective equal employment opportunity (EEO) in my company and because it is thoroughly multinational, my job consistently brings me into close working contact at a professional level with people of many races, ethnic groups and nationalities, and of both sexes.
• — 8. There is no objective way to measure my effectiveness.
• — 9. I report to three different bosses for different aspects of my job, and each has an equal say in my performance appraisal.
• — 10. On average, about a third of my time is spent dealing with unexpected emergencies that force all scheduled work to be postponed.
• — 11. When I have to have a meeting of the people who report to me, it takes my secretary most of a day to find a time when we are all available, and even then I have yet to have a meeting where everyone is present for the entire meeting.
• — 12. The college degree I earned in preparation for this type of work is now obsolete, and I probably should go back for another degree.
• — 13. My job requires that I absorb 100–200 pages of technical materials per week.
• — 14. I am out of town overnight at least one night per week.
• — 15. My department is so interdependent with several other departments in the company that all distinctions about which departments are responsible for which tasks are quite arbitrary.
• — 16. In about a year I will probably get a promotion to a job in another division that has most of these same characteristics.
• — 17. During the period of my employment here, either the entire company or the division I worked in has been reorganized every year or so.
• — 18. While there are several possible promotions I can see ahead of me, I have no real career path in an objective sense.
• — 19. While there are several possible promotions I can see ahead of me, I think I have no realistic chance of getting to the top levels of the company.
• — 20. While I have many ideas about how to make things work better, I have no direct influence on either the business policies or the personnel policies that govern my division.
• — 21. My company has recently put in an “assessment center” where I and all other managers will be required to go through an extensive battery of psychological tests to assess our potential.
• — 22. My company is a defendant in an antitrust suit, and if the case comes to trial, I will probably have to testify about some decisions that were made a few years ago.
• — 23. Advanced computer and other electronic office technology is continually being introduced into my division, necessitating constant learning on my part.
• — 24. The computer terminal and screen I have in my office can be monitored in my bosses' offices without my knowledge.

Scoring

Total your responses and divide the sum by 24; enter the score here [TTT =___].

Interpretation

This instrument gives an impression of your tolerance for managing in turbulent times—something likely to characterize the world of work well into the future. In general, the higher your TTT score, the more comfortable you seem to be with turbulence and change—a positive sign. For comparison purposes, the average scores for some 500 MBA students and young managers was 1.5-1.6. The test's author suggests the TTT scores may be interpreted much like a grade point average in which 4.0 is a perfect A. On this basis, a 1.5 is below a C! How did you do?

ASSESSMENT 4

Global Readiness Index

Instructions

Use the scale to rate yourself on each of the following items to establish a baseline measurement of your readiness to participate in the global work environment.

Rating Scale

• — 1. I understand my own culture in terms of its expectations, values, and influence on communication and relationships.
• — 2. When someone presents me with a different point of view, I try to understand it rather than attack it.
• — 3. I am comfortable dealing with situations where the available information is incomplete and the outcomes unpredictable.
• — 4. I am open to new situations and am always looking for new information and learning opportunities.
• — 5. I have a good understanding of the attitudes and perceptions toward my culture as they are held by people from other cultures.
• — 6. I am always gathering information about other countries and cultures and trying to learn from them.
• — 7. I am well informed regarding the major differences in government, political systems, and economic policies around the world.
• — 8. I work hard to increase my understanding of people from other cultures.
• — 9. I am able to adjust my communication style to work effectively with people from different cultures.
• — 10. I can recognize when cultural differences are influencing working relationships and adjust my attitudes and behavior accordingly.

Interpretation

To be successful in the twenty-first-century work environment, you must be comfortable with the global economy and the cultural diversity that it holds. This requires a global mind-set that is receptive to and respectful of cultural differences, global knowledge that includes the continuing quest to know and learn more about other nations and cultures, and global work skills that allow you to work effectively across cultures.

Scoring

The goal is to score as close to a perfect “5” as possible on each of the three dimensions of global readiness. Develop your scores as follows.

ASSESSMENT 5

Personal Values

Instructions

Below are 16 items. Rate how important each one is to you on a scale of 0 (not important) to 100 (very important). Write the numbers 0-100 on the line to the left of each item.

• — 1. An enjoyable, satisfying job.
• — 2. A high-paying job.
• — 3. A good marriage.
• — 4. Meeting new people; social events.
• — 5. Involvement in community activities.
• — 6. My religion.
• — 7. Exercising, playing sports.
• — 8. Intellectual development.
• — 9. A career with challenging opportunities.
• — 10. Nice cars, clothes, home, etc.
• — 11. Spending time with family.
• — 12. Having several close friends.
• — 13. Volunteer work for not-for-profit organizations, such as the cancer society.
• — 14. Meditation, quiet time to think, pray, etc.
• — 15. A healthy, balanced diet.
• — 16. Educational reading, TV, self-improvement programs, etc.

Scoring

Transfer the numbers for each of the 16 items to the appropriate column below, then add the two numbers in each column.

Interpretation

The higher the total in any area, the higher the value you place on that particular area. The closer the numbers are in all eight areas, the more well-rounded you are. Think about the time and effort you put forth in your top three values. Is it sufficient to allow you to achieve the level of success you want in each area? If not, what can you do to change? Is there any area in which you feel you should have a higher value total? If yes, which, and what can you do to change?

ASSESSMENT 6

Intolerance for Ambiguity

Instructions

To determine your level of tolerance (intolerance) for ambiguity, respond to the following items. PLEASE RATE EVERY ITEM; DO NOT LEAVE ANY ITEM BLANK. Rate each item on the following seven-point scale:

Rating

• — 1. An expert who doesn't come up with a definite answer probably doesn't know too much.
• — 2. There is really no such thing as a problem that can't be solved.
• — 3. I would like to live in a foreign country for a while.
• — 4. People who fit their lives to a schedule probably miss the joy of living.
• — 5. A good job is one where what is to be done and how it is to be done are always clear.
• — 6. In the long run it is possible to get more done by tackling small, simple problems rather than large, complicated ones.
• — 7. It is more fun to tackle a complicated problem than it is to solve a simple one.
• — 8. Often the most interesting and stimulating people are those who don't mind being different and original.
• — 9. What we are used to is always preferable to what is unfamiliar.
• — 10. A person who leads an even, regular life in which few surprises or unexpected happenings arise really has a lot to be grateful for.
• — 11. People who insist upon a yes or no answer just don't know how complicated things really are.
• — 12. Many of our most important decisions are based on insufficient information.
• — 13. I like parties where I know most of the people more than ones where most of the people are complete strangers.
• — 14. The sooner we all acquire ideals, the better.
• — 15. Teachers or supervisors who hand out vague assignments give a chance for one to show initiative and originality.
• — 16. A good teacher is one who makes you wonder about your way of looking at things.
• — Total

Scoring

The scale was developed by S. Budner. Budner reports test-retest correlations of .85 with a variety of samples (mostly students and health care workers). Data, however, are more than 30 years old, so mean shifts may have occurred. Maximum ranges are 16-112, and score ranges were from 25 to 79, with a grand mean of approximately 49.

The test was designed to measure several different components of possible reactions to perceived threat in situations which are new, complex, or insoluble. Half of the items have been reversed.

To obtain a score, first reverse the scale score for the eight “reverse” items, 3, 4, 7, 8, 11, 12, 15, and 16 (i.e., a rating of 1 = 7, 2 = 6, 3 = 5, etc.), then add up the rating scores for all 16 items.

Interpretation

Empirically, low tolerance for ambiguity (high intolerance) has been positively correlated with:

• Conventionality of religious beliefs
• High attendance at religious services
• More intense religious beliefs
• More positive views of censorship
• Higher authoritarianism
• Lower Machiavellianism

The application of this concept to management in the 1990s is clear and relatively self-evident. The world of work and many organizations are full of ambiguity and change. Individuals with a higher tolerance for ambiguity are far more likely to be able to function effectively in organizations and contexts in which there is a high turbulence, a high rate of change, and less certainty about expectations, performance standards, what needs to be done, and so on. In contrast, individuals with a lower tolerance for ambiguity are far more likely to be unable to adapt or adjust quickly in turbulence, uncertainty, and change. These individuals are likely to become rigid, angry, stressed, and frustrated when there is a high level of uncertainty and ambiguity in the environment. High levels of tolerance for ambiguity, therefore, are associated with an ability to “roll with the punches” as organizations, environmental conditions, and demands change rapidly.

ASSESSMENT 7

Two-Factor Profile

Instructions

On each of the following dimensions, distribute a total of 10 points between the two options. For example:

Scoring

Summarize your total scores for all items in the left-hand column and write it here: MF =___.

Summarize your total scores for all items in the right-hand column and write it here: HF =___.

Interpretation

The “MF” score indicates the relative importance that you place on motivating or satisfier factors in Herzberg's two-factor theory. This shows how important job content is to you. The “HF” score indicates the relative importance that you place on hygiene or dissatisfier factors in Herzberg's two-factor theory. This shows how important job context is to you.

ASSESSMENT 8

Are You Cosmopolitan?

Instructions

Answer the questions using a scale of 1 to 5: 1 representing “strongly disagree”; 2, “somewhat disagree”; 3, “neutral”; 4, “somewhat agree”; and 5, “strongly agree.”

• — 1. You believe it is the right of the professional to make his or her own decisions about what is to be done on the job.
• — 2. You believe a professional should stay in an individual staff role regardless of the income sacrifice.
• — 3. You have no interest in moving up to a top administrative post.
• — 4. You believe that professionals are better evaluated by professional colleagues than by management.
• — 5. Your friends tend to be members of your profession.
• — 6. You would rather be known or get credit for your work outside rather than inside the company.
• — 7. You would feel better making a contribution to society than to your organization.
• — 8. Managers have no right to place time and cost schedules on professional contributors.

Scoring and Interpretation

A “cosmopolitan” identifies with the career profession, and a “local” identifies with the employing organization. Total your scores. A score of 30–40 suggests a cosmopolitan work orientation, 10–20 a “local” orientation, and 20–30 a mixed orientation.

ASSESSMENT 9

Group Effectiveness

Instructions

For this assessment, select a specific group you work with or have worked with; it can be a college or work group. For each of the eight statements below, select how often each statement describes the group's behavior. Place the number 1, 2, 3, or 4 on the line next to each of the 8 numbers.

• — 1. The members are loyal to one another and to the group leader.
• — 2. The members and leader have a high degree of confidence and trust in each other.
• — 3. Group values and goals express relevant values and needs of members.
• — 4. Activities of the group occur in a supportive atmosphere.
• — 5. The group is eager to help members develop to their full potential.
• — 6. The group knows the value of constructive conformity and knows when to use it and for what purpose.
• — 7. The members communicate all information relevant to the group's activity fully and frankly.
• — 8. The members feel secure in making decisions that seem appropriate to them.

Scoring

— Total. Add up the eight numbers and place an X on the continuum below that represents the score.

Effective group 8 … 16 … 24 … 32 Ineffective group

Interpretation

The lower the score, the more effective the group. What can you do to help the group become more effective? What can the group do to become more effective?

ASSESSMENT 10

Least Preferred Co-worker Scale

Instructions

Think of all the different people with whom you have ever worked—in jobs, in social clubs, in student projects, or whatever. Next, think of the one person with whom you could work least well—that is, the person with whom you had the most difficulty getting a job done. This is the one person—a peer, boss, or subordinate—with whom you would least want to work. Describe this person by circling numbers at the appropriate points on each of the following pairs of bipolar adjectives. Work rapidly. There are no right or wrong answers.

Scoring

This is called the “least preferred co-worker scale” (LPC). Compute your LPC score by totaling all the numbers you circled; enter that score here [LPC =___].

Interpretation

The LPC scale is used by Fred Fiedler to identify a person's dominant leadership style. Fiedler believes that this style is a relatively fixed part of one's personality and is therefore difficult to change. This leads Fiedler to his contingency views, which suggest that the key to leadership success is finding (or creating) good “matches” between style and situation. If your score is 73 or above, Fiedler considers you a “relationship-motivated” leader; if your score is 64 and below, he considers you a “task-motivated” leader. If your score is between 65 and 72, Fiedler leaves it up to you to determine which leadership style is most like yours.

ASSESSMENT 11

Leadership Style

Instructions

The following statements describe leadership acts. Indicate the way you would most likely act if you were leader of a workgroup, by circling whether you would most likely behave in this way:

Scoring

1. Circle items 8, 12, 17, 18, 19, 30, 34, and 35.
2. Write the number 1 in front of a circled item number if you responded S (seldom) or N (never) to that item.
3. Write a number 1 in front of item numbers not circled if you responded A (always) or F (frequently).
4. Circle the number 1's which you have written in front of items 3, 5, 8, 10, 15, 18, 19, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 34, and 35.
5. Count the circled number 1's. This is your score for leadership concern for people. Record the score in the blank following the letter P at the end of the questionnaire.
6. Count the uncircled number 1's. This is your score for leadership concern for task. Record this number in the blank following the letter T.

ASSESSMENT 12

“TT” Leadership Style

Instructions

For each of the following 10 pairs of statements, divide 5 points between the two according to your beliefs, perceptions of yourself, or according to which of the two statements characterizes you better. The 5 points may be divided between the a and b statements in any one of the following ways: 5 for a, 0 for b; 4 for a, 1 for b; 3 for a, 2 for b; 1 for a, 4 for b; 0 for a, 5 for b, but not equally (2 1/2) between the two. Weigh your choices between the two according to the one that characterizes you or your beliefs better.

1. • (a) As leader I have a primary mission of maintaining stability.
   • (b) As leader I have a primary mission of change.
2. • (a) As leader I must cause events.
   • (b) As leader I must facilitate events.
3. • (a) I am concerned that my followers are rewarded equitably for their work.
   • (b) I am concerned about what my followers want in life.
4. • (a) My preference is to think long range: what might be.
   • (b) My preference is to think short range: what is realistic.
5. • (a) As a leader I spend considerable energy in managing separate but related goals.
   • (b) As a leader I spend considerable energy in arousing hopes, expectations, and aspirations among my followers.
6. • (a) Although not in a formal classroom sense, I believe that a significant part of my leadership is that of teacher.
   • (b) I believe that a significant part of my leadership is that of facilitator.
7. • (a) As leader I must engage with followers at an equal level of morality.
   • (b) As leader I must represent a higher morality.
8. • (a) I enjoy stimulating followers to want to do more.
   • (b) I enjoy rewarding followers for a job well done.
9. • (a) Leadership should be practical.
   • (b) Leadership should be inspirational.
10. • (a) What power I have to influence others comes primarily from my ability to get people to identify with me and my ideas.
    • (b) What power I have to influence others comes primarily from my status and position.

Scoring

Circle your points for items 1b, 2a, 3b, 4a, 5b, 6a, 7b, 8a, 9b, 10a and add up the total points you allocated to these items; enter the score here [T =___]. Next, add up the total points given to the uncircled items 1a, 2b, 3a, 4b, 5a, 6b, 7a, 8b, 9a, 10b; enter the score here [T =___].

Interpretation

This instrument gives an impression of your tendencies toward “transformational” leadership (your T score) and “transactional” leadership (your T score). You may want to refer to the discussion of these concepts in Chapter 4. Today, a lot of attention is being given to the transformational aspects of leadership—those personal qualities that inspire a sense of vision and desire for extraordinary accomplishment in followers. The most successful leaders of the future will most likely be strong in both “T”s.

Selections from The Pfeiffer Training Annuals

Situation #1

Two employees of the support staff have requested the same two-week vacation period. They are the only two trained to carry out an essential task using a complex computer software program that cannot be mastered quickly. You have encouraged others to learn this process so there is more backup for the position, but heavy workloads have prevented this from occurring.

Situation #2

A sales manager has requested a raise because there are now two salespeople on commission earning higher salaries. The work performance of this individual currently does not merit a raise of the amount requested, mostly due to the person turning in critical reports late and missing a number of days of work. The person's sales group is one of the highest rated in the organization, but this may be the result of having superior individuals assigned to the team, rather than to the effectiveness of the manager.

Situation #3

It has become obvious that the copy machine located in a customer service area is being used for a variety of personal purposes, including reproducing obscene jokes. A few copies have sometimes been found lying on or near the machine at the close of the business day. You have mentioned the matter briefly in the organization's employee newsletter, but recently you have noticed an increase in the activity. Most of the office staff seems to be involved.

Situation #4

Three complaints have filtered upward to you from long-term employees concerning a newly hired individual. This person has a pierced nose and a visible tattoo. The work performance of the individual is adequate and the person does not have to see customers; however, the employees who have complained allege that the professional appearance of the office area has been compromised.

Situation #5

The organization has a flex-time schedule format that requires all employees to work the core hours of 10 A.M. to 3 P.M., Monday through Friday. Two department managers have complained that another department does not always maintain that policy. The manager of the department in question has responded by citing recent layoffs and additional work responsibilities as reasons for making exceptions to policy.

Situation #6

As a result of a recent downsizing, an office in a coveted location is now available. Three individuals have made a request to the department manager for the office. The manager has recommended that the office be given to one of the three. This individual has the highest performance rating, but was aided in obtaining employment with the company by the department manager, who is a good friend of the person's family. Colleagues prefer not to work with this individual, as there is seldom any evidence of teamwork.

Situation #7

Two department managers have requested a budget increase in the areas of travel and computer equipment. Each asks that your group support this request. The CEO, not your group, will make the final decision. You are aware that increasing funds for one department will result in a decrease for others, as the total budget figures for all of these categories are set.

Situation #8

Few of the management staff attended the Fourth of July picnic held at a department manager's country home last year. This particular manager, who has been a loyal team player for the past twenty-one years, has indicated that he/she plans to host the event again this year. Many of you have personally found the event to be boring, with little to do but talk and eat. Already a few of the other managers have suggested that the event be held at a different location with a new format or else be cancelled.

Situation #9

It has come to your attention that a manager and a subordinate in the same department are having a romantic affair openly in the building. Both are married to other people. They have been taking extended lunch periods, yet both remain beyond quitting time to complete their work. Colleagues have begun to complain that neither is readily available mid-day and that they do not return messages in a timely manner.

Situation #10

Two loyal department managers are concerned that a newly hired manager who is wheelchair-bound has been given too much in the way of accommodations beyond what is required by the Americans with Disabilities Act. They have requested similar changes to make their own work lives easier. Specifically, they cite office size and location on the building's main floor as points of contention.

E. INTERNAL/EXTERNAL MOTIVATORS: ENCOURAGING CREATIVITY

Procedure:

1. This interactive, experience-based activity is designed to increase participants' awareness of creativity and creative processes. Begin by thinking of a job that you now hold or have held. Then complete Questions 1 and 2 from the Internal/External Motivators Questionnaire (see below).
2. Form into groups. Share your questionnaire results and make a list of responses to Question 1.
3. Discuss and compare rankings of major work activities listed for Question 2. Make a list with at least two responses from each participant.
4. Individually record your answers to Questions 3 and 4 below. Then share your answers and again list member responses within your group.
5. Individually, compare your responses to Questions 1 and 2 with your responses to Questions 3 and 4. Then answer Question 5. Again, share with the group and make a group list of answers to Question 5 for the recorder, who is to record these answers on the flip chart. (Ten minutes.)

Questions for Discussion:

• What was the most important part of this activity for you?
• What have you learned about motivation?
• What impact will having done this activity have for you back in the workplace?
• How will what you have learned change your leadership style or future participation in a group?
• What will you do differently based on what you have learned?

INTRINSIC/EXTRINSIC MOTIVATORS QUESTIONNAIRE

1. How could you do your job in a more creative manner? List some ways in the space below:

   
   

   
   

2. List four or five major work activities or jobs you perform on a regular basis in the left-hand boxes on the following chart. Use a seven-point scale that ranges from 1 (low) to 7 (high) to rate each work activity on three separate dimensions: (a) level of difficulty, (b) potential to motivate you, and (c) opportunity to add value to the organization.

   

3. List five motivators or types of rewards that would encourage you to do your job in a more creative manner.

   
   

   
   

4. List three motivators or types of rewards from Question 3 above that you believe would definitely increase your creativity. Indicate whether these motivators are realistic or unrealistic in terms of your job or work setting.

   Indicate whether each is intrinsic or extrinsic.

   

5. List three types of work activities you like to perform and the motivators or rewards that would stimulate and reinforce your creativity.

   

F. QUICK HITTER: FOSTERING THE CREATIVE SPIRIT

Part A Procedure:

1. Write the Roman numeral nine (IX) on a sheet of paper.
2. Add one line to make six. After you have one response, try for others.

Questions for discussion:

• What does solving this puzzle show us about seeing things differently?
• Why don't some people consider alternatives easily?
• What skills or behaviors would be useful for us to develop our ability to see different points of view?

Part B Procedure:

1. Rent the video or DVD of “Patch Adams.” In this video Patch (Robin Williams) is studying to become a doctor, but he does not look, act, or think like a traditional doctor. For Patch, humor is the best medicine. He is always willing to do unusual things to make his patients laugh. Scenes from this video can be revealing to an OB class.
2. Show the first Patch Adams scene (five minutes)—this is in the psychiatric hospital where Patch has admitted himself after a failed suicide attempt. He meets Arthur in the hospital. Arthur is obsessed with showing people four fingers of his hand and asking them: “How many fingers can you see?” Everybody says four. The scene shows Patch visiting Arthur to find out the solution. Arthur's answer is: “If you only focus on the problem, you will never see the solution. Look further. You have to see what other people do not see.”
3. Engage the class in discussion of these questions and more:
   • How does this film clip relate to Part A of this exercise?
   • What restricts our abilities to look beyond what we see?
   • How can we achieve the goal of seeing what others do not see?
4. Show the second Patch Adams scene (five minutes)—this is when Patch has left the hospital and is studying medicine. Patch and his new friend Truman are having breakfast. Truman is reflecting on the human mind and on the changing of behavioral patterns (the adoption of programmed answers) as a person grows older. Patch proposes to carry out the Hello Experiment. The objective of the experiment is “to change the programmed answer by changing the usual parameters.”
5. Engage the class in discussion of these questions and more:
   • What is a programmed answer?
   • What is the link between our programmed answers and our abilities to exhibit creativity?
   • How can we “deprogram” ourselves?
6. Summarize the session with a wrap-up discussion of creativity, including barriers and ways to encourage it.

EXERCISE 1

My Best Manager

Procedure

1. Make a list of the attributes that describe the best manager you ever worked for. If you have trouble identifying an actual manager, make a list of attributes you would like the manager in your next job to have.
2. Form a group of four or five persons and share your lists.
3. Create one list that combines all the unique attributes of the “best” managers represented in your group. Make sure that you have all attributes listed, but list each only once. Place a check mark next to those that were reported by two or more members. Have one of your members prepared to present the list in general class discussion.
4. After all groups have finished Step 3, spokespersons should report to the whole class. The instructor will make a running list of the “best” manager attributes as viewed by the class.
5. Feel free to ask questions and discuss the results.

EXERCISE 2

Graffiti Needs Assessment: Involving Students in the First Class Session

Procedure

1. Complete the following sentences with as many endings as possible.
   1. When I first came to this class, I thought …
   2. My greatest concern this term is …
   3. In 3 years I will be …
   4. The greatest challenge facing the world today is …
   5. Organizational behavior specialists do …
   6. Human resources are …
   7. Organizational research is …
   8. The most useful question I've been asked is …
   9. The most important phenomenon in organizations is …
   10. I learn the most when …
2. Your instructor will guide you in a class discussion about your responses. Pay careful attention to similarities and differences among various students' answers.

EXERCISE 3

My Best Job

Procedure

1. Make a list of the top five things you expect from your first (or next) full-time job.
2. Exchange lists with a nearby partner. Assign probabilities (or odds) to each goal on your partner's list to indicate how likely you feel it is that the goal can be accomplished. (Note: Your instructor may ask that everyone use the same probabilities format.)
3. Discuss your evaluations with your partner. Try to delete superficial goals or modify them to become more substantial. Try to restate any unrealistic goals to make them more realistic. Help your partner do the same.
4. Form a group of four to six persons. Within the group, have everyone share what they now consider to be the most “realistic” goals on their lists. Elect a spokesperson to share a sample of these items with the entire class.
5. Discuss what group members have individually learned from the exercise. Await further class discussion led by your instructor.

EXERCISE 4

What Do You Value in Work?

Procedure

1. The following nine items are from a survey conducted by Nicholas J. Beutell and O. C. Brenner (“Sex Differences in Work Values,” Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 28, pp. 29-41, 1986). Rank the nine items in terms of how important (9 = most important) they would be to you in a job.

   How important is it to you to have a job that:

   — Is respected by other people?

   — Encourages continued development of knowledge and skills?

   — Provides job security?

   — Provides a feeling of accomplishment?

   — Provides the opportunity to earn a high income?

   — Is intellectually stimulating?

   — Rewards good performance with recognition?

   — Provides comfortable working conditions?

   — Permits advancement to high administrative responsibility?

2. Form into groups as designated by your instructor. Within each group, the men in the group will meet to develop a consensus ranking of the items as they think the women in the Beutell and Brenner survey ranked them. The reasons for the rankings should be shared and discussed so they are clear to everyone. The women in the group should not participate in this ranking task. They should listen to the discussion and be prepared to comment later in class discussion. A spokesperson for the men in the group should share the group's rankings with the class.
3. (Optional) Form into groups as designated by your instructor, but with each group consisting entirely of men or women. Each group should meet and decide which of the work values members of the opposite sex ranked first in the Beutell and Brenner survey. Do this again for the work value ranked last. The reasons should be discussed, along with reasons that each of the other values probably was not ranked first … or last. A spokesperson for each group should share group results with the rest of the class.

EXERCISE 5

My Asset Base

A business has an asset base or set of resources that it uses to produce a good or service of value to others. For a business, these are the assets or resources it uses to achieve results, including capital, land, patented products or processes, buildings and equipment, raw materials, and the human resources or employees, among others.

Each of us has an asset base that supports our ability to accomplish the things we set out to do. We refer to our personal assets as talents, strengths, or abilities. We probably inherit our talents from our parents, but we acquire many of our abilities and strengths through learning. One thing is certain: we feel very proud of the talents and abilities we have.

Procedure

1. Printed here is a T chart that you are to fill out. On the right-hand side of the T, list four or five of your accomplishments—things you have done of which you are most proud. Your accomplishments should only include those things for which you can take credit, those things for which you are primarily responsible. If you are proud of the sorority to which you belong, you may be justifiably proud, but don't list it unless you can argue that the sorority's excellence is due primarily to your efforts. However, if you feel that having been invited to join the sorority is a major accomplishment for you, then you may include it.

   When you have completed the right-hand side of the chart, fill in the left-hand side by listing talents, strengths, and abilities that you have that have enabled you to accomplish the outcomes listed on the right-hand side.

   My Asset Base

   

2. Share your lists with other team members. As each member shares his or her list, pay close attention to your own perceptions and feelings. Notice the effect this has on your attitudes toward the other team members.
3. Discuss these questions in your group:
   1. How did your attitudes and feelings toward other members of the team change as you pursued the activity? What does this tell you about the process whereby we come to get to know and care about people?
   2. How did you feel about the instructions the instructor provided? What did you expect to happen? Were your expectations accurate?

EXERCISE 6

Expatriate Assignments

Contributed by Robert E. Ledman, Morehouse College

This exercise focuses on issues related to workers facing international assignments. It illustrates that those workers face a multitude of issues. It further demonstrates that managers who want employees to realize the maximum benefits of international assignments should be aware of, and prepared to deal with, those issues. Some of the topics that are easily addressed with this exercise include the need for culture and language training for the employees and their families and the impact that international assignments may have on an employee's family and how that may affect an employee's willingness to seek such assignments.

Procedure

1. Form into “families” of four or five. Since many students today have only one parent at home, it is helpful if some groups do not have students to fill both parental roles in the exercise. Each student is assigned to play a family member and given a description of that person.
2. Enter into a 20-minute discussion to explore how a proposed overseas assignment will affect the family members. Your goal is to try to reach a decision about whether the assignment should be taken. You must also decide whether the entire family or only the family member being offered the assignment will relocate. The assignment is for a minimum of two years, with possible annual extensions resulting in a total of four years, and your family, or the member offered the assignment, will be provided, at company expense, one trip back to the states each year for a maximum period of 15 days. The member offered the assignment will not receive any additional housing or cost-of-living supplements described in the role assignment if he or she chooses to go overseas alone and can expect his or her living expenses to exceed substantially the living allowance being provided by the company. In your discussion, address the following questions:
   1. What are the most important concerns your family has about relocating to a foreign country?
   2. What information should you seek about the proposed host country to be able to make a more informed decision?
   3. What can the member offered the assignment do to make the transition easier if he or she goes overseas alone? If the whole family relocates?
   4. What should the member offered the assignment do to ensure that this proposed assignment will not create unnecessary stress for him or her and the rest of the family?
   5. What lessons for managers of expatriate assignees are presented by the situation in this exercise?

   Try to reach some “family” consensus. If a consensus is not possible, however, resolve any differences in the manner you think the family in the role descriptions would ultimately resolve any differences.

3. Share your answers with the rest of the class. Explain the rationale for your answers and answer questions from the remainder of the class.
4. (Optional) After each group has reported on a given question, the instructor may query the class about how their answers are consistent, or inconsistent, with common practices of managers as described in the available literature.

Descriptions of Family Members

Person Being Offered Overseas Assignment

This person is a middle- to upper-level executive who is on a fast track to senior management. He or she has been offered the opportunity to manage an overseas operation, with the assurance of a promotion to a vice presidency upon return to the states. The company will pay all relocation expenses, including selling costs for the family home and the costs associated with finding a new home upon return. The employer will also provide language training for the employee and cultural awareness training for the entire family. The employee will receive a living allowance equal to 20 percent of his or her salary. This should be adequate to provide the family a comparable standard of living to that which is possible on the employee's current salary.

Spouse of the Person Offered an Overseas Assignment (Optional)

This person is also a professional with highly transferable skills and experience for the domestic market. It is unknown how easily he or she may be able to find employment in the foreign country. This person's income, though less than his or her spouse's, is necessary if the couple is to continue paying for their child's college tuition and to prepare for the next child to enter college in two years. This person has spent 15 years developing a career, including completing a degree at night.

Oldest Child

This child is a second-semester junior in college and is on track to graduate in 16 months. Transferring at this time would probably mean adding at least one semester to complete the degree. He or she has been dating the same person for over a year; they have talked about getting married immediately after graduation, although they are not yet formally engaged.

Middle Child

This child is a junior in high school. He or she has already begun visiting college campuses in preparation for applying in the fall. This child is involved in a number of school activities; he or she is a photographer for the yearbook and plays a varsity sport. This child has a learning disability for which services are being provided by the school system.

Youngest Child

This child is a middle school student, age 13. He or she is actively involved in Scouting and takes piano lessons. This child has a history of medical conditions that have required regular visits to the family physician and specialists. This child has several very close friends who have attended the same school for several years.

EXERCISE 7

Cultural Cues

Contributed by Susan Rawson Zacur and W. Alan Randolph, University of Baltimore

Introduction

In the business context, culture involves shared beliefs and expectations that govern the behavior of people. In this exercise, foreign culture refers to a set of beliefs and expectations different from those of the participant's home culture (which has been invented by the participants).

Procedure

1. (10-15 minutes) Divide into two groups, each with color-coded badges. For example, the blue group could receive blue Post-it notes and the yellow group could receive yellow Post-it notes. Print your first name in bold letters on the badge and wear it throughout the exercise.

   Work with your group members to invent your own cultural cues. Think about the kinds of behaviors and words that will signify to all members that they belong together in one culture. For each category provided below, identify and record at least one important attribute for your culture.

   

   Once you have identified desirable cultural aspects for your group, practice them. It is best to stand with your group and to engage one another in conversations involving two or three people at a time. Your aim in talking with one another is to learn as much as possible about each other—hobbies, interests, where you live, what your family is like, what courses you are taking, and so on, all the while practicing the behaviors and words on the previous page. It is not necessary for participants to answer questions of a personal nature truthfully. Invention is permissible because the conversation is only a means to the end of cultural observation. Your aim at this point is to become comfortable with the indicators of your particular culture. Practice until the indicators are second nature to you.

2. Now assume that you work for a business that has decided to explore the potential for doing business with companies in a different culture. You are to learn as much as possible about another culture. To do so, you will send from one to three representatives from your group on a “business trip” to the other culture. These representatives must, insofar as possible, behave in a manner that is consistent with your culture. At the same time, each representative must endeavor to learn as much as possible about the people in the other culture, while keeping eyes and ears open to cultural attributes that will be useful in future negotiations with foreign businesses. (Note: At no time will it be considered ethical behavior for the representative to ask direct questions about the foreign culture's attributes. These must be gleaned from firsthand experience.)

   While your representatives are away, you will receive one or more exchange visitors from the other culture, who will engage in conversation as they attempt to learn more about your organizational culture. You must strictly adhere to the cultural aspects of your own culture while you converse with the visitors.

3. (5-10 minutes) All travelers return to your home cultures. As a group, discuss and record what you have learned about the foreign culture based on the exchange of visitors. This information will serve as the basis for orienting the next representatives who will make a business trip.
4. (5-10 minutes) Select one to three different group members to make another trip to the other culture to check out the assumptions your group has made about the other culture. This “checking out” process will consist of actually practicing the other culture's cues to see whether they work.
5. (5-10 minutes) Once the traveler(s) have returned and reported on findings, as a group prepare to report to the class what you have learned about the other culture.

EXERCISE 8

Prejudice in Our Lives

Procedure

1. As a large class group, generate a list of groups that tend to be targets of prejudice and stereotypes in our culture—such groups can be based on gender, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, region, religion, and so on. After generating a list, either as a class or in small groups, identify a few common positive and negative stereotypes associated with each group. Also consider relationships or patterns that exist between some of the lists. Discuss the implications for groups that have stereotypes that are valued in organizations versus groups whose stereotypes are viewed negatively in organizations.
2. As an individual, think about the lists you have now generated, and list those groups with which you identify. Write about an experience in which you were stereotyped as a member of a group. Ask yourself the following questions and write down your thoughts:
   1. What group do I identify with?
   2. What was the stereotype?
   3. What happened? When and where did the incident occur? Who said what to whom?
   4. What were my reactions? How did I feel? What did I think? What did I do?
   5. What were the consequences? How did the incident affect myself and others?
3. Now, in small groups, discuss your experiences. Briefly describe the incident and focus on how the incident made you feel. Select one incident from the ones shared in your group to role-play for the class. Then, as a class, discuss your reactions to each role play. Identify the prejudice or stereotype portrayed, the feelings the situation evoked, and the consequences that might result from such a situation.
4. Think about the prejudices and stereotypes you hold about other people. Ask yourself, “What groups do I feel prejudice toward? What stereotypes do I hold about members of each of these groups?” How may such a prejudice have developed—did a family member or close friend or television influence you to stereotype a particular group in a certain way?
5. Now try to identify implications of prejudice in the workplace. How do prejudice and stereotypes affect workers, managers, relationships between people, and the organization as a whole? Consider how you might want to change erroneous beliefs as well as how you would encourage other people to change their own erroneous beliefs.

EXERCISE 9

How We View Differences

Contributed by Barbara Walker

Introduction

Clearly, the workplace of the future will be much more diverse than it is today: more women, more people of color, more international representation, more diverse lifestyles and ability profiles, and the like. Managing a diverse workforce and working across a range of differences is quickly becoming a “core competency” for effective managers.

Furthermore, it is also becoming clear that diversity in a work team can significantly enhance the creativity and quality of the team's output. In today's turbulent business environment, utilizing employee diversity will give the manager and the organization a competitive edge in tapping all of the available human resources more effectively. This exercise is an initial step in the examination of how we work with people whom we see as different from us. It is fairly simple, straightforward, and safe, but its implications are profound.

Procedure

1. Read the following:

   Imagine that you are traveling in a rental car in a city you have never visited before. You have a one-hour drive on an uncrowded highway before you reach your destination. You decide that you would like to spend the time listening to some of your favorite kind of music on the car radio.

   The rental car has four selection buttons available, each with a preset station that plays a different type of music. One plays country music, one plays rock, one plays classical, and one plays jazz. Which type of music would you choose to listen to for the next hour as you drive along? (Assume you want to relax and just stick with one station; you don't want to bother switching around between stations.)

2. Form into groups based on the type of music that you have chosen. All who have chosen country will meet in an area designated by the instructor. Those who chose rock will meet in another area, and so on. In your groups, answer the following question. Appoint one member to be the spokesperson to report your answers back to the total group.

   Question

   For each of the other groups, what words would you use to describe people who like to listen to that type of music?

3. Have each spokesperson report the responses of her or his group to the question in Step 2. Follow with class discussion of these additional questions:
   1. What do you think is the purpose or value of this exercise?
   2. What did you notice about the words used to describe the other groups? Were there any surprises in this exercise for you?
   3. Upon what sorts of data do you think these images were based?
   4. What term do we normally use to describe these generalized perceptions of another group?
   5. What could some of the consequences be?
   6. How do the perceptual processes here relate to other kinds of intergroup differences, such as race, gender, culture, ability, ethnicity, health, age, nationality, and so on?
   7. What does this exercise suggest about the ease with which intergroup stereotypes form?
   8. What might be ways an organization might facilitate the valuing and utilizing of differences between people?

EXERCISE 10

Alligator River Story

The Alligator River Story

There lived a woman named Abigail who was in love with a man named Gregory. Gregory lived on the shore of a river. Abigail lived on the opposite shore of the same river. The river that separated the two lovers was teeming with dangerous alligators. Abigail wanted to cross the river to be with Gregory. Unfortunately, the bridge had been washed out by a heavy flood the previous week. So she went to ask Sinbad, a riverboat captain, to take her across. He said he would be glad to if she would consent to go to bed with him prior to the voyage. She promptly refused and went to a friend named Ivan to explain her plight. Ivan did not want to get involved at all in the situation. Abigail felt her only alternative was to accept Sinbad's terms. Sinbad fulfilled his promise to Abigail and delivered her into the arms of Gregory. When Abigail told Gregory about her amorous escapade in order to cross the river, Gregory cast her aside with disdain. Heartsick and rejected, Abigail turned to Slug with her tail of woe. Slug, feeling compassion for Abigail, sought out Gregory and beat him brutally. Abigail was overjoyed at the sight of Gregory getting his due. As the sun set on the horizon, people heard Abigail laughing at Gregory.

Procedure

1. Read “The Alligator River Story.”
2. After reading the story, rank the five characters in the story beginning with the one whom you consider the most offensive and end with the one whom you consider the least objectionable. That is, the character who seems to be the most reprehensible to you should be entered first in the list following the story, then the second most reprehensible, and so on, with the least reprehensible or objectionable being entered fifth. Of course, you will have your own reasons as to why you rank them in the order that you do. Very briefly note these too.
3. Form groups as assigned by your instructor (at least four persons per group with gender mixed).
4. Each group should:
   1. Elect a spokesperson for the group
   2. Compare how the group members have ranked the characters
   3. Examine the reasons used by each of the members for their rankings
   4. Seek consensus on a final group ranking
5. Following your group discussions, you will be asked to share your outcomes and reasons for agreement or nonagreement. A general class discussion will then be held.

EXERCISE 11

Teamwork and Motivation

Contributed by Dr. Barbara McCain, Oklahoma City University

Procedure

1. Read this situation.

   You are the owner of a small manufacturing corporation. Your company manufactures widgets—a commodity. Your widget is a clone of nationally known widgets. Your widget, “WooWoo,” is less expensive and more readily available than the nationally known brand. Presently, the sales are high. However, there are many rejects, which increases your cost and delays the delivery. You have 50 employees in the following departments: sales, assembly, technology, and administration.

2. In groups, discuss methods to motivate all of the employees in the organization—rank them in terms of preference.
3. Design an organization motivation plan that encourages high job satisfaction, low turnover, high productivity, and high-quality work.
4. Is there anything special you can do about the minimum-wage service worker? How do you motivate this individual? On what motivation theory do you base your decision?
5. Report to the class your motivation plan. Record your ideas on the board and allow all groups to build on the first plan. Discuss additions and corrections as the discussion proceeds.

Worksheet

Directions: Fill in the right-hand column with descriptive terms. These terms should suggest a change in behavior from individual work to teamwork.

EXERCISE 12

The Downside of Punishment

Contributed by Dr. Barbara McCain, Oklahoma City University

Procedure

There are numerous problems associated with using punishment or discipline to change behavior. Punishment creates negative effects in the workplace. To better understand this, work in your group to give an example of each of the following situations:

1. Punishment may not be applied to the person whose behavior you want to change.

   
   

2. Punishment applied over time may suppress the occurrence of socially desirable behaviors.

   
   

3. Punishment creates a dislike of the person who is implementing the punishment.

   
   

4. Punishment results in undesirable emotions such as anxiety and aggressiveness.

   
   

5. Punishment increases the desire to avoid punishment.

   
   

6. Punishing one behavior does not guarantee that the desired behavior will occur.

   
   

7. Punishment follow-up requires allocation of additional resources.

   
   

8. Punishment may create a communication barrier and inhibit the flow of information.

EXERCISE 13

Tinker Toys

Contributed by Bonnie McNeely, Murray State University

Materials Needed

Tinker Toy sets.

1. Form groups as assigned by the instructor. The mission of each group or temporary organization is to build the tallest possible Tinker Toy tower. Each group should determine worker roles: at least four students will be builders, some will be consultants who offer suggestions, and the remaining students will be observers who remain silent and complete the observation sheet provided below.
2. Rules for the exercise:
   1. Fifteen minutes allowed to plan the tower, but only 60 seconds to build.
   2. No more than two Tinker Toy pieces can be put together during the planning.
   3. All pieces must be put back in the box before the competition begins.
   4. Completed tower must stand alone.

Observation Sheet

1. What planning activities were observed?

   Did the group members adhere to the rules?

2. What organizing activities were observed?

   Was the task divided into subtasks? Division of labor?

3. Was the group motivated to succeed? Why or why not?
4. Were any control techniques observed?

   Was a timekeeper assigned?

   Were backup plans discussed?

5. Did a clear leader emerge from the group?

   What behaviors indicated that this person was the leader?

   How did the leader establish credibility with the group?

6. Did any conflicts within the group appear?

   Was there a power struggle for the leadership position?

EXERCISE 14

Job Design Preferences

Procedure

1. Use the left column to rank the following job characteristics in the order most important to you (1—highest to 10—lowest). Then use the right column to rank them in the order you think they are most important to others.

   

   

2. Form workgroups as assigned by your instructor. Share your rankings with other group members. Discuss where you have different individual preferences and where your impressions differ from the preferences of others. Are there any major patterns in your group—for either the “personal” or the “other” rankings? Develop group consensus rankings for each column. Designate a spokesperson to share the group rankings and results of any discussion with the rest of the class.

EXERCISE 15

My Fantasy Job

Contributed by Lady Hanson, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona

Procedure

1. Think about a possible job that represents what you consider to be your ideal or “fantasy” job. For discussion purposes, try to envision it as a job you would hold within a year of finishing your current studies. Write down a brief description of that job in the space below. Start the description with the following words—My fantasy job would be …
2. Review the description of the Hackman/Oldham model of Job Characteristics Theory offered in the textbook. Note in particular the descriptions of the core characteristics. Consider how each of them could be maximized in your fantasy job. Indicate in the spaces that follow how specific parts of your fantasy job will fit into or relate to each of the core characteristics.
   1. Skill variety:_____________________
   2. Task identity:_____________________
   3. Task significance:_____________________
   4. Autonomy:_____________________
   5. Job feedback:_____________________
3. Form into groups as assigned by your instructor. In the group have each person share his or her fantasy job and the descriptions of its core characteristics. Select one person from your group to tell the class as a whole about her or his fantasy job. Be prepared to participate in a general discussion regarding the core characteristics and how they may or may not relate to job performance and job satisfaction. Consider also the likelihood that the fantasy jobs of class members are really attainable—in other words: Can “fantasy” become fact?

EXERCISE 16

Motivation by Job Enrichment

Contributed by Diana Page, University of West Florida

Procedure

1. Form groups of five to seven members. Each group is assigned one of the following categories:
   1. Bank teller
   2. Retail sales clerk
   3. Manager, fast-food service (e.g., McDonald's)
   4. Wait person
   5. Receptionist
   6. Restaurant manager
   7. Clerical worker (or bookkeeper)
   8. Janitor
2. As a group, develop a short description of job duties for the job your group has been assigned. The list should contain approximately four to six items.
3. Next, using job characteristics theory, enrich the job using the specific elements described in the theory. Develop a new list of job duties that incorporate any or all of the core job characteristics suggested by Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham, such as skill variety, task identity, and so on. Indicate for each of the new job duties which job characteristic(s) was/were used.
4. One member of each group should act as the spokesperson and will present the group's ideas to the class. Specifically describe one or two of the old job tasks. Describe the modified job tasks. Finally, relate the new job tasks the group has developed to specific job core characteristics such as skill variety, skill identity, and so on.
5. The group should also be prepared to discuss these and other follow-up questions:
   1. How would a manager go about enlarging but not enriching this job?
   2. Why was this job easy or hard?
   3. What are the possible constraints on actually accomplishing this enrichment in the workplace?
   4. What possible reasons are there that a worker would not like to have this newly enriched job?

EXERCISE 17

Annual Pay Raises

Procedure

1. Read the following job descriptions and decide on a percentage pay increase for each of the eight employees.
2. Make salary increase recommendations for each of the eight managers that you supervise. There are no formal company restrictions on the size of raises you give, but the total for everyone should not exceed the $10,900 (a 4 percent increase in the salary pool) that has been budgeted for this purpose. You have a variety of information on which to base the decisions, including a “productivity index” (PI), which Industrial Engineering computes as a quantitative measure of operating efficiency for each manager's work unit. This index ranges from a high of 10 to a low of 1. Indicate the percentage increase you would give each manager in the blank space next to each manager's name. Be prepared to explain why.
   • — A. Alvarez Alvarez is new this year and has a tough workgroup whose task is dirty and difficult. This is a hard position to fill, but you don't feel Alvarez is particularly good. The word around is that the other managers agree with you. PI = 3. Salary = $33,000.
   • — B. J. Cook Cook is single and a “swinger” who enjoys leisure time. Everyone laughs at the problems B.J. has getting the work out, and you feel it certainly is lacking. Cook has been in the job two years. PI = 3. Salary = $34,500.
   • — Z. Davis In the position three years, Davis is one of your best people, even though some of the other managers don't agree. With a spouse who is independently wealthy, Davis doesn't need money but likes to work. PI = 7. Salary = $36,600.
   • — M. Frame Frame has personal problems and is hurting financially. Others gossip about Frame's performance, but you are quite satisfied with this second-year employee. PI = 7. Salary = $34,700.
   • — C. M. Liu Liu is just finishing a fine first year in a tough job. Highly respected by the others, Liu has a job offer in another company at a 15 percent increase in salary. You are impressed, and the word is that the money is important. PI = 9. Salary = $34,000.
   • — B. Ratin Ratin is a first-year manager whom you and the others think is doing a good job. This is a bit surprising since Ratin turned out to be a “free spirit” who doesn't seem to care much about money or status. PI = 9. Salary = $33,800.
   • — H. Smith Smith is a first-year manager recently divorced and with two children to support as a single parent. The others like Smith a lot, but your evaluation is not very high. Smith could certainly use extra money. PI = 5. Salary = $33,000.
   • — G. White White is a big spender who always has the latest clothes and a new car. In the first year on what you would call an easy job, White doesn't seem to be doing very well. For some reason, though, the others talk about White as the “cream of the new crop.” PI = 5. Salary = $33,000.
3. Convene in a group of four to seven persons and share your raise decisions.
4. As a group, decide on a new set of raises and be prepared to report them to the rest of the class. Make sure that the group spokesperson can provide the rationale for each person's raise.
5. The instructor will call on each group to report its raise decisions. After discussion, an “expert's” decision will be given.

EXERCISE 18

Serving on the Boundary

Contributed by Joseph A. Raelin, Boston College

Procedure

The objective of this exercise is to experience what it is like being on the boundary of your team or organization and to experience the boundary person's divided loyalties.

1. As a full class, decide on a stake you are willing to wager on this exercise. Perhaps it will be 5¢ or 10¢ per person or even more.
2. Form into teams. Select or elect one member from your team to be an expert. The expert will be the person most competent in the field of international geography.
3. The experts will then form into a team of their own.
4. The teams, including the expert team, are going to be given a straightforward question to work on. Whichever team comes closest to deriving the correct answer will win the pool from the stakes already collected. The question is any one of the following as assigned by the instructor: (a) What is the airline distance between Beijing and Moscow (in miles)? (b) What is the highest point in Texas (in feet)? (c) What was the number of American battle deaths in the Revolutionary War?
5. Each team should now work on the question, including the expert team. However, after all the teams come up with a verdict, the experts will be allowed to return to their “home” team to inform the team of the expert team's deliberations.
6. The expert team members are now asked to reconvene as an expert team. They should determine their final answer to the question. Then, they are to face a decision. The instructor will announce that for a period of up to two minutes, any expert may either return to their home team (to sink or swim with the answer of the home team) or remain with the expert team. As long as two members remain in the expert team, it will be considered a group and may vie for the pool. Home teams, during the two-minute decision period, can do whatever they would like to do—within bounds of normal decorum—to try to persuade their expert member to return.
7. After the two minutes are up, teams will hand in their verdicts to the question, and the team with the closest answer (up or down) will be awarded the pool.
8. Class members should be prepared to discuss the following questions:
   1. What did it feel like to be a boundary person (the expert)?
   2. What could the teams have done to corral any of the boundary persons who chose not to return home?

EXERCISE 19

Eggsperiential Exercise

Contributed by Dr. Barbara McCain, Oklahoma City University

Materials Needed

• 1 raw egg per group
• 6 plastic straws per group
• 1 yard of plastic tape
• 1 large plastic jar

Procedure

1. Form into equal groups of five to seven people.
2. The task is to drop an egg from the chair onto the plastic without breaking the egg. Groups can evaluate the materials and plan their task for 10 minutes. During this period the materials may not be handled.
3. Groups have 10 minutes for construction.
4. One group member will drop the egg while standing on top of a chair in front of the class. One by one a representative from each group will drop their eggs.
5. Optional: Each group will name the egg.
6. Each group discusses their individual/group behaviors during this activity. Optional: This analysis may be summarized in written form. The following questions may be utilized in the analysis:
   1. What kind of group is it? Explain.
   2. Was the group cohesive? Explain.
   3. How did the cohesiveness relate to performance? Explain.
   4. Was there evidence of groupthink? Explain.
   5. Were group norms established? Explain.
   6. Was there evidence of conflict? Explain.
   7. Was there any evidence of social loafing? Explain.

EXERCISE 20

Scavenger Hunt—Team Building

Contributed by Michael R. Manning and Paula J. Schmidt, New Mexico State University

Introduction

Think about what it means to be a part of a team—a successful team. What makes one team more successful than another? What does each team member need to do in order for their team to be successful? What are the characteristics of an effective team?

Procedure

1. Form teams as assigned by your instructor. Locate the items on the list below while following these important rules:
   1. Your team must stay together at all times—that is, you cannot go in separate directions.
   2. Your team must return to the classroom in the time allotted by the instructor.

      The team with the most items on the list will be declared the most successful team.

2. Next, reflect on your team's experience. What did each team member do? What was your team's strategy? What made your team effective? Make a list of the most important things your team did to be successful. Nominate a spokesperson to summarize your team's discussion for the class. What items were similar between teams? That is, what helped each team to be effective?

Items for Scavenger Hunt

Each item is to be identified and brought back to the classroom.

1. A book with the word “team” in the title.
2. A joke about teams that you share with the class.
3. A blade of grass from the university football field.
4. A souvenir from the state.
5. A picture of a team or group.
6. A newspaper article about a team.
7. A team song to be composed and performed for the class.
8. A leaf from an oak tree.
9. Stationery from the dean's office.
10. A cup of sand.
11. A pine cone.
12. A live reptile. (Note: Sometimes a team member has one for a pet or the students are ingenious enough to visit a local pet store.)
13. A definition of group “cohesion” that you share with the class.
14. A set of chopsticks.
15. Three cans of vegetables.
16. A branch of an elm tree.
17. Three unusual items.
18. A ball of cotton.
19. The ear from a prickly pear cactus.
20. A group name.

(Note: Items may be substituted as appropriate for your locale.):

Source: Adapted from Michael R. Manning and Paula J. Schmidt, Journal of Management Education, 'Building Effective Work Teams: A Quick Exercise Based on a Scavenger Hunt” (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1995), pp. 392-398. Used by permission. Reference for list of items for scavenger hunt from C. E. Larson and F. M. Lafas, Team Work: What Must Go Right/What Can Go Wrong (Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1989).

EXERCISE 21

Work Team Dynamics

Introduction

Think about your course work team, a work team you are involved in for another course, or any other team suggested by the instructor. Indicate how often each of the following statements accurately reflects your experience in the team. Use this scale:

1 = Always 2 = Frequently 3 = Sometimes 4 = Never

• — 1. My ideas get a fair hearing.
• — 2. I am encouraged for innovative ideas and risk taking.
• — 3. Diverse opinions within the team are encouraged.
• — 4. I have all the responsibility I want.
• — 5. There is a lot of favoritism shown in the team.
• — 6. Members trust one another to do their assigned work.
• — 7. The team sets high standards of performance excellence.
• — 8. People share and change jobs a lot in the team.
• — 9. You can make mistakes and learn from them on this team.
• — 10. This team has good operating rules.

Procedure

Form groups as assigned by your instructor. Ideally, this will be the team you have just rated. Have all team members share their ratings, and make one master rating for the team as a whole. Circle the items on which there are the biggest differences of opinion. Discuss those items and try to find out why they exist. In general, the better a team scores on this instrument, the higher its creative potential. If everyone has rated the same team, make a list of the five most important things members can do to improve its operations in the future. Nominate a spokesperson to summarize the team discussion for the class as a whole.: Source: Adapted from William Dyer, Team Building, 2nd ed. (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1987), pp. 123-125.

EXERCISE 22

Identifying Team Norms

Procedure

1. Choose an organization you know quite a bit about.
2. Complete the questionnaire below, indicating your responses using one of the following:

   

   If an employee in this organization were to … Most other employees would:

   

   

Scoring

1. Organizational/Personal Pride Score___
2. Performance/Excellence Score___
3. Teamwork/Communication Score___
4. Leadership/Supervision Score___
5. Profitability/Cost-Effectiveness Score___
6. Colleague/Associate Relations Score___
7. Customer/Client Relations Score___
8. Innovativeness/Creativity Score___
9. Training/Development Score___
10. Candor/Openness Score___

EXERCISE 23

Workgroup Culture

Contributed by Conrad N. Jackson, MPC Inc.

Procedure

The bipolar scales on this instrument can be used to evaluate a group's process in a number of useful ways. Use it to measure where you see the group to be at present. To do this, circle the number that best represents how you see the culture of the group. You can also indicate how you think the group should function by using a different symbol, such as a square (**) or a caret (^), to indicate how you saw the group at some time in the past.

1. If you are assessing your own group, have everyone fill in the instrument, summarize the scores, then discuss their bases (what members say and do that has led to these interpretations) and implications. This is often an extremely productive intervention to improve group or team functioning.
2. If you are assessing another group, use the scores as the basis for your feedback. Be sure to provide specific feedback on behavior you have observed in addition to the subjective interpretations of your ratings on the scales in this instrument.
3. The instrument can also be used to compare a group's self-assessment with the assessment provided by another group.

Source: Adapted from Donald D. Bowen et al., Experiences in Management and Organizational Behavior, 4th ed. (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1997.)

EXERCISE 24

The Hot Seat

Contributed by Barry R. Armandi, SUNY-Old Westbury

Procedure

1. Form into groups as assigned by your instructor.
2. Read the following situation.

   A number of years ago, Professor Stevens was asked to attend a departmental meeting at a university. He had been on leave from the department, but a junior faculty member discreetly requested that he attend to protect the rights of the junior faculty. The Chair, or head of the department, was a typical Machiavellian, whose only concerns were self-serving. Professor Stevens had had a number of previous disagreements with the Chair. The heart of the disagreements centered around the Chair's abrupt and domineering style and his poor relations with the junior faculty, many of whom felt mistreated and scared.

   The department was a conglomeration of different professorial types. Included in the mix were behavioralists, generalists, computer scientists, and quantitative analysts. The department was embedded in the school of business, which had three other departments. There was much confusion and concern among the faculty, since this was a new organizational design. Many of the faculty were at odds with each other over the direction the school was now taking.

   

   At the meeting, a number of proposals were to be presented that would seriously affect the performance and future of certain junior faculty, particularly those who were behavioral scientists. The Chair, a computer scientist, disliked the behaviorists, who he felt were “always analyzing the motives of people.” Professor Stevens, who was a tenured full professor and a behaviorist, had an objective to protect the interests of the junior faculty and to counter the efforts of the Chair.

   Including Professor Stevens, there were nine faculty present. The accompanying diagram below shows the seating arrangement and the layout of the room. The ×s signify those faculty who were allies of the Chair. The +s are those opposed to the Chair and supportive of Professor Stevens, and the ?s were undecided and could be swayed either way. The circled numbers represent empty seats. Both ?s were behavioralists, and the + next to them was a quantitative analyst. Near the door, the first × was a generalist, the two +s were behavioralists, and the second × was a quantitative analyst. The diagram shows the seating of everyone but Professor Stevens, who was the last one to enter the room. Standing at the door, Professor Stevens surveyed the room and within 10 seconds knew which seat was the most effective to achieve his objective.

3. Answer the following questions in your group.
   1. Which seat did Professor Stevens select and why?
   2. What is the likely pattern of communication and interaction in this group?
   3. What can be done to get this group to work harmoniously?

EXERCISE 25

Interview a Leader

Contributed by Bonnie McNeely, Murray State University

Procedure

1. Make an appointment to interview a leader. It can be a leader working in a business or nonprofit organization, such as a government agency, school, and so on. Base the interview on the form provided here, but feel free to add your own questions.
2. Bring the results of your interview to class. Form into groups as assigned by your instructor. Share the responses from your interview with your group and com-pare answers. What issues were similar? Different? Were the stress levels of leaders working in nonprofit organizations as high as those working in for-profit firms? Were you surprised at the number of hours per week worked by leaders?
3. Be prepared to summarize the interviews done by your group as a formal written report if asked to do so by the instructor.

Interview Questionnaire

Student's Name___ Date___

1. Position in the organization (title):
2. Number of years in current position: Number of years of managerial experience:
3. Number of people directly supervised:
4. Average number of hours worked a week:
5. How did you get into leadership?
6. What is the most rewarding part of being a leader?
7. What is the most difficult part of your job?
8. What would you say are the keys to success for leaders?
9. What advice do you have for an aspiring leader?
10. What type of ethical issues have you faced as a leader?
11. If you were to enroll in a leadership seminar, what topics or issues would you want to learn more about?
12. (Student question)

    Gender: M___F___Years of formal education___

    Level of job stress: Very high___High___Average___Low___

    Profit organization___Nonprofit organization___

    Additional information/Comments:

Source: Adapted from Bonnie McNeely, “Make Your Principles of Management Class Come Alive,” Journal of Management Education, Vol. 18, No. 2 (May 1994), pp. 246-249.

EXERCISE 26

Leadership Skills Inventories

Procedure

1. Look over the skills listed below and ask your instructor to clarify those you do not understand.
2. Complete each category by checking either the “Strong” or “Needs Development” category in relation to your own level with each skill.
3. After completing each category, briefly describe a situation in which each of the listed skills has been utilized.
4. Meet in your groups to share and discuss inventories. Prepare a report summarizing major development needs in your group.

Instrument

EXERCISE 27

Leadership and Participation in Decision Making

Procedure

1. For the 10 situations described here, decide which of the three styles you would use for that unique situation. Place the letter A, P, or L on the line before each situation's number.
   • A—authority; make the decision alone without additional inputs.
   • P—consultative; make the decision based on group inputs.
   • L—group; allow the group to which you belong to make the decision.

   Decision Situations

   • — 1. You have developed a new work procedure that will increase productivity. Your boss likes the idea and wants you to try it within a few weeks. You view your employees as fairly capable and believe that they will be receptive to the change.
   • — 2. The industry of your product has new competition. Your organization's revenues have been dropping. You have been told to lay off three of your ten employees in two weeks. You have been the supervisor for over one year. Normally, your employees are very capable.
   • — 3. Your department has been facing a problem for several months. Many solutions have been tried and have failed. You finally thought of a solution, but you are not sure of the possible consequences of the change required or its acceptance by the highly capable employees.
   • — 4. Flextime has become popular in your organization. Some departments let each employee start and end work whenever they choose. However, because of the cooperative effort of your employees, they must all work the same eight hours. You are not sure of the level of interest in changing the hours. Your employees are a very capable group and like to make decisions.
   • — 5. The technology in your industry is changing faster than the members of your organization can keep up. Top management hired a consultant who has given the recommended decision. You have two weeks to make your decision. Your employees are capable, and they enjoy participating in the decision-making process.
   • — 6. Your boss called you on the telephone to tell you that someone has requested an order for your department's product with a very short delivery date. She asked that you call her back with the decision about taking the order in 15 minutes. Looking over the work schedule, you realize that it will be very difficult to deliver the order on time. Your employees will have to push hard to make it. They are cooperative, capable, and enjoy being involved in decision making.
   • — 7. A change has been handed down from top management. How you implement it is your decision. The change takes effect in one month. It will personally affect everyone in your department. The acceptance of the department members is critical to the success of the change. Your employees are usually not too interested in being involved in making decisions.
   • — 8. You believe that productivity in your department could be increased. You have thought of some ways that may work, but you're not sure of them. Your employees are very experienced; almost all of them have been in the department longer than you have.
   • — 9. Top management has decided to make a change that will affect all of your employees. You know that they will be upset because it will cause them hardship. One or two may even quit. The change goes into effect in 30 days. Your employees are very capable.
   • — 10. A customer has offered you a contract for your product with a quick delivery date. The offer is open for two days. Meeting the contract deadline would require employees to work nights and weekends for six weeks. You cannot require them to work overtime. Filling this profitable contract could help get you the raise you want and feel you deserve. However, if you take the contract and don't deliver on time, it will hurt your chances of getting a big raise. Your employees are very capable.
2. Form groups as assigned by your instructor. Share and compare your choices for each decision situation. Reconcile any differences and be prepared to defend your decision preferences in general class discussion.

EXERCISE 28

My Best Manager: Revisited

Contributed by J. Marcus Maier, Chapman University

Procedure

1. Refer to the list of qualities—or profiles—the class generated earlier in the course for the “Best Manager.”
2. Looking first at your Typical Managers profile, suppose you took this list to 100 average people on the street (or at the local mall) and asked them whether___(Trait X, quality Y) was “more typical of men or of women in our culture.” What do you think most of them would say? That___(X, Y etc.) is more typical of women? or of men? or of neither/both?¹ Do this for every trait on your list(s). (5 minutes)
3. Now do the same for the qualities we generated in our Best Manager profile. (5 min.)
4. A straw vote is taken, one quality at a time, to determine the class's overall gender identification of each trait, focusing on the Typical Managers profile (10-15 min.). Then this is repeated for the Best Manager profile (10-15 min.).²
5. Discussion. What do you see in the data this group has generated? How might you interpret these results? (15-20 min.)

Source: Based on Maier's 1993 article, “The Gender Prism,” Journal of Management Education, 17(3), 285-314. 1994 Fritz Roethlisberger Award Recipient for Best Paper (Updated, 1996).

EXERCISE 29

Active Listening

Contributed by Robert Ledman, Morehouse College

Procedure

1. Review active listening skills and behaviors as described in the textbook and in class.
2. Form into groups of three. Each group will have a listener, a talker, and an observer (if the number of students is not evenly divisible by three, two observers are used for one or two groups).
3. The “talkers” should talk about any subject they wish, but only if they are being actively listened to. Talkers should stop speaking as soon as they sense active listening has stopped.
4. The “listeners” should use a list of active listening skills and behaviors as their guide, and practice as many of them as possible to be sure the talker is kept talking. Listeners should contribute nothing more than “active listening” to the communication.
5. The “observer” should note the behaviors and skills used by the listener and the effects they seemed to have on the communication process.
6. These roles are rotated until each student has played every role.
7. The instructor will lead a discussion of what the observers saw and what happened with the talkers and listeners. The discussion focuses on what behaviors from the posted list have been present, which have been absent, and how the communication has been affected by the listener's actions.

Source: Adapted from the presentation entitled “An Experiential Exercise to Teach Active Listening,” presented at the Organizational Behavior Teaching Conference, Macomb, IL, 1995.

EXERCISE 30

Upward Appraisal

Procedure

1. Form workgroups as assigned by your instructor.
2. The instructor will leave the room.
3. Convene in your assigned workgroups for a period of 10 minutes. Create a list of comments, problems, issues, and concerns you would like to have communicated to the instructor in regard to the course experience to date. Remember, your interest in the exercise is twofold: (a) to communicate your feelings to the instructor and (b) to learn more about the process of giving and receiving feedback.
4. Select one person from the group to act as spokesperson in communicating the group's feelings to the instructor.
5. The spokespersons should briefly convene to decide on what physical arrangement of chairs, tables, and so forth is most appropriate to conduct the feedback session. The classroom should then be rearranged to fit the desired specifications.
6. While the spokespersons convene, persons in the remaining groups should discuss how they expect the forthcoming communications event to develop. Will it be a good experience for all parties concerned? Be prepared to critically observe the actual communication process.
7. The instructor should be invited to return, and the feedback session will begin. Observers should make notes so that they may make constructive comments at the conclusion of the exercise.
8. Once the feedback session is complete, the instructor will call on the observers for comments, ask the spokespersons for reactions, and open the session to discussion.

EXERCISE 31

360° Feedback

Contributed by Timothy J. Serey, Northern Kentucky University

Introduction

The time of performance reviews is often a time of genuine anxiety for many organizational members. On the one hand, it is an important organizational ritual and a key part of the Human Resource function. Organizations usually codify the process and provide a mechanism to appraise performance. On the other hand, it is rare for managers to feel comfortable with this process. Often, they feel discomfort over “playing God.” One possible reason for this is that managers rarely receive formal training about how to provide feedback. From the manager's point of view, if done properly, giving feedback is at the very heart of his or her job as “coach” and “teacher.” It is an investment in the professional development of another person, rather than the punitive element we so often associate with hearing from “the boss.” From the subordinate's perspective, most people want to know where they stand, but this is usually tempered by a fear of “getting it in the neck.” In many organizations, it is rare to receive straight, non-sugar-coated feedback about where you stand.

Procedure

1. Review the section of the book dealing with feedback before you come to class. It is also helpful if individuals make notes about their perceptions and feelings about the course before they come to class.
2. Groups of students should discuss their experiences, both positive and negative, in this class. Each group should determine the dimensions of evaluating the class itself and the instructor. For example, students might select criteria that include the practicality of the course, the way the material is structured and presented (e.g., lecture or exercises), and the instructor's style (e.g., enthusiasm, fairness).
3. Groups select a member to represent them in a subgroup that next provides feedback to the instructor before the entire class.
4. The student audience then provides the subgroup with feedback about their effectiveness in this exercise. That is, the larger class provides feedback to the subgroup about the extent to which students actually put the principles of effective feedback into practice (e.g., descriptive, not evaluative; specific, not general).

Source: Adapted from Timothy J. Serey, Journal of Management Education, Vol. 17, No. 2 (May 1993). © 1993 by Sage Publications, Inc. Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications.

EXERCISE 32

Role Analysis Negotiation

Contributed by Paul Lyons, Frostburg State University

Introduction

A role is the set of various behaviors people expect from a person (or group) in a particular position. These role expectations occur in all types of organizations, such as one's place of work, school, family, clubs, and the like. Role ambiguity takes place when a person is confused about the expectations of the role. And sometimes, a role will have expectations that are contradictory—for example, being loyal to the company when the company is breaking the law.

The Role Analysis Technique, or RAT, is a method for improving the effectiveness of a team or group. RAT helps to clarify role expectations, and all organization members have responsibilities that translate to expectations. Determination of role requirements, by consensus—involving all concerned—will ultimately result in more effective and mutually satisfactory behavior. Participation and collaboration in the definition and analysis of roles by group members should result in clarification regarding who is to do what as well as increase the level of commitment to the decisions made.

Procedure

Working alone, carefully read the course syllabus that your instructor has given you. Make a note of any questions you have about anything for which you need clarification or understanding. Pay particular attention to the performance requirements of the course. Make a list of any questions you have regarding what, specifically, is expected of you in order for you to be successful in the course. You will be sharing this information with others in small groups.: Source: Adapted from Paul Lyons, “Developing Expectations with the Role Analysis Technique,” Journal of Management Education. Vol. 17, No. 3 (August 1993), pp. 386-389. © Sage Publications.

EXERCISE 33

Lost at Sea

Introduction

Consider this situation. You are adrift on a private yacht in the South Pacific when a fire of unknown origin destroys the yacht and most of its contents. You and a small group of survivors are now in a large raft with oars. Your location is unclear, but you estimate being about 1,000 miles south–southwest of the nearest land. One person has just found in her pockets five $1 bills and a packet of matches. Everyone else's pockets are empty. The following items are available to you on the raft.

Procedure

1. Working alone, rank in Column A the 15 items in order of their importance to your survival (“1” is most important and “15” is least important).
2. Working in an assigned group, arrive at a “team” ranking of the 15 items and record this ranking in Column B. Appoint one person as group spokesperson to report your group rankings to the class.
3. Do not write in Column C until further instructions are provided by your instructor.

Source: Adapted from “Lost at Sea: A Consensus-Seeking Task,” in The 1975 Handbook for Group Facilitators. Used with permission of University Associates, Inc.

EXERCISE 34

Entering the Unknown

Contributed by Michael R. Manning, New Mexico State University; Conrad N. Jackson, MPC Inc., Huntsville, Alabama; and Paula S. Weber, New Mexico Highlands University

Procedure

1. Form into groups of four or five members. In each group spend a few minutes reflecting on members' typical entry behaviors in new situations and their behaviors when they are in comfortable settings.
2. According to the instructor's directions, students count off to form new groups of four or five members each.
3. The new groups spend the next 15-20 minutes getting to know each other. There is no right or wrong way to proceed, but all members should become more aware of their entry behaviors. They should act in ways that can help them realize a goal of achieving comfortable behaviors with their group.
4. Students review what has occurred in the new groups, giving specific attention to the following questions:
   1. What topics did your group discuss (content)? Did these topics involve the “here and now” or were they focused on “there and then”?
   2. What approach did you and your group members take to the task (process)? Did you try to initiate or follow? How? Did you ask questions? Listen? Respond to others? Did you bring up topics?
   3. Were you more concerned with how you came across or with how others came across to you? Did you play it safe? Were you open? Did you share things even though it seemed uncomfortable or risky? How was humor used in your group? Did it add or detract?
   4. How do you feel about the approach you took or the behaviors you exhibited? Was this hard or easy? Did others respond the way you had anticipated? Is there some behavior you would like to do more of, do better, or do less of?
   5. Were your behaviors the ones you had intended (goals)?
5. Responses to these questions are next discussed by the class as a whole. (Note: Responses will tend to be mixed within a group, but between groups there should be more similarity.) This discussion helps individuals become aware of and understand their entry behaviors.
6. Optional individuals have identified their entry behaviors; each group can then spend 5-10 minutes discussing members' perceptions of each other:
   1. What behaviors did they like or find particularly useful? What did they dislike?
   2. What were your reactions to others? What ways did they intend to come across?

      Did you see others in the way they had intended to come across? (Alternatively, if there is concern about the personal nature of this discussion, ask the groups to discuss what they liked/didn't like without referring to specific individuals.)

EXERCISE 35

Vacation Puzzle

Contributed by Barbara G. McCain and Mary Khalili, Oklahoma City University

Procedure

Can you solve this puzzle? Give it a try and then compare your answers with those of classmates. Remember your communicative skills!

Puzzle

Khalili, McCain, Middleton, Porter, and Quintaro teach at Oklahoma City University. Each gets two weeks of vacation a year. Last year, each took his or her first week in the first five months of the year and his or her second week in the last five months. If each professor took each of his or her weeks in a different month from the other professors, in which months did each professor take his or her first and second week?

Here are the facts:

1. McCain took her first week before Khalili, who took hers before Porter; for their second week, the order was reversed.
2. The professor who vacationed in March also vacationed in September.
3. Quintaro did not take her first week in March or April.
4. Neither Quintaro nor the professor who took his or her first week in January took his or her second week in August or December.
5. Middleton took her second week before McCain but after Quintaro.

Source: Adapted to classroom activity by Dr. Mary Khalili.

EXERCISE 36

The Ugli Orange

Introduction

In most work settings, people need other people to do their job, benefit the organization, and forward their career. Getting things done in organizations requires us to work together in cooperation, even though the ultimate objectives of those other people may be different from our own. Your task in the present exercise is learning how to achieve this cooperation more effectively.

Procedure

1. The class will be divided into pairs. One student in each pair will read and prepare the role of Dr. Roland, and one will play the role of Dr. Jones (role descriptions to be distributed by instructor). Students should read their respective role descriptions and prepare to meet with their counterpart (see Steps 2 and 3).
2. At this point the group leader will read a statement. The instructor will indicate that he or she is playing the role of Mr. Cardoza, who owns the commodity in question. The instructor will tell you
   1. How long you have to meet with the other
   2. What information the instructor will require at the end of your meeting

      After the instructor has given you this information, you may meet with the other firm's representative and determine whether you have issues you can agree to.

3. Following the meetings (negotiations), the spokesperson for each pair will report any agreements reached to the entire class. The observer for any pair will report on negotiation dynamics and the process by which agreement was reached.
4. Questions to consider:
   1. Did you reach a solution? If so, what was critical to reaching that agreement?
   2. Did you and the other negotiator trust one another? Why or why not?
   3. Was there full disclosure by both sides in each group? How much information was shared?
   4. How creative and/or complex were the solutions? If solutions were very complex, why do you think this occurred?
   5. What was the impact of having an “audience” on your behavior? Did it make the problem harder or easier to solve?

Source: Adapted from Hall et al., Experiences in Management and Organizational Behavior, 3rd ed. (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.), 1988. Originally developed by Robert J. House. Adapted by D. T. Hall and R. J. Lewicki, with suggested modifications by H. Kolodny and T. Ruble.

EXERCISE 37

Conflict Dialogues

Contributed by Edward G. Wertheim, Northeastern University

Procedure

1. Think of a conflict situation at work or at school and try to re-create a segment of the dialogue that gets to the heart of the conflict.
2. Write notes on the conflict dialogue using the following format

   Introduction

   • Background
   • My goals and objectives
   • My strategy
   • Assumptions I am making

   Dialogue (re-create part of the dialogue below and try to put what you were really thinking in parentheses).

   • Me:
   • Other:
   • Me:
   • Other, etc.
3. Share your situation with members of your group. Read the dialogue to them, perhaps asking someone to play the role of “other.”
4. Discuss with the group:
   1. The style of conflict resolution you used (confrontation, collaboration, avoidance, etc.)
   2. The triggers to the conflict, that is, what really set you off and why
   3. Whether or not you were effective
   4. Possible ways of handling this differently
5. Choose one dialogue from within the group to share with the class. Be prepared to discuss your analysis and also possible alternative approaches and resolutions for the situation described.

EXERCISE 38

Force-Field Analysis

Procedure

1. Choose a situation in which you have high personal stakes (for example, how to get a better grade in course X; how to get a promotion; how to obtain a position).
2. Using a version of the Sample Force-Field Analysis Form on the next page, apply the technique to your situation.
   1. Describe the situation as it now exists.
   2. Describe the situation as you would like it to be.
   3. Identify those “driving forces”—the factors that are presently helping to move things in the desired direction.
   4. Identify those “restraining forces”—the factors that are presently holding things back from moving in the desired direction.
3. Try to be as specific as possible in terms of the above in relation to your situation. You should attempt to be exhaustive in your listing of these forces. List them all!
4. Now go back and classify the strength of each force as weak, medium, or strong. Do this for both the driving and the restraining forces.
5. At this point you should rank the forces regarding their ability to influence or control the situation.
6. In small groups share your analyses. Discuss the usefulness and drawbacks to using this method for personal situations and its application to organizations.
7. Be prepared to share the results of your group's discussion with the rest of the class.

Sample Force-Field Analysis Form

EXERCISE 39

Organizations Alive!

Contributed by Bonnie L. McNeely, Murray State University

Procedure

1. Find a copy of the following items from actual organizations. These items can be obtained from the company where you now work, a parent's workplace, or the university. Universities have mission statements, codes of conduct for students and faculty, organizational charts, job descriptions, performance appraisal forms, and control devices. Some student organizations also have these documents. All the items do not have to come from the same organization. Bring these items to class.
   1. Mission statement
   2. Code of ethics
   3. Organizational chart
   4. Job description
   5. Performance appraisal form
   6. Control device
2. Form groups in class as assigned by your instructor. Share your items with the group, as well as what you learned while collecting these items. For example, did you find that some firms have a mission, but it is not written down? Did you find that job descriptions existed, but they were not really used or had not been updated in years?

Source: Adapted from Bonnie L. McNeely, “Make Your Principles of Management Class Come Alive,” Journal of Management Education, Vol. 18, No. 2 (May 1994), pp. 246-249.

EXERCISE 40

Fast-Food Technology

Contributed by D. T. Hall, Boston University, and F. S. Hall, University of New Hampshire

Introduction

A critical first step in improving or changing any organization is diagnosing or analyzing its present functioning. Many change and organization development efforts fall short of their objectives because this important step was not taken or was conducted superficially. To illustrate this, imagine how you would feel if you went to your doctor complaining of stomach pains and he recommended surgery without conducting any tests, without obtaining any further information, and without a careful physical examination. You would probably switch doctors! Yet managers often attempt major changes with correspondingly little diagnostic work in advance. (It could be said that they undertake vast projects with half-vast ideas.)

In this exercise, you will be asked to conduct a group diagnosis of two different organizations in the fast-food business. The exercise will provide an opportunity to integrate much of the knowledge you have gained in other exercises and in studying other topics. Your task will be to describe the organizations as carefully as you can in terms of several key organizational concepts. Although the organizations are probably very familiar to you, try to step back and look at them as though you were seeing them for the first time.

Procedure

1. In groups of four or six people, your assignment is described below.

   One experience most people in this country have shared is that of dining in the hamburger establishment known as McDonald's. In fact, someone has claimed that twenty-fifth-century archeologists may dig into the ruins of our present civilization and conclude that twentieth-century religion was devoted to the worship of golden arches.

   Your group, Fastalk Consultants, is known as the shrewdest, most insightful, and most overpaid management consulting firm in the country. You have been hired by the president of McDonald's to make recommendations for improving the motivation and performance of personnel in their franchise operations. Let us assume that the key job activities in franchise operations are food preparation, order-taking and dealing with customers, and routine cleanup operations.

   Recently the president of McDonald's has come to suspect that his company's competitors—such as Burger King, Wendy's, Jack-in-the-Box, Dunkin' Donuts, various pizza establishments, and others—are making heavy inroads into McDonald's market. He has also hired a market research firm to investigate and compare the relative merits of the sandwiches, french fries, and drinks served in McDonald's and the competitors, and has asked the market research firm to assess the advertising campaigns of the two organizations. Hence, you will not need to be concerned with marketing issues, except as they may have an impact on employee behavior. The president wants you to look into the organization of the franchises to determine the strengths and weaknesses of each. Select a competitor that gives McDonald's a good “run for its money” in your area.

   The president has established an unusual contract with you. He wants you to make your recommendations based upon your observations as a customer. He does not want you to do a complete diagnosis with interviews, surveys, or behind-the-scenes observations. He wants your report in two parts. Remember, the president wants concrete, specific, and practical recommendations. Avoid vague generalizations such as “improve communications” or “increase trust.” Say very clearly how management can improve organizational performance. Substantiate your recommendations by reference to one or more theories of motivation, leadership, small groups, or job design.

   Part I

   Given his organization's goals of profitability, sales volume, fast and courteous service, and cleanliness, the president of McDonald's wants an analysis that will compare and contrast McDonald's and the competitor in terms of the following concepts:

   • Organizational goals
   • Organizational structure
   • Technology
   • Environment
   • Employee motivation
   • Communication
   • Leadership style
   • Policies/procedures/rules/standards
   • Job design
   • Organizational climate

   Part II

   Given the corporate goals listed under Part I, what specific actions might McDonald's management and franchise owners take in the following areas to achieve these goals (profitability, sales volume, fast and courteous service, and cleanliness)?

   • Job design and workflow
   • Organizational structure (at the individual restaurant level)
   • Employee incentives
   • Leadership
   • Employee selection

   How do McDonald's and the competition differ in these aspects? Which company has the best approach?

2. Complete the assignment by going as a group to one McDonald's and one competitor's restaurant. If possible, have a meal in each place. To get a more valid comparison, visit a McDonald's and a competitor located in the same area. After observing each restaurant, meet with your group and prepare your 10-minute report to the executive committee.
3. In class, each group will present its report to the rest of the class, who will act as the executive committee. The group leader will appoint a timekeeper to be sure that each group sticks to its 10-minute time limit.

   Possible discussion questions include:

   1. What similarities are there between the two organizations?
   2. What differences are there between the organizations?
   3. Do you have any “hunches” about the reasons for the particular organizational characteristics you found? For example, can you try to explain why one organization might have a particular type of structure? Incentive system? Climate?
   4. Can you try to explain one set of characteristics in terms of some other characteristics you found? For example, do the goals account for structure? Does the environment explain the structure?

CASE 1 A

Trader Joe's

While vacationing in the Caribbean, founder “Trader” Joe Coulombe discovered a way to differentiate his 7-Eleven-style corner stores from those of his competitors. Joe observed that consumers are more likely to try new things while on vacation. With a nautical theme and cheerful guides sporting Hawaiian shirts, Joe transformed his stores into oases of value by replacing humdrum sundries with exotic, one-of-a-kind foods priced persuasively below any reasonable competitor.¹

For over fifty years, Trader Joe's has competed with such giants as Whole Foods and Dean & DeLuca. So what is its recipe for success? The company applies its pursuit of value to every facet of its operations. Buyers travel all over the world in search of great tasting foods and beverages. By focusing on natural ingredients, inspiring flavors, and buying direct from the producer whenever possible, Trader Joe's is able to keep costs down. The chain prides itself on its thriftiness and cost-saving measures, proclaiming, “We run a pretty lean ship,” “Every penny we save is a penny you save,” and “Our CEO doesn't even have a secretary.”²

“When you look at food retailers,” says Richard George, professor of food marketing at St. Joseph's University, “there is the low end, the big middle, and then there is the cool edge—that's Trader Joe's.”³ But how does Trader Joe's compare with other stores with an edge, such as Whole Foods? Both obtain products locally and from all over the world. Each values employees and strives to offer the highest quality. However, there's no mistaking that Trader Joe's is cozy and intimate, whereas Whole Foods' spacious stores offer an abundance of choices. By limiting its stock and selling quality products at low prices, Trader Joe's sells twice as much per square foot than other supermarkets.⁴ Most retail mega-markets, such as Whole Foods, carry between 25,000 and 45,000 products; Trader Joe's stores only carry around 4,000.⁵ But this scarcity benefits both Trader Joe's and its customers. According to Swarthmore professor Barry Schwartz, author of The Paradox of Choice: Why Less Is More, “Giving people too much choice can result in paralysis. … [R] esearch shows that the more options you offer, the less likely people are to choose any.”⁶

Despite the lighthearted tone suggested by marketing materials and in-store ads, Trader Joe's aggressively courts friendly, customer-oriented employees by writing job descriptions highlighting desired soft skills (“ambitious and adventurous, enjoy smiling and have a strong sense of values”) as much as actual retail experience.⁷

Trader Joe's connects with its customers because of the culture of product knowledge and customer involvement that its management cultivates among store employees. Trader Joe's considers its responsible, knowledgeable, and friendly “crew” to be critical to its success. Therefore they nurture their employees with a promote-from-within philosophy.

Each employee is encouraged to taste and learn about the products and to engage customers to share what they've experienced. Most shoppers recall instances when helpful crew members took the time to locate or recommend particular items. Says one employee,

When it comes to showing its appreciation for its employees, Trader Joe's puts its money where its mouth is. Those who work for Trader Joe's earn considerably more than their counterparts at other chain grocers. Starting benefits include medical, dental, and vision insurance, company-paid retirement, paid vacation, and a 10% employee discount.⁹ Being a privately owned company and a little media shy, Trader Joe's has been keeping some of its financial information confidential these days, but outside estimates suggest that managers make at least $120K per year.¹⁰

Outlet managers are highly compensated, substantially more than at other retailers, partly because they know the Trader Joe's system inside and out (managers are hired only from within the company). Future leaders enroll in training programs such as Trader Joe's University that foster in them the loyalty necessary to run stores according to both company and customer expectations, teaching managers to imbue their parttimers with the customer-focused attitude shoppers have come to expect.¹⁰

So it came as a horrifying surprise to many of those shoppers that Trader Joe's had a new nickname: “Traitor Joe's.” The usually environmentally friendly company fared the worst of the national chains on Greenpeace's recently released seafood sustainability scorecard. Greenpeace's study, Carting Away the Oceans: How Grocery Stores are Emptying the Seas, ranked 20 supermarket companies by assessing their seafood policies and checked to see whether they sold red-listed seafood—those that are overfished and need to be conserved to ensure their survival. Greenpeace surveys found Trader Joe's selling 15 of the 22 red-list seafoods.¹² In response to strong feedback from its customers—and, no doubt, to a Greenpeace-built lookalike Traitor Joe's Web site—Trader Joe's was quick to respond. The company promised to only offer sustainable seafood by the end of 2012, remove red-listed seafood from its shelves, and improve its product labeling to provide consumers with more accurate information about seafood products.¹³

Will Trader Joe's keep its promises to consumers, and will it pass the cost of doing so on to them? As buyers are increasingly mindful of how and where each dollar is spent, Trader Joe's may have some tough choices ahead.

Discussion Questions

1. How does Trader Joe's design jobs for increased job satisfaction and higher performance?
2. In what ways does Trader Joe's demonstrate the importance of each responsibility in the management process—planning, organizing, leading, and controlling?
3. Describe the methods that show Trader Joe's knows the importance of human capital.
4. Does Trader Joe's response to the Traitor Joe's campaign demonstrate contingency thinking? Why or why not?
5. Research Question: What do the blogs and current news reports say? Is Trader Joe's a management benchmark for others to follow? In what areas relevant to Organizational Behavior does the firm have an edge on the competition?

CASE 1 B

Management Training Dilemma

Developed by John R. Schermerhorn, Jr., Ohio University

Shane Alexander is the personnel director of the Central State Medical Center. One of her responsibilities is to oversee the hospital's supervisory training programs. Recently Shane attended a professional conference where a special “packaged” training program was advertised for sale. The package includes a set of videotaped lectures by a distinguished management consultant plus a workbook containing readings, exercises, cases, tests, and other instructional aids. The subjects covered in the program include motivation, group dynamics, communication skills, leadership effectiveness, performance appraisal, and the management of planned change.

In the past Shane felt that the hospital had not lived up to its supervisory training goals. One of the reasons for this was the high cost of hiring external consultants to do the actual instruction. This packaged program was designed, presumably, so that persons from within the hospital could act as session coordinators. The structure of the program provided through the videotapes and workbook agenda was supposed to substitute for a consultant's expertise. Because of this, Shane felt that use of the packaged program could substantially improve supervisory training in the hospital.

The cost of the program was $3,500 for an initial purchase of the videotapes plus 50 workbooks. Additional workbooks were then available at $8 per copy. Before purchasing the program, Shane needed the approval of the senior administrative staff.

At the next staff meeting Shane proposed purchasing the training program. She was surprised at the response. The hospital president was noncommittal; the vice-president was openly hostile; and the three associate administrators were varied in their enthusiasm. It was the vice-president's opinion that dominated the discussion. He argued that to invest in such a program on the assumption that it would lead to improved supervisory practices was unwise. “This is especially true in respect to the proposed program,” he said. “How could such a package possibly substitute for the training skills of an expert consultant?”

Shane argued her case and was left with the following challenge. The administrators would allow $1,000 to be spent to rent the program with 30 workbooks. It would be up to Shane to demonstrate through a trial program that an eventual purchase would be worthwhile.

There were 160 supervisors in the hospital. The program was designed to be delivered in eight 2½ hour sessions. It was preferred to schedule one session per week, with no more than 15 participants per session.

Shane knew that she would have to present very strong evidence to gain administrative support for the continued use of the program. Given the opportunity, she decided to implement a trial program in such a way that conclusive evidence on the value of the packaged training would be forthcoming.

Review Questions

1. If you were Shane, what type of research design would you use to test this program? Why?
2. How would the design actually be implemented in this hospital setting?
3. What would be your research hypothesis? What variables would you need to measure to provide data that could test this hypothesis? How would you gather these data?
4. Do you think the administrator's request for “proof before purchase” was reasonable? Why or why not?

CASE 2

Xerox

At Xerox, Diversity equals Success. The equation certainly has worked for them! According to Fortune magazine's annual reputation survey, Xerox is the world's most admired company in the computer industry. According I to Anne Mulcahy, Xerox Chairman and former CEO, “Diversity is about more than race and gender. It's about more than numbers. It's about inclusion. Diversity means creating an environment where all employees can grow to their fullest potential.” Xerox knows that employees with different ways of thinking, and different ways of perceiving the world, are employees who create innovative solutions. In a business like Xerox, whose lifeblood is fresh ideas, this variety of perspectives is a priceless resource—and a key to achieving critical business results.¹

Innovation keeps Xerox at the forefront of their industry. In fact, nearly 5% of revenue is dedicated to Research & Development and Engineering. Says Mulcahy, “Investing in innovation was indeed the best decision I've ever made. Despite the economic slowdown in technology spending, Xerox is still the prominent player in our industry, with a No. 1 revenue share. And at a time when we had a bunker-like mentality to save our company, we also empowered a small but entrepreneurial team to create our services business. Good thing we did. The offerings from Xerox Global Services have never been more relevant for our customers, who are knocking on our door looking for any way to save money … We're able to move quickly on these opportunities right now because we decided to fund innovation back then.” With recent annual revenue of $21.6 billion, Xerox is the world's largest technology-and-services company specializing in document management.²

Xerox provides the document industry's broadest portfolio of offerings. Digital systems include color and black-and-white printing and publishing systems, digital presses and “book factories,” advanced and basic multifunction systems, laser and solid ink network printers, copiers, and fax machines. No competitor can match Xerox's services expertise, which includes: helping businesses develop online document archives, analyzing how employees can most efficiently share documents and knowledge in the office, operating in-house print shops or mailrooms, and building Web-based processes for personalizing direct mail, invoices, brochures and more. Xerox also offers associated software, support, and even supplies such as toner, paper, and ink.³

By recognizing and respecting diversity and empowering individuality, Xerox creates productive people and an innovative company. Theirs is a corporate culture of inclusion whose commitment to diversity can be traced back to its very first chairman, Joseph C. Wilson. Chairman Wilson took proactive steps to create a more diverse workforce in response to race riots in the 1960s. With then Xerox President C. Peter McCullough, Wilson called for increased hiring of African Americans in an effort to achieve equality among its workforce. Throughout the 1970s Xerox established an internal affirmative action office and began to hire a significant number of minority employees.⁴

Xerox placed emphasis on the advancement of minorities and females in the 1980s. It was during this time that Barry Rand, an African American, was named the first minority president of a division. Xerox's Balanced Workforce Strategy (BWF) aimed to achieve unbiased representation for women and minorities throughout the organization at all times, including throughout times of restructuring. During the influx of women in its workforce Xerox recognized their struggle balancing work and family commitments. In response, Xerox Human Resources (HR) initiated “flex time” and other HR policies to maintain a high level of productivity and satisfaction among its work-force.⁵

In the 1990s sexual orientation was included in the company's Equal Opportunity/Affirmative Action and On-discrimination policy, GALAXe Pride at Work (a caucus group for gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender employees) was established, and Xerox began to provide domestic partner benefits for gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender employees. Annual diversity employee round-tables with senior managers were initiated, providing employees the opportunity to engage in unfiltered communication with management about best practices, strengths, and weaknesses of Xerox's diversity initiatives.⁶

Xerox's view on a diverse workforce is most eloquently expressed by Xerox Chairman Anne M. Mulcahy:

Xerox is proud to say that women and minorities make up more than 50% of its workforce. About 48.2% of Xerox senior executives are women, people of color, or both. The employee roster is made up of roughly 30% African-Americans, Latinos, Asians, and Native Americans. In fact, Xerox has been rated as one of the Top 10 companies in hiring minorities, women, disabled, and gay and lesbian employees by Fortune, Forbes, Working Mother, Latino Style, and Enable magazines. It is among Working Mother's top 100 family friendly companies for women—and has been for the past 15 years.⁸

In 2007 Ursula Burns was named the first African-American female president of Xerox Corporation. In July 2009 she succeeded Anne M. Mulcahy as CEO. It was the first female-to-female hand-off in Fortune 500 history. Burns' philosophy echoes Mulcahy's:

With Ursula Burns at the helm, and a 100 percent rating on the Human Rights Campaign Foundation's Corporate Equality Index and its Best Places to Work survey, there's no doubt about it— Xerox's commitment to diversity is still going strong.¹⁰

Review Questions

1. How would Xerox define diversity? How has its definition changed over the years?
2. What are the seven reasons why Xerox should be motivated to diversify their workforce? Illustrate how Xerox shows it values workplace diversity.
3. Does Xerox embody or defy the “leaking pipeline” phenomenon? Why?
4. Research question: Compare Xerox to other Fortune 500 companies. How are women and minorities represented at the highest levels of each organization? How can these statistics be improved upon?

CASE 3

Lois Quam

Founder, Tysvar, LLC

After accompanying Will Steger on a trip to Norway and the Arctic Circle, Lois Quam's interest in global climate change was sparked. There she witnessed firsthand the astonishing changes in the polar ice masses and the resulting impact on wildlife. Inspired by Steger's call for action to reduce global climate change, in 2009 Lois Quam left Piper Jafray, a leading international investment bank, to become the founder and CEO of Tysvar, LLC, a privately held, Minnesota-based New Green Economy and health care reform incubator.¹ In 2010, Quam was selected by President Barack Obama to head the Global Health Initiative. This case is a retrospective of her executive experience at Tysvar.

“I'm focused on ways to finding solutions to really significant problems and taking those ideas to full potential,” Quam said. “I want to bring the green economy to reality in a way that is much broader than financing. I want to focus on areas where I can make the most difference bringing the green economy to scale.”²

Tysvar works with investors who can create the change they wish to see in the world rather than simply reacting to events as they unfold. The company is a strategic advisor and incubator of ideas, organizations, and people working to facilitate and build the New Green Economy (NGE) to scale. Tysvar's goal is to contribute to a viable, profitable, and socially responsible industry of sustainability, clean technology, and renewable energy sources.³

Conscientiously working to play their part to create a more sustainable world for the next generation, Tysvar's efforts include new creation of NGE industries, jobs, and investment opportunities, contributing to building NGE public policy frameworks, trade for import/export of clean technologies, and renewable energy sources around the world.⁴

“We stand on the brink of a very exciting time in the world,” according to Quam. The interest in developing renewable energy sources to replace dwindling fossil fuel supplies and reduce carbon dioxide emissions is worldwide. “It is a very difficult time in the financial markets right now to do this, but that will change. Good companies will find ways to get things done.”⁵

“I am an optimist about our future,” said Quam, “Which is why I started Tysvar. The challenges we face from climate change are immense, but so are our capabilities, and the rewards and benefits to humanity are even greater in the New Green Economy.”⁶

Lois Quam named her company after the hometown of her grandfather, Nels Quam. Tysvar is a majestically beautiful area in western Norway which is becoming a clean technology hub as part of Norway's growing NGE leadership and will soon be the site of the world's largest off-shore wind farm.⁷

Lois Quam has continually worked for a better tomorrow. In 2005, Quam was named Norwegian American of the Year. She believes there is much to learn from Norway: From balancing work and life, allowing parents to fully participate in the economy while still being active parents, to how successfully Norway is immersing itself in new energy technologies such as wind and biomass. As an arctic oil producing nation with a carbon tax since 1993, Norway has reinvested its oil wealth to become a world leader in renewable energy.⁹

Internationally recognized as a visionary and leader on universal health-care reform and the emerging NGE, Lois Quam embodies the skill sets needed to succeed in this new economy. Named in 2006 by Fortune magazine as one of America's “50 Most Powerful Women,” Quam has worked as head of Strategic Investments, Green Economy & Health at Piper Jaffray, a leading international investment bank; served as president and CEO of the Public and Senior Markets segment at UnitedHealth Group, a $30 billion division she helped create and run; chaired the Minnesota Health Care Access Commission, which led to legislation that brought health insurance to tens of thousands of Minnesotans; and served as a senior advisor to Hillary Clinton's task force on health-care reform. She graduated magna cum laude from Macalester College in St. Paul and went on to attend the University of Oxford as a Rhodes Scholar, earning a master's degree in philosophy, politics, and economics.¹⁰

Lois Quam believes the New Green Economy will produce high quality jobs, improve our national security via less dependence on foreign fuels, and prevent the most damaging consequence of all: irreversible and diminishing climate change. She and Tysvar are committed to establishing universal health-care reform in America. They believe universal health care is the answer for dependable, affordable health care for all Americans and that it is necessary to help rebuild the American economy and restore American competitiveness worldwide.¹¹

Recognizing this, President Obama recently appointed Quam executive director of the State Department's Global Health Initiative. This $63 billion project will help developing countries improve their health care systems, with a special emphasis on women, children, and newborns.¹² In accepting this position, Quam decided to step down as CEO of the company she founded and hand leadership to Norwegian Terje Mikalsen, co-founder and former chairman of Norsk Data.

“Although we are sad to see Lois leave the firm, Tysvar will continue to follow through on her vision to help bring the new green economy to scale and make quality health care affordable and accessible to everyone,” Mikalsen said on Tysvar's Web site. “We wish Lois all the best as she assumes her new position at the State Department. Her vision and leadership will help improve health care delivery and access for millions of people around the world.”¹³

On Earth Day Lois Quam gave a speech at the University of St. Thomas on the emerging opportunities in the NGE after which she said, “I enjoyed sharing … how we can all use these key capabilities as a platform for doing something you love. Imagine: helping to build the NGE with a purposeful passion. It doesn't get much better than that!”¹⁴

In another speech she illustrated her philosophy:

As individuals, organizations, and countries answer the call for action, we look forward to achieving Lois Quam's vision of the future.

Review Questions

1. How does Lois Quam use emotions and moods in her speeches to convey her viewpoint? Cite examples to support your statements.
2. Based on what you have learned about Lois Quam, create hypotheses about the attitudes of her colleagues at Tysvar while using the three basic components of attitudes in your theories.
3. Take a moment to research the Global Health Initiative. Why do you believe Lois Quam was chosen to lead this program?
4. Research question: Search news reports, Web sites, and blogs to find out more information on Tysvar. How is the company faring in its quest to make the world cleaner and safer for future generations? What implications might that have on Tysvar's employees, their attitudes, and job satisfaction?

CASE 4

MAGREC, Inc.

Developed by Mary McGarry, Empire State College and Barry R. Armandi, SUNY-Old Westbury

Background

MagRec, Incorporated was started by Mr. Leed, a brilliant engineer (he has several engineering patents) who was a group manager at Fairchild Republic. The company's product was magnetic recording heads, a crucial device used for reading, writing, and erasing data on tapes and disks.

Like any other startup, MagRec had a humble beginning. It struggled during the early years, facing cashflow and technical problems. After a slow start, it grew rapidly and gained 35 percent of the tape head market, making it the second-largest supplier in North America. Financially, the company suffered heavily because of price erosions caused by Far East competition. Unlike all its competitors, the company resisted moving its manufacturing operations off-shore. But the company accumulated losses to a point of bankruptcy. Finally MagRec entered a major international joint venture and received many new sales orders. Things looked good again. But …

Pat's Dilemma

When Fred Marsh promoted me to Sales Manager, I was in seventh heaven. Now, six months later, I feel I am in hell. This is the first time in my life that I am really on my own. I have been working with other people all my life. I tried my best and what I could not solve, I took upstairs. Now it's different because I am the boss (or am I?). Fred has taught me a lot. He was my mentor and gave me this job when he became vice president. I have always respected him and listened to his judgment. Now thinking back I wonder whether I should have listened to him at all on this problem.

It started one late Friday evening. I had planned to call my West Coast customer, Partco, to discuss certain contract clauses. I wanted to nail this one fast (Partco had just been acquired by Volks, Inc.). Partco was an old customer. In fact, through good and bad it had always stayed with us. It was also a major customer. I was about to call Partco when Dinah Coates walked in clutching a file. I had worked with Dinah for three years. She was good. I knew that my call to Partco would have to wait. Dinah had been cleaning out old files and came across a report about design and manufacturing defects in Partco heads. The report had been written nine years ago. The cover memo read as follows:

To: Ken Smith, Director of Marketing From: Rich Grillo, V.P. Operations Sub: Partco Head Schedule

This is to inform you that due to pole-depth problems in design, the Partco heads (all 514 in test) have failed. They can't reliably meet the reading requirements. The problem is basically a design error in calculations. It can be corrected. However, the fix will take at least six months.

Meanwhile, Ron Scott in production informs me that the entire 5,000 heads (the year's production) have already been pole-slotted, thus they face the same problem.

Ken, I don't have to tell you how serious this is, but how can we OK and ship them to Partco knowing that they'll cause read error problems in the field? My engineering and manufacturing people realize this is the number one priority. By pushing the Systems Tech job back we will be back on track in less than six months. In the interim I can modify Global Widgets heads. This will enable us to at least continue shipping some product to Partco. As a possible alternate I would like to get six Partco drives. Michaels and his team feel that with quick and easy changes in the drives tape path they can get the head to work. If this is true we should be back on track within six to eight weeks.

A separate section of the report reads as follows:

Confidential

(Notes from meeting with Don Updyke and Rich Grillo)

Solution to Partco heads problem All Partco heads can be reworked (.8 hrs. ea.—cost insignificant) to solve Partco's read problems by grinding an extra three-thousandths of an inch off the top of the head. This will reduce the overall pole depth to a point where no read errors occur. The heads will fully meet specifications in all respects except one, namely life. Don estimates that due to the reduced chrome layer (used for wear) the heads' useful life will be 2500 hours instead of 6000 hours of actual usage.

Our experience is that no customer keeps accurate records to tell actual usage and life. Moreover, the cost is removed since Partco sells drives to MegaComputer, who sells systems to end-users. The user at the site hardly knows or rarely complains about extra costs such as the replacement of a head 12 to 18 months down the line instead of the normal 2 years. Besides, the service technicians always innovatively believe in and offer plausible explanations—such as the temperature must be higher than average—or they really must be using the computer a lot.

I have directed that the heads be reworked and shipped to Partco. I also instructed John to tell Partco that due to inclement weather this week's shipment will be combined with next week's shipment.

Dinah was flabbergasted. The company planned to sell products deliberately that it knew would not meet life requirements, she said, “risking our reputation as a quality supplier. Partco and others buy our heads thinking they are the best. Didn't we commit fraud through outright misrepresentation?”

Dinah insisted I had to do something. I told her I would look into the matter and get back to her by the end of next week.

Over the weekend I kept thinking about the Partco issue. We had no customer complaints. Partco had always been extremely pleased with our products and technical support. In fact, we were their sole suppliers. MegaComputer had us placed on the preferred, approved ship to stock, vendors list. It was a fact that other vendors were judged against our standards. MegaComputer's Quality Control never saw our product or checked it.

Monday morning I showed the report to Fred. He immediately recollected it and began to explain the situation to me.

MagRec had been under tremendous pressure and was growing rapidly at the time. “That year we had moved into a new 50,000 sq. ft. building and went from 50 or 60 employees to over 300. Our sales were increasing dramatically.” Fred was heading Purchasing at the time and every week the requirements for raw materials would change. “We'd started using B.O.A.s (Broad Order Agreements, used as annual purchasing contracts) guaranteeing us the right to increase our numbers by 100 percent each quarter. The goal was to maintain the numbers. If we had lost Partco then, it could have had a domino effect and we could have ended up having no customers left to worry about.”

Fred went on to explain that it had only been a short-term problem that was corrected within the year and no one ever knew it existed. He told me to forget it and to move the file into the back storage room. I conceded. I thought of all the possible hassles. The thing was ancient history anyway. Why should I be concerned about it? I wasn't even here when it happened.

The next Friday Dinah asked me what I had found out. I told her Fred's feelings on the matter and that I felt he had some pretty good arguments regarding the matter. Dinah became angry. She said I had changed since my promotion and that I was just as guilty as the crooks who'd cheated the customers by selling low-life heads as long-life heads. I told her to calm down. The decision was made years ago. No one got hurt and the heads weren't defective. They weren't causing any errors.

I felt bad but figured there wasn't much to do. The matter was closed as far as I was concerned, so I returned to my afternoon chores. Little was I to know the matter was not really closed.

That night Fred called me at 10:00. He wanted me to come over to the office right away. I quickly changed, wondering what the emergency was. I walked into Fred's office. The coffee was going. Charlie (Personnel Manager) was there. Rich Grillo (V.P. Operations) was sitting on the far side of Fred's conference table. I instinctively headed there for that was the designated smoking corner.

Ken (Director of Marketing) arrived 15 minutes later. We settled in. Fred began the meeting by thanking everyone for coming. He then told them about the discovery of the Partco file and filled them in on the background. The problem now was that Dinah had called Partco and gotten through to their new vice president, Tim Rand. Rand had called Fred at 8 P.M. at home and said he was personally taking the Red Eye to find out what this was all about. He would be here in the morning.

We spent a grueling night followed by an extremely tense few weeks. Partco had a team of people going through our tests, quality control, and manufacturing records. Our production slipped, and overall morale was affected.

Mr. Leed personally spent a week in California assuring Partco that this would never happen again. Though we weathered the storm, we had certain losses. We were never to be Partco's sole source again. We still retained 60 percent of their business but had to agree to lower prices. The price reduction had a severe impact. Although Partco never disclosed to anyone what the issues were (since both companies had blanket nondisclosure agreements), word got around that Partco was paying a lower price. We were unable to explain to our other customers why Partco was paying this amount. Actually I felt the price word got out through Joe Byrne (an engineer who came to Partco from Systems Tech and told his colleagues back at Systems Tech that Partco really knew how to negotiate prices down). He was unaware, however, of the real issues. Faced with customers who perceived they were being treated inequitably, we experienced problems. Lowering prices meant incurring losses; not lowering them meant losing customers. The next two financial quarters saw sales dollars decline by 40 percent. As the sales manager, I felt pretty rotten presenting my figures to Fred.

With regard to Dinah, I now faced a monumental problem. The internal feeling was she should be avoided at all costs. Because of price erosions, we faced cutbacks. Employees blamed her for production layoffs. The internal friction kept mounting. Dinah's ability to interface effectively with her colleagues and other departments plummeted to a point where normal functioning was impossible.

Fred called me into his office two months after the Partco episode and suggested that I fire Dinah. He told me that he was worried about results. Although he had nothing personally against her, he felt that she must go because she was seriously affecting my department's overall performance. I defended Dinah by stating that the Partco matter would blow over and given time I could smooth things out. I pointed out Dinah's accomplishments and stated I really wanted her to stay. Fred dropped the issue, but my problem persisted.

Things went from bad to worse. Finally, I decided to try to solve the problem myself. I had known Dinah well for many years and had a good relationship with her before the incident. I took her to lunch to address the issue. Over lunch, I acknowledged the stress the Partco situation had put on her and suggested that she move away for a while to the West Coast, where she could handle that area independently.

Dinah was hurt and asked why I didn't just fire her already. I responded by accusing her of causing the problem in the first place by going to Partco.

Dinah came back at me, calling me a lackey for having taken her story to Fred and having brought his management message back. She said I hadn't even attempted a solution and that I didn't have the guts to stand up for what was right. I was only interested in protecting my backside and keeping Fred happy. As her manager, I should have protected her and taken some of the heat off her back. Dinah refused to transfer or to quit. She told me to go ahead and fire her, and she walked out.

I sat in a daze as I watched Dinah leave the restaurant. What the heck went wrong? Had Dinah done the morally right thing? Was I right in defending MagRec's position? Should I have taken a stand with Fred? Should I have gone over Fred's head to Mr. Leed? Am I doing the right thing? Should I listen to Fred and fire Dinah? If not, how do I get my department back on track? What am I saying? If Dinah is right, shouldn't I be defending her rather than MagRec?

Review Questions

1. Place yourself in the role of the manager. What should you do now? After considering what happened, would you change any of your behaviors?
2. Do you think Dinah was right? Why or why not? If you were she and you had it to do all over again, would you do any-thing differently? If so, what and why?
3. Using cognitive dissonance theory, explain the actions of Pat, Dinah, and Fred.

CASE 5

It Isn't Fair

Developed by Barry R. Armandi, SUNY-Old Westbury

Mary Jones was in her senior year at Central University and interviewing for jobs. Mary was in the top 1 percent of her class, active in numerous extracurricular activities, and highly respected by her professors. After the interviews, Mary was offered positions with every company with which she interviewed. After much thought, she decided to take the offer from Universal Products, a multinational company. She felt that the salary was superb ($40,000), there were excellent benefits, and there was good potential for promotion.

Mary started work a few weeks after graduation and learned her job assignments and responsibilities thoroughly and quickly. Mary was asked on many occasions to work late because report deadlines were often moved forward. Without hesitation she said “Of course!” even though as an exempt employee she would receive no overtime.

Frequently she would take work home with her and use her personal computer to do further analyses. At other times she would come into the office on weekends to monitor the progress of her projects or just to catch up on the ever-growing mountain of correspondence.

On one occasion her manager asked her to take on a difficult assignment. It seemed that the company's Costa Rican manufacturing facility was having production problems. The quality of one of the products was highly questionable, and the reports on the matter were confusing. Mary was asked to be part of a team to investigate the quality and reporting problems. The team stayed in poor accommodations for the entire three weeks they were there. This was because of the plant's location near its resources, which happened to be in the heart of the jungle. Within the three-week period the team had located the source of the quality problem, corrected it, and altered the reporting documents and processes. The head of the team, a quality engineer, wrote a note to Mary's manager stating the following: “Just wanted to inform you of the superb job Mary Jones did down in Costa Rica. Her suggestions and insights into the reporting system were invaluable. Without her help we would have been down there for another three weeks, and I was getting tired of the mosquitoes. Thanks for sending her.”

Universal Products, like most companies, has a yearly performance review system. Since Mary had been with the company for a little over one year, it was time for her review. Mary entered her manager's office nervous, since this was her first review ever and she didn't know what to expect. After closing the door and exchanging the usual pleasantries, her manager, Tom, got right to the point.

Tom: Well, Mary, as I told you last week this meeting would be for your annual review. As you are aware, your performance and compensation are tied together. Since the philosophy of the company is to reward those who perform, we take these reviews very sincerely. I have spent a great deal of time thinking about your performance over the past year, but before I begin I would like to know your impressions of the company, your assignments, and me as a manager.

Mary: Honestly, Tom, I have no complaints. The company and my job are everything I was led to believe. I enjoy working here. The staff are all very helpful. I like the team atmosphere, and my job is very challenging. I really feel appreciated and that I'm making a contribution. You have been very helpful and patient with me. You got me involved right from the start and listened to my opinions. You taught me a lot and I'm very grateful. All in all I'm happy being here.

Tom: Great, Mary, I was hoping that's the way you felt because from my vantage point, most of the people you worked with feel the same. But before I give you the qualitative side of the review, allow me to go through the quantitative appraisal first. As you know, the rankings go from 1 (lowest) to 5 (highest). Let's go down each category and I'll explain my reasoning for each.

Tom starts with category one (Quantity of Work) and ends with category ten (Teamwork). In each of the categories, Tom has either given Mary a 5 or a 4. Indeed, only two categories have a 4 and Tom explains these are normal areas for improvement for most employees.

Tom: As you can see, Mary, I was very happy with your performance. You have received the highest rating I have ever given any of my subordinates. Your attitude, desire, and help are truly appreciated. The other people on the Costa Rican team gave you glowing reports, and speaking with the plant manager, she felt that you helped her understand the reporting system better than anyone else. Since your performance has been stellar, I'm delighted to give you a 10 percent increase effective immediately!

Mary: (mouth agape, and eyes wide) Tom, frankly I'm flabbergasted! I don't know what to say, but thank you very much. I hope I can continue to do as fine a job as I have this last year. Thanks once again.

After exchanging some parting remarks and some more thankyou's, Mary left Tom's office with a smile from ear to ear. She was floating on air! Not only did she feel the performance review process was uplifting, but her review was outstanding and so was her raise. She knew from other employees that the company was only giving out a 5 percent average increase. She figured that if she got that, or perhaps 6 or 7, she would be happy. But to get 10 percent … wow!! Imagine …

Sue: Hi, Mary! Lost in thought? My, you look great. Looks like you got some great news. What's up?

Susan Stevens was a recent hire, working for Tom. She had graduated from Central University also, but a year after Mary. Sue had excelled while at Central, graduating in the top 1 percent of her class. She had laudatory letters of recommendation from her professors and was into many after-school clubs and activities.

Mary: Oh, hi, Sue! Sorry, but I was just thinking about Universal and the opportunities here.

Sue: Yes, it truly is …

Mary: Sue, I just came from my performance review and let me tell you, the process isn't that bad. As a matter of fact I found it quite rewarding, if you get my drift. I got a wonderful review, and can't wait till next year's. What a great company!

Sue: You can say that again! I couldn't believe them hiring me right out of college at such a good salary. Between you and me, Mary, they started me at $45,000. Imagine that? Wow, was I impressed. I just couldn't believe that they would … Where are you going, Mary? Mary? What's that you say, “It isn't fair”? What do you mean? Mary? Mary …

Review Questions

1. Indicate Mary's attitudes before and after meeting Sue. If there was a change, why?
2. What do you think Mary will do now? Later?
3. What motivation theory applies best to this scenario? Explain.

CASE 6 A

Perfect Pizzeria

Perfect Pizzeria in Southville, in deep southern Illinois, is the second-largest franchise of the chain in the United States. The headquarters is located in Phoenix, Arizona. Although the business is prospering, employee and managerial problems exist.

Each operation has one manager, an assistant manager, and from two to five night managers. The managers of each pizzeria work under an area supervisor. There are no systematic criteria for being a manager or becoming a manager trainee. The franchise has no formalized training period for the manager. No college education is required. The managers for whom the case observer worked during a four-year period were relatively young (ages 24 to 27) and only one had completed college. They came from the ranks of night managers or assistant managers, or both. The night managers were chosen for their ability to perform the duties of the regular employees. The assistant managers worked a two-hour shift during the luncheon period five days a week to gain knowledge about bookkeeping and management. Those becoming managers remained at that level unless they expressed interest in investing in the business.

The employees were mostly college students, with a few high school students performing the less challenging jobs. Since Perfect Pizzeria was located in an area with few job opportunities, it had a relatively easy task of filling its employee quotas. All the employees, with the exception of the manager, were employed part time and were paid the minimum wage.

The Perfect Pizzeria system is devised so that food and beverage costs and profits are computed according to a percentage. If the percentage of food unsold or damaged in any way is very low, the manager gets a bonus. If the percentage is high, the manager does not receive a bonus; rather, he or she receives only his or her normal salary.

There are many ways in which the percentage can fluctuate. Since the manager cannot be in the store 24 hours a day, some employees make up for their paychecks by helping themselves to the food. When a friend comes in to order a pizza, extra ingredients are put on the friend's pizza. Occasional nibbles by 18 to 20 employees throughout the day at the meal table also raise the percentage figure. An occasional bucket of sauce may be spilled or a pizza accidentally burned.

In the event of an employee mistake, the expense is supposed to come from the individual. Because of peer pressure, the night manager seldom writes up a bill for the erring employee. Instead, the establishment takes the loss and the error goes unnoticed until the end of the month when the inventory is taken. That's when the manager finds out that the percentage is high and that there will be no bonus.

In the present instance, the manager took retaliatory measures. Previously, each employee was entitled to a free pizza, salad, and all the soft drinks he or she could drink for every 6 hours of work. The manager raised this figure from 6 to 12 hours of work. However, the employees had received these 6-hour benefits for a long time. Therefore, they simply took advantage of the situation whenever the manager or the assistant was not in the building.

Although the night manager theoretically had complete control of the operation in the evenings, he did not command the respect that the manager or assistant manager did. This was because he received the same pay as the regular employees, he could not reprimand other employees, and he was basically the same age or sometimes even younger than the other employees.

Thus, apathy grew within the pizzeria. There seemed to be a further separation between the manager and his workers, who started out as a closely knit group. The manager made no attempt to alleviate the problem, because he felt it would iron itself out. Either the employees that were dissatisfied would quit or they would be content to put up with the new regulations. As it turned out, there was a rash of employee dismissals. The manager had no problem filling the vacancies with new workers, but the loss of key personnel was costly to the business.

With the large turnover, the manager found that he had to spend more time in the building, supervising and sometimes taking the place of inexperienced workers. This was in direct violation of the franchise regulation, which stated that a manager would act as a supervisor and at no time take part in the actual food preparation. Employees were not placed under strict supervision with the manager working alongside them. The operation no longer worked smoothly because of differences between the remaining experienced workers and the manager concerning the way in which a particular function should be performed.

After a two-month period, the manager was again free to go back to his office and leave his subordinates in charge of the entire operation. During this two-month period, the percentage had returned to the previous low level, and the manager received a bonus each month. The manager felt that his problems had been resolved and that conditions would remain the same, since the new personnel had been properly trained.

It didn't take long for the new employees to become influenced by the other employees. Immediately after the manager had returned to his supervisory role, the percentage began to rise. This time the manager took a bolder step. He cut out any benefits that the employees had—no free pizzas, salads, or drinks. With the job market at an even lower ebb than usual, most employees were forced to stay. The appointment of a new area supervisor made it impossible for the manager to “work behind the counter,” since the supervisor was centrally located in Southville.

The manager tried still another approach to alleviate the rising percentage problem and maintain his bonus. He placed a notice on the bulletin board stating that if the percentage remained at a high level, a lie detector test would be given to all employees. All those found guilty of taking or purposefully wasting food or drinks would be immediately terminated. This did not have the desired effect on the employees, because they knew if they were all subjected to the test, all would be found guilty and the manager would have to dismiss all of them. This would leave him in a worse situation than ever.

Even before the following month's percentage was calculated, the manager knew it would be high. He had evidently received information from one of the night managers about the employees' feelings toward the notice. What he did not expect was that the percentage would reach an all-time high. That is the state of affairs at the present time.

Review Questions

1. Consider the situation where the manager changed the time period required to receive free food and drink from 6 to 12 hours of work. Try to apply each of the motivational approaches to explain what happened. Which of the approaches offers the most appropriate explanation? Why?
2. Repeat Question 1 for the situation where the manager worked beside the employees for a time and then later returned to his office.
3. Repeat Question 1 for the situation as it exists at the end of the case.
4. Establish and justify a motivational program based on one or a combination of motivation theories to deal with the situation as it exists at the end of the case.

CASE 6B: Hovey and Beard Company

Source: Abridged and adapted from George Strauss and Alex Bavelas, “Group Dynamics and Intergroup Relations” (under the title “The Hovey and Beard Case”), in Money and Motivation, ed. William F. Whyte (New York: Harper & Row, 1955).

The Hovey and Beard Company manufactures a variety of wooden toys, including animals, pull toys, and the like.¹ The toys were manufactured by a transformation process that began in the wood room. There, toys were cut, sanded, and partially assembled. Then the toys were dipped into shellac and sent to the painting room.

In years past, the painting had been done by hand, with each employee working with a given toy until its painting was completed. The toys were predominantly two-colored, although a few required more colors. Now in response to increased demand for the toys, the painting operation was changed so that the painters sat in a line by an endless chain of hooks. These hooks moved continuously in front of the painters and passed into a long horizontal oven. Each painter sat in a booth designed to carry away fumes and to backstop excess paint. The painters would take a toy from a nearby tray, position it in a jig inside the painting cubicle, spray on the color according to a pattern, and then hang the toy on a passing hook. The rate at which the hooks moved was calculated by the engineers so that each painter, when fully trained, could hang a painted toy on each hook before it passed beyond reach.

The painters were paid on a group bonus plan. Since the operation was new to them, they received a learning bonus that decreased by regular amounts each month. The learning bonus was scheduled to vanish in six months, by which time it was expected that they would be on their own—that is, able to meet the production standard and earn a group bonus when they exceeded it.

By the second month of the training period, trouble developed. The painters learned more slowly than had been anticipated and it began to look as though their production would stabilize far below what was planned. Many of the hooks were going by empty. The painters complained that the hooks moved too fast and that the engineer had set the rates wrong. A few painters quit and had to be replaced with new ones. This further aggravated the learning problem. The team spirit that the management had expected to develop through the group bonus was not in evidence except as an expression of what the engineers called “resistance”. One painter, whom the group regarded as its leader (and the management regarded as the ring-leader), was outspoken in taking the complaints of the group to the supervisor. These complaints were that the job was messy, the hooks moved too fast, the incentive pay was not correctly calculated, and it was too hot working so close to the drying oven.

A consultant was hired to work with the supervisor. She recommended that the painters be brought together for a general discussion of the working conditions. Although hesitant, the supervisor agreed to this plan.

The first meeting was held immediately after the shift was over at 4P.M. It was attended by all eight painters. They voiced the same complaints again: the hooks went by too fast, the job was too dirty, and the room was hot and poorly ventilated. For some reason, it was this last item that seemed to bother them most. The supervisor promised to discuss the problems of ventilation and temperature with the engineers, and a second meeting was scheduled. In the next few days the supervisor had several talks with the engineers. They, along with the plant superintendent, felt that this was really a trumped-up complaint and that the expense of corrective measures would be prohibitively high.

The supervisor came to the second meeting with some apprehensions. The painters, however, did not seem to be much put out. Rather, they had a proposal of their own to make. They felt that if several large fans were set up to circulate the air around their feet, they would be much more comfortable. After some discussion, the supervisor agreed to pursue the idea. The supervisor and the consultant discussed the idea of fans with the superintendent. Three large propeller-type fans were purchased and installed.

The painters were jubilant. For several days the fans were moved about in various positions until they were placed to the satisfaction of the group. The painters seemed completely satisfied with the results, and the relations between them and the supervisor improved visibly.

The supervisor, after this encouraging episode, decided that further meetings might also prove profitable. The painters were asked if they would like to meet and discuss other aspects of the work situation. They were eager to do this. Another meeting was held and the discussion quickly centered on the speed of the hooks. The painters maintained that the engineer had set them at an unreasonably fast speed and that they would never be able to fill enough of them to make a bonus.

The discussion reached a turning point when the group's leader explained that it wasn't that the painters couldn't work fast enough to keep up with the hooks but that they couldn't work at that pace all day long. The supervisor explored the point. The painters were unanimous in their opinion that they could keep up with the belt for short periods if they wanted to. But they didn't want to because if they showed they could do this for short periods then they would be expected to do it all day long. The meeting ended with an unprecedented request by the painters: “Let us adjust the speed of the belt faster or slower depending on how we feel”. The supervisor agreed to discuss this with the superintendent and the engineers.

The engineers reacted negatively to the suggestion. However, after several meetings it was granted that there was some latitude within which variations in the speed of the hooks would not affect the finished product. After considerable argument with the engineers, it was agreed to try out the painters' idea.

With misgivings, the supervisor had a control with a dial marked “low, medium, fast” installed at the booth of the group leader. The speed of the belt could now be adjusted anywhere between the lower and upper limits that the engineers had set.

The painters were delighted and spent many lunch hours deciding how the speed of the belt should be varied from hour to hour throughout the day. Within a week the pattern had settled down to one in which the first half hour of the shift was run on a medium speed (a dial setting slightly above the point marked “medium”). The next two and a half hours were run at high speed, and the half hour before lunch and the half hour after lunch were run at low speed. The rest of the afternoon was run at high speed with the exception of the last 45 minutes of the shift, which was run at medium.

The constant speed at which the engineers had originally set the belt was actually slightly below the “medium” mark on the control dial; the average speed at which the painters were running the belt was on the high side of the dial. Few, if any, empty hooks entered the oven, and inspection showed no increase of rejects from the paint room.

Production increased, and within three weeks (some two months before the scheduled ending of the learning bonus) the painters were operating at 30 to 50 percent above the level that had been expected under the original arrangement. Naturally, their earnings were correspondingly higher than anticipated. They were collecting their base pay, earning a considerable piecerate bonus, and still benefiting from the learning bonus. They were earning more now than many skilled workers in other parts of the plant.

Management was besieged by demands that the inequity between the earnings of the painters and those of other workers in the plant be taken care of. With growing irritation between the superintendent and the supervisor, the engineers and supervisor, and the superintendent and engineers, the situation came to a head when the superintendent revoked the learning bonus and returned the painting operation to its original status: the hooks moved again at their constant, time-studied, designated speed. Production dropped again and within a month all but two of the eight painters had quit. The supervisor stayed on for several months, but, feeling aggrieved, left for another job.

Review Questions

1. How does the painters' job score on the core job characteristics before and after the changes were made? How can the positive impact of the job redesign be explained?
2. Was the learning bonus handled properly in this case? How can its motivational impact be explained? What alternative approaches could have been taken with similar motivational results?
3. How do you explain the situation described in the last paragraph of the case? How could this outcome have been avoided by appropriate managerial actions? given them a major group assignment worth 30 percent of the final grade. The task was to analyze a seven-page case and to come up with a written analysis. In addition, Sandra had asked the groups to present the case in class, with the idea that the rest of the class members would be “members of the board of directors of the company” who would be listening to how the manager and her team dealt with the problem at hand.

CASE 7 The Forgotten Group Member

Developed by Franklin Ramsoomair, Wilfred Laurier University

The Organizational Behavior course for the semester appeared to promise the opportunity to learn, enjoy, and practice some of the theories and principles in the textbook and class discussions. Christine Spencer was a devoted, hard-working student who had been maintaining an A-average to date. Although the skills and knowledge she had acquired through her courses were important, she was also very concerned about her grades. She felt that grades were paramount in giving her a competitive edge when looking for a job and, as a third-year student, she realized that she'd soon be doing just that.

Sunday afternoon. Two o'clock. Christine was working on an accounting assignment but didn't seem to be able to concentrate. Her courses were working out very well this semester, all but the OB. Much of the mark in that course was to be based on the quality of groupwork, and so she felt somewhat out of control. She recollected the events of the past five weeks. Professor Sandra Thiel had divided the class into groups of five people and had given them a major group assignment worth 30 percent of the final grade. The task was to analyze a seven-page case and to come up with a written analysis. In addition, Sandra had asked the groups to present the case in class, with the idea that the rest of the class members would be “members of the board of directors of the company” who would be listening to how the manager and her team dealt with the problem at hand.

Christine was elected “Team Coordinator” at the first group meeting. The other members of the group were Diane, Janet, Steve, and Mike. Diane was quiet and never volunteered suggestions, but when directly asked, she would come up with high-quality ideas. Mike was the clown. Christine remembered that she had suggested that the group should get together before every class to discuss the day's case. Mike had balked, saying “No way!! This is an 8:30 class, and I barely make it on time anyway! Besides, I'll miss my Happy Harry show on television!” The group couldn't help but laugh at his indignation. Steve was the businesslike individual, always wanting to ensure that group meetings were guided by an agenda and noting the tangible results achieved or not achieved at the end of every meeting. Janet was the reliable one who would always have more for the group than was expected of her. Christine saw herself as meticulous and organized and as a person who tried to give her best in whatever she did.

It was now week 5 into the semester, and Christine was deep in thought about the OB assignment. She had called everyone to arrange a meeting for a time that would suit them all, but she seemed to be running into a roadblock. Mike couldn't make it, saying that he was working that night as a member of the campus security force. In fact, he seemed to miss most meetings and would send in brief notes to Christine, which she was supposed to discuss for him at the group meetings. She wondered how to deal with this. She also remembered the incident last week. Just before class started, Diane, Janet, Steve, and she were joking with one another before class. They were laughing and enjoying themselves before Sandra came in. No one noticed that Mike had slipped in very quietly and had unobtrusively taken his seat.

She recalled the cafeteria incident. Two weeks ago, she had gone to the cafeteria to grab something to eat. She had rushed to her accounting class and had skipped breakfast. When she got her club sandwich and headed to the tables, she saw her OB group and joined them. The discussion was light and enjoyable as it always was when they met informally. Mike had come in. He'd approached their table. “You guys didn't say you were having a group meeting”, he blurted. Christine was taken aback.

We just happened to run into each other. Why not join us?

Mike looked at them, with a noncommittal glance. “Yeah … right”, he muttered, and walked away.

Sandra Thiel had frequently told them that if there were problems in the group, the members should make an effort to deal with them first. If the problems could not be resolved, she had said that they should come to her. Mike seemed so distant, despite the apparent camaraderie of the first meeting.

An hour had passed, bringing the time to 3 P.M., and Christine found herself biting the tip of her pencil. The written case analysis was due next week. All the others had done their designated sections, but Mike had just handed in some rough handwritten notes. He had called Christine the week before, telling her that in addition to his course and his job, he was having problems with his girlfriend. Christine empathized with him. Yet, this was a group project! Besides, the final mark would be peer evaluated. This meant that whatever mark Sandra gave them could be lowered or raised, depending on the group's opinion about the value of the contribution of each member. She was definitely worried. She knew that Mike had creative ideas that could help to raise the overall mark. She was also concerned for him. As she listened to the music in the background, she wondered what she should do.

Review Questions

1. How could an understanding of the stages of group development assist Christine in leadership situations such as this one?
2. What should Christine understand about individual membership in groups in order to build group processes that are supportive of her work group's performance?
3. Is Christine an effective group leader in this case? Why or why not?

CASE 8: NASCAR'S Racing Teams

Developed by David S. Chappell, Ohio University, modified by Hal Babson, Columbus State Community College and John R. Schermerhorn, Jr., Ohio University

The most popular team sport, based on total spectator audience, is not basketball, baseball, football, or even soccer: it is stock car racing. The largest stock car racing group in the world is the National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing (NASCAR), which recently celebrated its 60th year. The NASCAR Sprint Cup Series (formerly known as the Winston Cup or Nextel Cup) kicks off in February and runs through November. Along the way it serves as a marketing powerhouse.

Not only are over 3.5 million fans attracted to NASCAR's Sprint Cup races, but another 218 million watched them on television last year.^{1, 2} Drivers are involved in cable network shows as well as syndicated radio shows each week. NASCAR's official Web site, at www.nascar.com, consistently ranks among the top league sites on the Internet and generates well over 1 billion page views year-after-year.³ Companies such as the Coca-Cola Co. and Nationwide Insurance take advantage of NASCAR's popularity with merchandise, collectibles, apparel, accessories, toys, and other marketing tie-ins. The race cars themselves have been described by some as “200 mile-per-hour billboards”.

Jeff Gordon is one of NASCAR's most successful and well-known drivers; he's been a sensation ever since he started racing go-carts and quarter-midget cars at the age of 5. But as the driver of a successful race car he represents just the most visible part of an incredibly complex racing organization—a high-performance system whose ultimate contribution takes place on race day. For several years a team known as the Rainbow Warriors handled Gordon's car. Their leader was crew chief Ray Evernham, recognized by many as one of the very best in the business. Posted on the wall of his workshop was this sign:

While Gordon represented the star attraction, many believed that it was Evernham who pulled the whole act together. He was responsible for a group of over 120 technicians and mechanics with an annual budget estimated between $10 and $12 million! And he had strong opinions as to what it takes to consistently finish first: painstaking preparation, egoless teamwork, and thoroughly original strategizing—principles that apply to any high-performance organization.

Evernham believed that teams needed to experiment with new methods and processes. When he assembled his Rainbow Warriors pit crew, none of them had Nextel/Winston Cup experience and none worked on the car in any other capacity. With the use of a pit crew coach, the Rainbow Warriors provide Gordon with an approximately one-second advantage with each pit stop, which, at a speed of 200 miles per hour, equates to 300 feet of race track. “When you coach and support a superstar like Jeff Gordon, you give him the best equipment possible, you give him the information he needs, and then you get out of the way. But racing is a team sport. Everyone who races pretty much has the same car and the same equipment. What sets us apart is our people. I like to talk about our 'team IQ'—because none of us is as smart as all of us”.

Said Evernham, “I think a lot about people, management, and psychology: Specifically, how can I motivate my guys and make them gel as a team? I surround them with ideas about teamwork. I read every leadership book I can get my hands on. One thing that I took from my reading is the idea of a 'circle of strength.' When the Rainbow Warriors meet, we always put our chairs in a circle. That's a way of saying that we're stronger as a team than we are on our own”.

Evernham backed up this belief in team by emphasizing team performance over individual performance. When the car won a race, everyone shared in the prize money. In addition, when Evernham earned money through personal service activities such as speaking tours and autograph signings, he shared what he earned with the team. “I wouldn't be in a position to earn that income if it weren't for the team. Everyone should feel as if his signature is on the finished product”.

Steve Letarte had some pretty big shoes to fill when he became Jeff Gordon's crew chief. After a series of successful title runs, Letarte was recently transferred to Gordon teammate Dale Earnhardt's team with the intention of bringing about “a more professional and ultimately more successful Earnhardt”.⁴

But don't cry for Jeff Gordon. Under new pit boss Alan Gustafson, the #24 crew is performing as strongly as ever: In the current season, Gordon has spent 50% more miles at the front of the pack than the number two racer.⁵

It's not only the fans who have noticed what goes on in the NASCAR pit crews and racing teams. The next time you fly on United Airlines, check out the ground crews. You might notice some similarities with the teams handling pit stops for NASCAR racers. In fact, there's a good chance the members of the ramp crews have been through what has been called “Pit Crew U”.⁶ United is among many organizations that are sending employees to Pit Instruction and Training in Mooresville, North Carolina. At the same facility where real racing crews train, United's ramp workers learn to work under pressure while meeting the goals of teamwork, safety, and job preparedness. The objective is to replace work practices that may sometimes result in aircraft delays and service inadequacies—things that a NASCAR team must avoid in order to stay competitive in races. “It's stuff you can carry back like cleaning up your work area, being set up for that airplane to arrive like the pit crews are ready for that car to get here”, said Marc Abbatacola of Chicago's O'Hare International Airport.⁷

Joe Konkel agreed: “The PIT training supports all the major principles of Georgia-Pacific … the need for everyone to have the necessary skill, commitment, ownership, and teamwork to advance the vision. Safety, compliance, and efficiency work together and become a result of this focus. This fosters pride, ownership, and a clear understanding of each person's individual advantage as part of the team”.

High-performance teams may be inherited, but must be maintained. They do not happen by chance; rather, they are the result of good recruiting and meticulous attention to learning every detail of the job.

Review Questions

1. In what ways do Evernham's leadership tactics prove consistent with the characteristics and ideas on high performance teams and teamwork advanced in the text?
2. If you were hired as Jeff Gordon's new pit crew chief, what team norms would you expect to be in place?
3. What can someone who takes over a highly successful team from a leader like Evernham do to maintain and even improve team success in the future?
4. Research question: Pit crews are often in the news. See what you can find out about pit crew performance. Ask: What distinguishes the “high performance” pit crews from the “also rans?”

CASE 9 Decisions, Decisions

Developed by John R. Schermerhorn, Jr.

The Case of the Wedding Ring

Setting—A woman is preparing for a job interview. Dilemma—She wants the job desperately and is worried that her marital status might adversely affect the interview.

Decision—Should she or should she not wear her diamond engagement ring?

Considerations—When queried for a column in The Wall Street Journal, some women claimed that they would try to hide their marital status during a job interview.¹ One says: “Although I will never remove my wedding band, I don't want anyone to look at my engagement ring and think, she doesn't need this job, what is she doing working?” Even the writer remembers that she considered removing her engagement ring some years back when applying for a job. “I had no idea about the office culture”, she said. “I didn't want anyone making assumptions, however unreasonable, about my commitment to work”.

Wellness or Invasive Coercion?

Setting—Scotts Miracle-Gro Company, Marysville, Ohio.

Dilemma—Corporate executives are concerned about rising healthcare costs. CEO Jim Hagedorn backs an aggressive wellness program and antismoking campaign to improve health of employees and reduce health-care costs for the firm. Scott employees are asked to take extensive health-risk assessments; failure to do so increases their health insurance premiums by $40 a month. Employees found to have “moderate to high” health risks are assigned health coaches and given action plans; failure to comply adds another $67 per month. In states where the practice is legal, the firm will not hire a smoker and tests new employees for nicotine use. In response to complaints that the policy is intrusive, Hagedorn says: “If people understand the facts and still choose to smoke, it's suicidal. And we can't encourage suicidal behavior”.

Decision—Is Hagedorn doing the right thing by leading Scotts's human resource policies in this direction?

Considerations—Joe Pellegrini's life was probably saved by his employer. After urging from a Scotts's health coach he saw his doctor about weight and cholesterol concerns. This led to a visit with a heart specialist who inserted two stents, correcting a 95% blockage. Scott Rodrigues' life was changed by his employer; he is suing Scotts's for wrongful dismissal. A smoker, he claims that he was fired after failing a drug test for nicotine even though he wasn't informed about the test and had been told the company would help him stop smoking. CEO Hagedorn says: “This is an area where CEOs are afraid to go. A lot of people are watching to see how badly we get sued”.²

Super Sales Woman Won't Ask for Raise

Setting—A woman is described as a “productive star” and “supersuccessful” member of an 18 person sales force.³

Dilemma—She finds out that both she and the other woman salesperson are being paid 20% less than the men. Her sister wants her to talk with her boss and ask for more pay. She says: “No, I'm satisfied with my present pay and I don't want to 'rock the boat'”. The sister can't understand how and why she puts up with this situation, allowing herself to be paid less than a man for at least equal and quite possibly better performance.

Considerations—In the past ten years women have lost ground relative to men when it comes to pay; whereas they previously earned 75.7 cents for each dollar earned by a man, a decade later they are earning 74.7 cents. Some claim that one explanation for the wage gap and its growing size is that women tolerate the situation and allow it to continue, rather than confronting the gap in their personal circumstances and trying to change it.

Wal-Mart Goes Public with Annual Bonuses

Setting—Wal-Mart executives released to the public information on the annual bonuses paid to store employees.⁴

Dilemma—Wal-Mart's founder, Sam Walton, started the bonus program in 1986 as a way of linking employees with the firm's financial success. Historically Wal-Mart did not divulge the annual bonuses. Recently the firm has received considerable negative publicity regarding the wages paid to employees and the benefits they are eligible to receive. But a spokesperson indicated that going public with the bonuses was not a response to such criticism. A former human resource executive at the firm says: “This is just an example of how they really treat their people well and they're putting it out there to let the facts speak for themselves”.

Considerations—Some 813,759 employees shared a bonus pool of $529.8 million. A current employee said she received “substantially over $1,000”, and that this was higher than the prior year's bonus. Wal-Mart is planning to give the bonuses on a quarterly basis to link them more frequently with performance. One of the firm's critics, WakeUpWalMart.com, was critical, charging: “Wal-Mart values are so misplaced that it gives executives hundreds of millions in bonuses and the mere crumbs to associates”.

Review Questions

1. Use the decision-making model presented in the chapter to map the decisions being made in these situations. Identify how, where, and why different decisions might be made.
2. What are the issues involved in these situations? How are they best addressed by the decision makers?
3. Find other decision-making examples that raise similar issues and quandaries. Share them with classmates and analyze the possible decisions.

CASE 10: The Case of the Missing Raise

Prepared by John R. Schermerhorn, Jr., Ohio University

It was late February, and Marsha Lloyd had just completed an important long-distance telephone call with Professor Fred Massie, head of the Department of Management at Central University. During the conversation Marsha accepted an offer to move from her present position at Private University, located in the East, to Central in the Midwest as an Assistant Professor. Marsha and her husband John then shared the following thoughts.

Marsha: “Well, it's final”.

John: “It's been a difficult decision, but I know it will work out for the best”.

Marsha: “Yes, however, we are leaving many things we like here”.

John: “I know, but remember, Professor Massie is someone you respect a great deal and he is offering you a challenge to come and introduce new courses at Central. Besides, he will surely be a pleasure to work for”.

Marsha: “John we're young, eager and a little adventurous. There's no reason we shouldn't go”.

John: “We're going dear”.

Marsha Lloyd began the fall semester eagerly. The points discussed in her earlier conversations with Fred were now real challenges, and she was teaching new under-graduate and graduate courses in Central's curriculum. Overall, the transition to Central had been pleasant. The nine faculty members were warm in welcoming her, and Marsha felt it would be good working with them. She also felt comfortable with the performance standards that appeared to exist in the department. Although it was certainly not a “publish or perish” situation, Fred had indicated during the recruiting process that research and publications would be given increasing weight along with teaching and service in future departmental decisions. This was consistent with Marsha's personal belief that a professor should live up to each of these responsibilities. Although there was some conflict in evidence among the faculty over what weighting and standards should apply to these performance areas, she sensed some consensus that the multiple responsibilities should be respected.

It was April, and spring vacation time. Marsha was sitting at home reflecting upon her experiences to date at Central. She was pleased. Both she and John had adjusted very well to Midwestern life. Although there were things they both missed from their prior location, she was in an interesting new job and they found the rural environment of Central very satisfying. Marsha had also received positive student feedback on her fall semester courses, had presented two papers at a recent professional meeting, and had just been informed that two of her papers would be published by a journal. This was a good record and she felt satisfied. She had been working hard and it was paying off.

The spring semester had ended and Marsha was preoccupied. It was time, she thought, for an end-of-the-year performance review by Fred Massie. This anticipation had been stimulated, in part, by a recent meeting of the College faculty in which the Dean indicated that a 7% pay raise pool was now available for the coming year. He was encouraging department chairpersons to distribute this money differentially based on performance merit. Marsha had listened closely to the Dean and liked what she heard. She felt this meant that Central was really trying to establish a performance-oriented reward system. Such a system was consistent with her personal philosophy and, indeed, she taught such reasoning in her courses.

Throughout May, Marsha kept expecting to have a conversation with Fred Massie on these topics. One day, the following memo appeared in her faculty mailbox.

MEMORANDUM TO: Fellow Faculty FROM: Fred RE: Raises for Next Year

The Dean has been most open about the finances of the College as evidenced by his detail and candor regarding the budget at the last faculty meeting. Consistent with that philosophy I want to provide a perspective on raises and clarify a point or two.

The actual dollars available to our department exclusive of the chairman total 7.03%. In allocating those funds I have attempted to reward people on the basis of their contribution to the life of the Department and the University, as well as professional growth and development. In addition, it was essential this year to adjust a couple of inequities which had developed over a period of time. The distribution of increments was the following:

Marsha read the memo with mixed emotions. Initially, she was upset that Fred had obviously made the pay raise decisions without having spoken first with her about her performance. Still, she felt good because she was sure to be one of those receiving a 9+% increase. “Now”, she mused to herself, “it will be good to sit down with Fred and discuss not only this past year's efforts, but my plans for next year's as well”.

Marsha was disappointed when Fred did not contact her for such a discussion. Furthermore, she found herself frequently involved in informal conversations with other faculty members who were speculating over who received the various pay increments.

One day Carla Block, a faculty colleague, came into Marsha's office and said she had asked Fred about her raise. She received a 7+% increase, and also learned that the two 9+% increases had been given to senior faculty members. Marsha was incredulous. “It can't be”, she thought, “I was a top performer this past year. My teaching and publications records are strong, and I feel I've been a positive force in the department”. She felt Carla could be mistaken and waited to talk the matter out with Fred.

A few days later another colleague reported to Marsha the results of a similar conversation with Fred. This time Marsha exploded internally. She felt she deserved just reward.

The next day Marsha received a computerized notice on her pay increment from the Accounting Office. Her raise was 7.2%. That night, after airing her feelings with John, Marsha telephoned Fred at home and arranged to meet with him the next day.

Fred Massie knocked on the door to Marsha's office and entered. The greetings were cordial. Marsha began the conversation. “Fred, we've always been frank with one another and now I'm concerned about my raise”, she said. “I thought I had a good year, but I understand that I've received just an average raise”. Fred Massie was a person who talked openly, and Marsha could trust him. He responded to Marsha in this way.

Marsha sympathized with Fred's logic and felt good having spoken with him. Although she wasn't happy, she understood Fred's position. Her final comment to Fred was this. “You know, it's not the absolute dollar value of the raise that hurts. It's the sense of letdown. Recently, for example, I turned down an extensive consulting job that would have paid far more than the missing raise. I did so because I felt it would require too many days away from the office. I'm not sure my colleagues would make that choice”.

In the course of a casual summer conversation, Carla mentioned to Marsha that she heard two of the faculty who had received 4+% raises had complained to Fred and the Dean. After lodging the complaints they had received additional salary increments. “Oh great”, Marsha responded to herself, “I thought I had put this thing to rest”.

About three weeks later, Marsha, Fred, Carla, and another colleague were in a meeting with the Dean. Although the meeting was on a separate matter, something was said which implied that Carla had also received an additional pay increment. Marsha confronted the Dean and learned that this was the case. Carla had protested to Fred and the Dean, and they raised her pay on the justification that an historical salary inequity had been over-looked. Fred was visibly uncomfortable as a discussion ensued on how salary increments should be awarded and what had transpired in the department in this respect.

Fred eventually excused himself to attend another meeting. Marsha and the others continued to discuss the matter with the Dean and the conversation became increasingly heated. Finally, they each rose to terminate the meeting and Marsha felt compelled to say one more thing. “It's not that I'm not making enough money”, she said to the Dean, “but I just don't feel I received my fair share, especially in terms of your own stated policy of rewarding faculty on the basis of performance merit”.

With that remark, Marsha left the meeting. As she walked down the hall to her office, she said to her self, “Next year there will be no turning down consulting jobs because of a misguided sense of departmental responsibility”.

Review Questions

1. What is Marsha's conflict management style and how has it influenced events in this case? What were Marsha's goals and what conflict management style would have worked best in helping her achieve them?
2. What is Fred's conflict management style and how has it influenced events in this case?
3. Once Marsha found out what her raise was to be, how could she have used the notion and elements of distributive negotiation to create a situation where Fred would make a raise adjustment that was favorable and motivating for her?

CASE 11: The Poorly Informed Walrus

Developed by Barbara McCain, Oklahoma City University

“How's it going down there?” barked the big walrus from his perch on the highest rock near the shore. He waited for the good word.

Down below the smaller walruses conferred hastily among themselves. Things weren't going well at all, but none of them wanted to break the news to the Old Man. He was the biggest and wisest walrus in the herd, and he knew his business, but he had such a terrible temper that every walrus in the herd was terrified of his ferocious bark.

“What will we tell him?” whispered Basil, the second-ranking walrus. He well remembers how the Old Man had raved and ranted at him the last time the herd had caught less than its quota of herring, and he had no desire to go through that experience again. Nevertheless, the walrus noticed for several weeks that the water level in the nearby Arctic bay had been falling constantly, and it had become necessary to travel much farther to catch the dwindling supply of herring. Someone should tell the Old Man; he would probably know what to do. But who? and how?

Finally Basil spoke up: “Things are going pretty well, Chief”, he said. The thought of the receding water line made his heart grow heavy, but he went on: “As a matter of fact, the beach seems to be getting larger”.

The Old Man grunted. “Fine, fine”, he said. “That will give us a bit more elbow room”. He closed his eyes and continued basking in the sun.

The next day brought more trouble. A new herd of walruses moved in down the beach and, with the supply of herring dwindling, this invasion could be dangerous. No one wanted to tell the Old Man, though only he could take the steps necessary to meet this new competition.

Reluctantly, Basil approached the big walrus, who was still sunning himself on the large rock. After some smalltalk, he said, “Oh, by the way, Chief, a new herd of walruses seems to have moved into our territory”. The Old Man's eyes snapped open, and he filled his great lungs in preparation for a mighty bellow. But Basil added quickly, “Of course, we don't anticipate any trouble. They don't look like herring eaters to me. More likely interested in minnows. And as you know, we don't bother with minnows ourselves”.

The Old Man let out the air with a long sigh. “Good, good”, he said. “No point in our getting excited over nothing then, is there?”

Things didn't get any better in the weeks that followed. One day, peering down from the large rock, the Old Man noticed that part of the herd seemed to be missing. Summoning Basil, he grunted peevishly. “What's going on, Basil? Where is everyone?” Poor Basil didn't have the courage to tell the Old Man that many of the younger walruses were leaving every day to join the new herd. Clearing his throat nervously, he said, “Well Chief, we've been tightening up things a bit. You know, getting rid of some of the dead wood. After all, a herd is only as good as the walruses in it”.

“Run a tight ship, I always say”, the Old Man grunted. “Glad to hear that all is going so well”.

Before long, everyone but Basil had left to join the new herd, and Basil realized that the time had come to tell the Old Man the facts. Terrified but determined, he flopped up to the large rock. “Chief”, he said, “I have bad news. The rest of the herd has left you”. The old walrus was so astonished that he couldn't even work up a good bellow. “Left me?” he cried. “All of them? But why? How could this happen?”

Basil didn't have the heart to tell him, so he merely shrugged helplessly.

“I can't understand it”, the old walrus said. “And just when everything was going so well”.

Review Questions

1. What barriers to communication are evident in this fable?
2. What communication “lessons” does this fable offer to those who are serious about careers in the new workplace?

CASE 12 Faculty Empowerment and the Changing University Environment

Source: Developed by John Bowen, Columbus State Community College

In a typical university, the instructor enjoys a very high level of empowerment and opportunity for creativity in achieving course objectives. Within general limitations of the course description, instructors tend to have a good deal of flexibility in selecting course content, designing instructional activities, and selecting assignments. This allows them to tailor courses in varying ways to do what may seem to work best in a given situation. For example, an instructor teaching a course four times a year may design one section to cover course content in a somewhat different manner or with a slightly different focus due to the unique background and interests of the students. Since not all students learn or can be effectively evaluated in exactly the same way, an instructor normally is able to respond to varying situations by the way in which the text is used, the specific activities assigned, and choice of tests and other means of measuring student performance.

One of the settings in which instructor empowerment has been especially functional is the presence of adult learners (those working full-time and attending school part-time, or returning to school after substantial work experience). Often adult learners have quite different needs than the more traditional student. Course variations that include unique learning opportunities that tap their work experiences and that accommodate the nature of their work schedules are often necessary. Flexibility and responsiveness by the instructor is also important. A major news event may create intense student interest in a course-related topic, but it might not occur at the specific point in the course in which the topic was scheduled to be covered, and the level of interest might require more time being allocated to the discussion than was originally planned. Assignment schedules and requirements are also a challenge when dealing with adult learners. Not all have work schedules such that they have the same amount of work week after week, but instead they may have variations in workloads that may include substantial travel commitments.

Where instructors have a good deal of empowerment, quality of education is maintained through instructor selection and development and through oversight by department heads. The supervision often includes reviews of any changes in course plans, learning activities, exams, assignments, and syllabus. This is facilitated by reviews of student feedback and through personal observation of the instructor conducting a class.

Regardless of the extent to which such quality control measures may or may not work, competition among colleges and universities is beginning to have an impact on faculty empowerment. In the past, schools tended to focus on a given geographic area, certain fields of study, or a particular class of students. Thus, competitive pressures were often relatively minimal. Today competition in the education market is not just local or even national, but is becoming increasingly global. Accelerating the trend is the use of online classes that can enable students in distant locations to take classes over the Internet.

The need to compete for revenues and to contain costs has also produced pressure for universities to operate more like businesses. This has, in some cases, resulted in more standardization of courses and instructional methods, consequently reducing the traditional empowerment of instructors. As an example of what is being done, consider two universities: Upstate University and Downstate University. Upstate and Downstate share two commonalities:(1)each sees their primary target student market as the working adult and (2) each is increasing the use of standardization in instructional methods.

Upstate University focuses on the working adult: 82 percent of its 8,200 students are employed and the average age is 32. It still holds traditional face-to-face classes on its main campus and in nearby communities, but its programs now include standardized online courses (including a program for military personnel) in both masters and undergraduate degree programs. It has developed a “Balanced Learning Format” approach involving standardized quality, content, and delivery for its courses— both online and traditional courses.

Downstate University was started to provide a means through which poor but qualified students could work and pay for their education. The school offers both undergraduate and masters degree programs. Enrollment at the main campus is now approximately 2,000 students but it has over 19,000 other students attending around the nation and around the world. Those students attend classes online and at 37 other campuses in 20 states—most of those students are working adults.

Upstate has standardized its courses so that certain specific activities and points are to be covered in each class session. The instructor does not set the assignments (problems, text questions, etc.). Rather, the student taking the course can go online and see what is required for both the instructor and student. The amount of time to be devoted to particular discussion or activities must follow a given script for each class session or at least be within guidelines in which some flexibility may exist. As a result, all instructors covering a given class session will be following the same script—often saying and doing much the same thing. This approach largely limits creativity to the person or persons involved in developing and modifying the course. Any ideas to change the course would normally have to be approved by that developer. Changes are infrequent, however, perhaps because some instructors might be unwilling to contact the course developer and take the time to argue the need for a change.

Downstate is modifying its courses in ways that are similar to the approach taken at Upstate, although not identical. Standardized test banks are being used. Objective test questions are to be randomly selected from within the test banks and scored by computer, thus reducing subjective evaluation (and any possible favoritism) by individual instructors.

At both Upstate and Downstate, online instruction is playing an increasingly important role. The goal is to assure that all online interaction between students and instructors is proper and consistent with school policies. Online classes are conducted so that any communication must be either at the class Web site or through use of the school's own e-mail system. Thus the institution can monitor not only what goes on in the “electronic classroom” (the Web site for the course) but also in what might be comparable to the private chats which traditional students in the past had in the instructor's office. Furthermore, to the extent that a course is online and that all activity is completed using either the course Web site or the school's e-mail system, protection is provided to both students and instructors. There is always proof available that an assignment was or was not received on time; student complaints or grade challenges are much more verifiable.

From the perspective of administration at both universities, the approach to more standardization ensures uniformity of quality in instructional delivery across settings, students, and instructors. It also provides a benefit in regards to the recruitment of adjunct (part-time) instructors that are increasingly used. Since not all such instructors have the same level of creativity and experience, having a standardized course and common script for all to follow is presumed to help maintain quality of instruction across instructors and course sections. Many instructors—especially those who have taught in the past under empowered conditions, find the new developments at both Upstate and Downstate frustrating. They believe that their prerogatives talents as professionals are not being fully respected.

Review Questions

1. Would you rather be a student in a class that has been standardized or one in which the instructor has a high degree of empowerment? Why?
2. What issues involving power and politics are involved in moving from a setting that encouraged faculty empowerment to one that required much more standardization of instruction? How would you deal with those issues if you were involved in university administration?
3. In the specific case of adult learners and use of multiple instructors, is it possible to reach a compromise between standardization and empowerment so that the benefits of standardization can be obtained while still allowing for the flexibility that comes with empowerment? How can this apply to courses taught online versus face-to-face?

CASE 13 The New Vice President

[Note: Please read only those parts identified by your instructor. Do not read ahead.]

Part A

When the new president at Mid-West U took over, it was only a short time before the incumbent vice president announced his resignation. Unfortunately, there was no one waiting in the wings, and a hiring freeze prevented a national search from commencing.

Many faculty leaders and former administrators suggested that the president appoint Jennifer Treeholm, the Associate Vice President for Academic Affairs, as interim. She was an extremely popular person on campus and had 10 years of experience in the role of associate vice president. She knew everyone and everything about the campus. Jennifer, they assured him, was the natural choice. Besides, Jennifer deserved the job. Her devotion to the school was unparalleled, and her energy knew no bounds. The new president, acting on advice from many campus leaders, appointed Jennifer interim vice president for a term of up to three years. He also agreed that she could be a candidate for the permanent position when the hiring freeze was lifted.

Jennifer and her friends were ecstatic. It was high time more women moved into important positions on campus. They went out for dinner to their every-Friday-night watering hole to celebrate and reflect on Jennifer's career.

Except for a brief stint outside of academe, Jennifer's entire career had been at Mid-West U. She started out teaching Introductory History, then, realizing she wanted to get on the tenure track, went back to school and earned her Ph.D. at Metropolitan U while continuing to teach at Mid-West. Upon completion of her degree, she was appointed as an assistant professor and eventually earned the rank of associate based on her popularity and excellent teaching.

Not only was Jennifer well liked, but she devoted her entire life, it seemed, to Mid-West, helping to form the first union, getting grants, writing skits for the faculty club's annual follies, and going out of her way to befriend everyone who needed support.

Eventually, Jennifer was elected president of the Faculty Senate. After serving for two years, she was offered the position of associate vice president. During her 10 years as associate vice president, she handled most of the academic complaints, oversaw several committees, wrote almost all of the letters and reports: for the vice president, and was even known to run personal errands for the president. People just knew they could count on Jennifer.

Source: Adapted from Donald D. Bowen et al., Experiences in Management and Organizational Behavior. 4th ed. (New York: Wiley, 1997).

Review Questions

1. At this point, what are your predictions about Jennifer as the interim vice president?
2. What do you predict will be her management/leadership style?
3. What are her strengths? Her weaknesses? What is the basis for your assessment?

After you have discussed Part A, please read Part B.

Part B

Jennifer's appointment as interim vice president was met with great enthusiasm. Finally the school was getting someone who was “one of their own”, a person who understood the culture, knew the faculty, and could get things done.

It was not long before the campus realized that things were not moving and that Jennifer, despite her long-standing popularity, had difficulty making tough decisions. Her desire to please people and to try to take care of everyone made it difficult for her to choose opposing alternatives. (To make matters worse, she had trouble planning, organizing, and managing her time.)

What was really a problem was that she did not understand her role as the number-two person at the top of the organization. The president expected her to support him and his decisions without question. Over time the president also expected her to implement some of his decisions—to do his dirty work. This became particularly problematic when it involved firing people or saying “no” to old faculty cronies. Jennifer also found herself uncomfortable with the other members of the president's senior staff. Although she was not the only woman (the general counsel, a very bright, analytical woman was part of the group), Jennifer found the behavior and decision-making style to be different from what she was used to.

Most of the men took their lead from the president and discussed very little in the meetings. Instead, they would try to influence decisions privately. Often a decision arrived in a meeting as a “fait accompli”. Jennifer felt excluded and wondered why, as vice president, she felt so powerless.

In time, she and the president spent less and less time together talking and discussing how to move the campus along. Although her relations with the men on the senior staff were cordial, she talked mostly to her female friends.

Jennifer's friends, especially her close-knit group of longtime female colleagues, all assured her that it was because she was “interim”. “Just stay out of trouble”, they told her. Of course this just added to her hesitancy when it came to making tough choices.

As the president's own image on campus shifted after his “honey-moon year”, Jennifer decided to listen to her friends rather than follow the president's lead. After all, her reputation on campus was at stake.

Review Questions

1. What is the major problem facing Jennifer?
2. What would you do if you were in her position?
3. Would a man have the same experience as Jennifer?
4. Are any of your predictions about her management style holding up?

Part C

When the hiring freeze was lifted and Jennifer's position was able to be filled, the president insisted on a national search. Jennifer and her friends felt this was silly, given that she was going into her third year in the job. Nonetheless, she entered the search process.

After a year-long search, the Search Committee met with the president. The external candidates were not acceptable to the campus. Jennifer, they recommended, should only be appointed on a permanent basis if she agreed to change her management style.

The president mulled over his dilemma, then decided to give Jennifer the benefit of the doubt and the opportunity. He appointed her permanent provost, while making the following private agreement with her.

1. She would organize her office and staff and begin delegating more work to others.
2. She would “play” her number-two position, backing the president and echoing his position on the university's vision statement.
3. She would provide greater direction for the Deans who report to her.

Jennifer agreed to take the position. She was now the university's first female vice president and presided over a council of 11 deans, three of whom were her best female friends. Once again, they sought out their every-Friday-night watering hole for an evening of dinner and celebration.

Review Questions

1. If you were Jennifer, would you have accepted the job?
2. What would you do as the new, permanent, vice president?
3. Will Jennifer change her management style? If so, in what ways?
4. What are your predictions for the future?

Although people had predicted that things would be better once Jennifer was permanently in the job, things in fact became more problematic. People now expected Jennifer to be able to take decisive action. She did not feel she could.

Every time an issue came up, she would spend weeks, sometimes months, trying to get a sense of the campus. Nothing moved once it hit her office. After a while, people began referring to the vice president's office as “the black hole” where things just went in and disappeared.

Her immediate staff were concerned and frustrated. Not only did she not delegate effectively, but her desire to make things better led her to try to do more and more herself.

The vice president's job also carried social obligations and requests. Here again, she tried to please everyone and often ran from one evening obligation to another, trying to show her support and concern for every constituency on campus. She was exhausted, over-whelmed, and knowing the mandate under which she was appointed, anxious about the president's evaluation of her behavior.

The greatest deterioration occurred within her Dean's Council. Several of the male Deans, weary of waiting for direction from Jennifer regarding where she was taking some of the academic proposals of the president, had started making decisions without Jennifer's approval.

“Loose cannons”, was how she described a couple of them. “They don't listen. They just march out there on their own”.

One of the big problems with two of the deans was that they just didn't take “no” for an answer when it came from Jennifer. Privately, each conceded that her “no” sounded like a “maybe”. She always left room open to renegotiate.

Whatever the problem, and there were several by now, Jennifer's ability to lead was being questioned. Although her popularity was as high as ever, more and more people on campus were expressing their frustrations with what sometimes appeared as mixed signals from her and the president and sometimes was seen as virtually no direction. People wanted priorities. Instead, crisis management reigned.

Review Questions

1. If you were president, what would you do?
2. If you were Jennifer, what would you do?

Conclusion

Jennifer had a few “retreats” with her senior staff. Each time, she committed herself to delegate more, prioritize, and work on time management issues, but within 10 days or so, everything was back to business as usual.

The president decided to hire a person with extensive corporate experience to fill the vacant position of Vice President of Finance and Administration. The new man was an experienced team player who had survived mergers, been fired and bounced back, and had spent years in the number-two position in several companies. Within a few months he had earned the respect of the campus as well as the president and was in fact emerging as the person who really ran the place. Meanwhile, the president concentrated on external affairs and fundraising.

Jennifer felt relieved. Her role felt clearer. She could devote herself to academic and faculty issues and she was out from under the pressure to play “hatchet man”.

As she neared the magic age for early retirement, she began to talk more and more about what she wanted to do next.

CASE 14 Novo Nordisk

During the last decade, it seemed no matter where we looked we found evidence of the erosion of business ethics and the basic concepts of right and wrong. Respected corporations and individuals who spent years building their reputations of integrity seemingly lost theirs overnight— perhaps forever. But some companies hold themselves to a higher set of standards and recognize that their business practices have lasting and world-wide effects. Let's look at one example.

Headquartered in Denmark, Novo Nordisk is a company whose concerns run beyond the financial bottom line. Novo Nordisk not only manufactures and markets pharmaceutical products and services, it realizes that responsible business is good business.

One of the world's leading producers of insulin, Novo Nordisk also makes insulin analogs (genetically engineered forms of insulin), injection devices, and diabetes education materials. Its products include analogs Levemir and NovoRapid and the revolutionary FlexPen, a prefilled insulin injection tool. In addition to its diabetes portfolio, the firm has products in the areas of blood clotting management, human growth hormone, and hormone replacement therapy.¹

Today, diabetes is recognized as a pandemic; and only half of all people with type 2 diabetes are diagnosed. Novo Nordisk works with policy makers and social influencers to improve the quality of life for those with diabetes, to find a cure for type 1 diabetes, and to help prevent the onset of type 2 diabetes. The company has framed a strategy for inclusive access to diabetes care. The ambition to ultimately defeat diabetes is at the core of Novo Nordisk's vision. This vision puts the company's objectives in perspective and inspires employees in their work. It is a beacon that keeps everyone's focus on creating long-term shareholder value and leveraging the company's unique qualities to gain competitive advantage.

In making decisions and managing their business, Novo Nordisk's Triple Bottom Line business principle balances three considerations: Is it economically viable? Is it socially responsible? And is it environmentally sound? This ensures that decision-making balances financial growth with corporate responsibility, short-term gains with long-term profitability, and shareholder return with other stakeholder interests. The Triple Bottom Line is built into their corporate governance structures, management tools, individual performance assessments, and rewards.

Novo Nordisk strives to manage its business in a way that ensures corporate profitability and growth, while it seeks to leave a positive economic footprint in the community. Its environmentally sound decisions acknowledge the company's concern for its impact on the world as well as the bioethical implications of its activities. As part of Novo Nordisk's ambitious non-financial targets, it aims to achieve a 10% reduction in the company's CO₂ emissions by 2014, compared with its 2004 emission levels. In 2009, the company announced that it had already reduced CO₂ emissions by 9% and water consumption by 17%, even as production and sales increased!²

Novo Nordisk adopted the Balanced Scorecard as the company-wide management tool for measuring its progress. As part of their payment package, individuals are rewarded for performance that meets or exceeds the financial and non-financial targets in the Balanced Scorecard. Financial performance is guided by a set of four long-term targets focusing on growth, profitability, financial return, and cash generation. Non-financial performance targets include job creation, the ability to manage environmental impacts and optimize resource efficiency, and social impacts related to employees, patients, and communities.³ Novo Nordisk deeply considers the people who rely on the company's products and its employees, as well as the impact of their business on society.

Corporate sustainability—the ability to sustain and develop business in the long-term perspective, in harmony with society—is an ethos clearly practiced by Novo Nordisk, and the company believes that it drives their success in business. Surveys indicate that ethical behavior in business today is the number one driver of reputation for pharmaceutical companies. Any company that is not perceived by the public as behaving in an ethical manner is likely to lose business, and it takes a long time to regain trust.

For Novo Nordisk, a business with integrity and innovation, its commitment to corporate sustainability has always been based on values. In this case, it's clear that doing the right thing makes a direct return on their bottom line.

Review Questions

1. What leadership style dominates at Novo Nordisk? Cite examples to support your opinion.
2. How does Novo Nordisk's leadership influence its organizational design and shape its competitive strategy?
3. Describe Novo Nordisk's philosophy in relation to transformational change, planned and unplanned change, and the strategies it has used to create change.
4. In what ways do you think Novo Nordisk employees might be asked to utilize self-leadership techniques to improve the effectiveness of the culture of shared leadership?
5. Research Question: Check up on the strides Novo Nordisk has made for diabetes recently. Have they made any progress and garnered the attention of influential people or organizations? How might cultural expectations and leadership enhance or limit their success?

CASE 15 Never on a Sunday

Developed by Anne C. Cowden, California State University, Sacramento and John R. Schermerhorn, Jr., Ohio University

McCoy's Building Supply Centers of San Marcos, Texas, have been in continuous successful operation for over 70 years in an increasingly competitive retail business. McCoy's is one of the nation's largest family-owned and -managed building-supply companies, serving 10 million customers a year in a regional area currently covering New Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana. McCoy's strategy has been to occupy a niche in the market of small and medium-sized cities.

McCoy's grounding principle is acquiring and selling the finest-quality products that can be found and providing quality service to customers. As an operations oriented company. McCoy's has always managed without many layers of management. Managers are asked to concentrate on service-related issues in their stores: get the merchandise on the floor, price it, sell it, and help the customer carry it out. The majority of the administrative workload is handled through headquarters so that store employees can concentrate on customer service. The top management team (Emmett McCoy and his two sons, Brian and Mike, who serve as co-presidents) has established 11 teams of managers drawn from the different regions McCoy's stores cover. The teams meet regularly to discuss new products, better ways for product delivery, and a host of items integral to maintaining customer satisfaction. Team leadership is rotated among the managers.

McCoy's has a workforce of 70 percent full-time and 30 percent part-time employees. McCoy's philosophy values loyal, adaptable, skilled employees as the most essential element of its overall success. To operationalize this philosophy, the company offers extensive on-the-job training. The path to management involves starting at the store level and learning all facets of operations before advancing into a management program. All management trainees are required to relocate to a number of stores. Most promotions come from within. Managers are rarely recruited from the outside. This may begin to change as the business implements more technology requiring greater reliance on college-educated personnel.

Permeating all that McCoy's does is a strong religious belief, including a strong commitment to community. The firm has a long-standing reputation of fair dealing that is a source of pride for all employees.

Many McCoy family members are Evangelical Christians who believe in their faith through letting their “feet do it”—that is, showing their commitment to God through action, not just talk. Although their beliefs and values permeate the company's culture in countless ways, one very concrete way is reflected in the title of this case: Never on a Sunday. Even though it's a busy business day for retailers, all 103 McCoy's stores are closed on Sunday.

Atlanta, Georgia

Courteous service fuels growth at Chick-fil-A. But don't plan on stopping in for a chicken sandwich on a Sunday; all of the chain's 1,250 stores are closed. It is a tradition started by 85-year-old founder Truett Cathy, who believes that employees deserve a day of rest. Known as someone who believes in placing “people before profits”, Truett has built a successful and fast growing fast-food franchise.

Headquartered in Atlanta, where its first restaurant was opened, Chick-fil-A is wholly owned by Truett's family and is now headed by his son. It has a reputation as a great employer, processing about 10,000 inquiries each year for 100 open restaurant operator jobs. Chick-fil-A's turnover among restaurant operators is only 3%, compared to an industry average as high as 50%. It is also a relatively inexpensive franchise, costing $5,000, compared to the $50,000 that is typical of its competitors.

The president of the National Restaurant Association Educational Foundation says: “I don't think there's any chain that creates such a wonderful culture around the way they treat their people and the respect they have for their employees”.

Truett asks his employees to always say “my pleasure” when thanked by a customer. He says: “It's important to keep people happy”. The results seem to speak for themselves. Chick-fil-A is the twenty-fifth largest restaurant chain in the United States, and reached over $2 billion in sales in 2006.¹

Review Questions

1. How have the personal beliefs of the McCoy and Cathy families influenced the organizational cultures of their firms?
2. What lessons for developing high-performance organizational cultures can these two cases provide for other firms that aren't family run?
3. What would be the challenges for a new leader who is interested in moving her organization in the direction of the McCoy or Chick-fil-A cultures?

CASE 16 First Community Financial

Developed by Marcus Osborn, RSR Partners

First Community Financial is a small business lender that specializes in asset-based lending and factoring for a primarily small-business clientele. First Community's business is generated by high-growth companies in diverse industries, whose capital needs will not be met by traditional banking institutions. First Community Financial will lend in amounts up to $1 million, so its focus is on small business. Since many of the loans that it administers are viewed by many banks as high-risk loans, it is important that the sales staff and loan processors have a solid working relationship. Since the loans and factoring deals that First Community finances are risky, the interest that it charges is at prime plus 6 percent or sometimes higher.

First Community is a credible player in the market because of its history and the human resource policies of the company. The company invests in its employees and works to assure that turnover is low. The goal of this strategy is to develop a consistent, professional team that has more expertise than its competitors.

Whereas Jim Adamany, president and CEO, has a strong history in the industry and is a recognized expert in asset-based lending and factoring, First Community has one of the youngest staff and management teams in the finance industry. In the banking industry, promotions are slow in coming, because many banks employ conservative personnel programs. First Community, however, has recruited young, ambitious people who are specifically looking to grow with the company. As the company grows, so will the responsibility and rewards for these young executives. In his early thirties, for example, Matt Vincent is a vice president; at only 28, Brian Zcray is director of marketing.

Since First Community has a diverse product line, it must compete in distinct markets. Its factoring products compete with small specialized factoring companies. Factoring is a way for businesses to improve their cash flow by selling their invoices at a discount. Factoring clients are traditionally the smallest clients finance companies must serve. Education about the nature of the product is crucial if the company is to be successful, since this is often a new approach to financing for many companies. First Community's sales staff is well trained in understanding its product lines and acts as the client's representative as they work through the approval process.

To assure the loans or factoring deals fit within the risk profile of the company, First Community must ask many complex financial questions. Many small businesses are intimidated by credit officers, so First Community handles all of these inquiries through the business development officers. The business development officers, in turn, must understand the needs of their credit officers, who are attempting to minimize risk to the company while maintaining a friendly rapport with the client. By centralizing the client contract through educated sales representatives, First Community is able to ask the hard financial questions and still keep the clients interested in the process. A potential customer can be easily discouraged by a credit administrator's strong questioning about financial background. Utilizing the business development officers as an intermediary reduces the fear of many applicants about the credit approval process. Thus, a sales focus is maintained throughout the recruitment and loan application process.

Internally at First Community Financial there is a continual pressure between the business development staff and the credit committee. The business development staff is focused on bringing in new clients. Their compensation is in large part dependent on how many deals they can execute for the company. Like sales staff in any industry, they are aggressive and always look for new markets for business. The sales staff sells products from both the finance department and the factoring department, so they must interact with credit officers from each division. In each of these groups are credit administrators specifically responsible for ensuring that potential deals meet the lending criteria of the organization. While the business development officer's orientation is to bring in more and more deals, the credit administrator's primary goal is to limit bad loans.

The pressure develops when business development officers bring in potential loans that are rejected by the credit administrators. Since the business development officers have some experience understanding the credit risks of their clients, they often understand the policy reasoning for denying or approving a loan. The business development officers have additional concerns that their loans that have potential to be financed are approved because many of the referral sources of the sales staff will only refer deals to companies that are lending. If First Community fails to help many of a bank's referral clients, that source of business may dry up, as bankers refer deals to other lending institutions.

These structural differences are handled by focused attempts at improving communication. As noted before, the First Community staff experiences an extremely low turnover rate. This allows for the development of a cohesive team. With a cohesive staff, the opportunity to maintain frank and open communication helps bridge the different orientations of the sales staff and the administration divisions. A simple philosophy that the opinions of all staff are to be respected is continually implemented.

Since approving a loan is often a policy decision, the sales staff and the loan administrators can have an open forum to discuss whether a loan will be approved. CEO Jim Adamany approves all loans, but since he values the opinions of all of his staff, he provides them all an opportunity to communicate. Issues such as the loan history for an applicant's industry, current bank loan policies, and other factors can be openly discussed from multiple perspectives.

Review Questions

1. What coordinative mechanisms does First Community use to manage the potential conflict between its sales and finance/auditing functions?
2. What qualities should First Community emphasize in hiring new staff to ensure that its functional organizational structure will not yield too many problems?
3. What are the key types of information transfer that First Community needs to emphasize, and how is this transmitted throughout the firm?
4. 4. Why might a small finance company have such a simple structure while a larger firm might find this structure inappropriate?

CASE 17 Mission Management and Trust

Developed by Marcus Osborn, RSR Partners

With more than 500 business and political leaders in attendance from' across the state of Arizona, CEO Carmen Bermudez of Mission Management and Trust accepted the prestigious ATHENA Award. The ATHENA, which is presented by the Arizona Chamber of Commerce, is annually awarded to companies that have a demonstrated track record in promoting women's issues within their company and the community. The 50-pound bronze statue that was presented to Mission Management and Trust was particularly special for the company's leadership because it was a tangible demonstration of their commitment to the community and to women's issues.

Mission Management and Trust is a small, newly formed company of just eight employees that has already made great headway in an industry that is dominated by giant corporations. When it began, Mission was the first minority-and women-owned trust company in the nation.

The trust management industry provides services to individuals, organizations, and companies who want their assets managed and protected by specialized outside firms. Mission Management provides personal service to its customers at a level of sophistication that is unusual for a firm of its small size. Understanding that the trust management business is highly competitive, Mission developed a unique strategy that highlighted socially conscious policies combined with good business relations.

When the company was formed, it was created with more than the goal of just making a profit. Founder Carmen Bermúdez started Mission with three principal goals in mind. “1. To run a top-quality trust company; 2. To promote within the company and, by example, increase opportunities for women and minorities; and 3. To donate a portion of all revenue to charitable projects supported by clients and staff”. As these statements demonstrate, Mission Management and Trust was created with a specific purpose that was focused not just on the business of trust management but on the responsibility of being a good corporate citizen.

Even with these lofty goals, Mission faced the problem of finding clients who not only wanted quality services but were not hindered by some of the potential sacrifices a socially conscious investment company might make. Many investors want a high rate of return for their trusts, and social policy is of a much lesser concern. This was not the market Mission wanted to address, so it had to be selective in developing a client base.

Mission needed to find clients that fit its social philosophy about investing and corporate responsibility. The ideal customers would be individuals and organizations that were committed to socially conscious policies and wanted an investment strategy that reflected this commitment. Mission found a perfect niche in the market with religious institutions. Churches and other civic organizations across the nation have trusts that they use to fund special projects and maintain operating expenses. They need effective service, but in many cases these organizations must be mindful of investing in companies and other projects that do not reflect their ideals. For example, a trust company that invests in companies in the highly profitable liquor and cigarette industries would not be consistent with the philosophy of many religious organizations. Mission services this niche by developing an organization that is structurally designed to make socially conscious decisions.

Mission has already begun to meet one of its principal goals, which is to donate a portion of its profits to charities. It donated $4,500 to causes ranging from Catholic Community Services to the Jewish Community Center scholarship program. These donations not only fulfill a goal of the organization but assist in the socially conscious client recruitment. Mission's target client base will find Mission a much more attractive trust company because of its charity programs. A religious organization can be comforted with the reality that some of the dollars it spends on trust management will be recycled into causes it promotes itself. The Mission policy makes good social policy, but it also makes good marketing sense. Understanding your clients is crucial to developing a small business, and Mission has mastered this principle.

Mission makes the most of its commitment to charitable causes by keeping its clients informed about the trust's activities and, more importantly, its community activities. The Mission Bell, a regular publication of Mission Management and Trust, details news and issues about the trust industry, company activities, and, most importantly, how Mission's social responsibility philosophy is being implemented. The name Mission Bell is more consistent with a religious publication than a corporate investing sheet, but it is consistent with its clients' needs. The name of the publication and its content clarifies Mission's role and purpose. For example, the Mission Bell summer issue presented articles on new hires, breaking investment news, and an article about how Mission is working with other groups to support socially responsible corporate investing. Thus, the Mission philosophy is clearly defined in its marketing and communication strategies.

To be consistent with the goals of the organizations, Carmen Bermudez collected a small staff of highly experienced individuals whose backgrounds and principles fit Mission's ideals. She frequently comments that the best business decision she ever made was “giving preference to intelligent, talented, compatible people whose main attribute was extensive experience”. Mission employees are not just experts in the field of finance but leaders in their communities. These dual qualifications fulfill three important requirements that are crucial for the company's success. First, community involvement creates an appreciation of the investment sensitivities that are required by the organizations that Mission services. Second, individuals who are involved in the community have well-developed contacts that can be useful in business recruitment. Finally, socially active employees are committed to the purpose of the organization and help unify the corporate culture within Mission.

The Mission case is a clear example of how matching a philosophy with a market can bear solid results. Mission's commitment to its ideals is evident and reflected in all of its business practices. When human resources, investing, marketing, and strategic planning decisions are made with unified goals in mind, the chances are good that a strong, successful corporate culture will develop.

Review Questions

1. How do the mission elements of Mission Management differ from most firms?
2. Does donating to charity before the firm is fully established mean that Mission is not demonstrating financial prudence?
3. Could Mission's unique mission contribute to effective coordination as well as adjustment to the market?
4. Would Mission's unique mission still yield success with more traditional investors?