1.1 Maps: Our Spatial Compass

Maps are ubiquitous and can record a sense of place in life. Maps situate the reader to a location on Earth through cardinal points of a compass providing the direction in space. Stephen Hall (2004) assumed that we travel with maps “neatly folded and tucked away in the glove compartment of memory”; we orient ourselves back and forth between time and landscapes, emotion and geography, and it all happens in the span of a few moments (p. 15). In fact, three-dimensional compass cells have been identified in bats, used to perform complex flight without disorientation (Finkelstein et al., 2015, p. 159). Costandi (2014) summarized research that suggests all mammals, which likely include humans, have head-direction cells or an internal global positioning system used to create these mental maps of the environment. Aber (2012) found that with short exposures to a novel place, individuals can recall the spatial layout of an environment to some degree, with a few capable of creating an incredibly accurate mental map of the space. Consequently, maps play a role in the place in which we were raised and reside, serving as our internal spatial compass.

Maps are pervasive and people rely on numerous types of maps daily. Maps are produced in print or electronic formats, accessed in print books and single sheets or via mobile phone and computer devices. Planimetric or topographic maps may be used for navigation. Reading and interpreting maps help to create a route to travel from point A to B, whether driving unfamiliar roads or hiking over new trails. Likewise, interpreting digital data via electronic maps in real-time helps to anticipate traffic delays and predict changing weather conditions. Professional politicians might study past voting patterns on choropleth maps or cartograms while observing data on electronic maps showing present election results as polling stations report. Geologic maps are used to locate and interpret rock layers and tectonic structures when prospecting for valuable natural resources from coal to diamonds.

More recently, humans in the wake of natural disasters have benefited with quicker disaster response when participating volunteers come together to monitor social media channels and share information regarding infrastructure destruction and human-injury levels. These efforts result in maps, which provide emergency aid officials with valued current, yet ephemeral, information for a focused response. Subsequently, maps have become second nature. This is especially true when accessing and displaying mobile, electronic versions.

In Oct. 2013, American politicians disrupted our traditional spatial compass. The Legislature forced a Federal Government shutdown by refusing to pass a national budget for 16 days in order to stop implementation of legislation that created affordable health care insurance opportunities (The White House, Office of Management and Budget, 2013; Roberts, 2013). This political tactic cut off the world’s access to one of the primary sources for maps and geospatial data by closing nearly all of the United States Geological Survey (USGS), the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA), and other federally funded science groups (Rosenberg, 2013). The only USGS web sites remaining online were those deemed necessary to protect lives including maps of disease, earthquakes, volcanoes, erosional hazards, landslide hazards, geomagnetism, and water, see Figure 1.1. Likewise, NOAA maintained some capability for weather forecasts and warnings, while NASA satellites currently in orbit were allowed to operate (Freedman, 2013).

These same legislators went even further and restricted access to information and data at the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C. However, in the nation’s capital, the mayor declared public libraries and librarians as essential, and the District of Columbia libraries defied the restrictions and remained open (Chant, 2013; DeBonis, 2013). In addition, some private companies, such as the Environmental Systems Research Institute (Esri), continued to provide access to existing federal government geospatial data resources through ArcGIS Online (Szukalski, 2013). Although our use of maps is so natural, the right to free access of maps, information, and data is in fact a privilege, which can be taken away.

Nevertheless, the value of mapping natural disasters by volunteers using social media has driven change in access and map making. In the past, printed or electronic maps were created using traditional geographic methods, where one map maker or professional cartographer created the finished map used by many. Now, maps may be produced with crowdsourced, shared data, and a new geographic method (Goodchild & Glennon, 2010). This participatory cartography, or NeoCartography, is where many come together to create one map.

These grassroots efforts and the need to bypass disruptions in the public’s access to maps and data have reinforced the value of libraries and the role librarians can play. Many libraries serve as Federal Depositories of print maps and may have created resource collections and services that included access to electronic maps and spatial data. However, not all librarians have map and geography educational backgrounds and may benefit by gaining a higher level of geo-literacy to be effective. If librarians have content knowledge, then they can adopt a collection development policy that promotes geography and cartography resources and creates effective instructional services.

1.2 What is Geography?

Geography as a word has its origins in the Greek scholar Eratosthenes' writings (Roller, 2010). It combines "geo," meaning Earth and "graphy," which refers to art or science and the process or form of representing and describing, or in other words, writing about the Earth. While some assume that geography is a field concerned with memorizing political capitals, in reality it is a holistic approach to studying Earth and the people living there. Geography is considered to have four traditional areas of study: the spatial tradition, analyzing where things are; the area studies tradition, looking at what makes regions distinct; the earth science tradition, which covers many natural topics of geology, hydrology, atmospheric studies, etc.; and the man-land tradition, which looks at links between the natural and human-built environments (Pattison, 1990). This last tradition has become more and more important in recent decades as we increasingly come to understand the impact our actions have on the environment.

These four traditions together cover a great deal of human understanding of the world, which suits geography’s holistic approach to knowledge well. For example, a geographer would not look at the natural component of a mountain without considering how those elements are affected by those who live on the mountain; likewise, a geographic study of the people living on the mountain would be incomplete without considering the impact of the natural environment on their lives. These traditional geographic approaches are visible through the multitude of techniques and topics on display in maps.

Cartography is the study and tradition of map making. A cartographer makes maps by combining geographic data with scientific, technical, and artistic principles of that time period to model and communicate visual, spatial information. Although traditional map making is being superseded by digital technologies, crowd-sourcing methods, and cloud storage/retrieval, there is merit in reviewing the early tangible map-making techniques using formats from rock to paper. A brief historic summary follows. For more information, refer to: The History of Cartography Series, a definitive collection of articles with global coverage (Harley & Woodward, 1987, 1992, 1994; Woodward & Lewis, 1998; Woodward, 2007; Monmonier, 2015). Two additional volumes are forthcoming in The History of Cartography Series, Cartography in the European Enlightenment, volume 4, by Edney & Pedley (Eds.) and Cartography in the Nineteenth Century, volume 5, by Kain (Ed.). Other bibliographies include Ristow (1997) and Karrow (1997).

1.3 Historic Progression of Maps and Cartographers

Discussions on the history of maps and cartography usually begin with ancient civilizations some 4 millennia in the past when maps were preserved on Babylonian clay tablets (Dilke, 1987). Yet, some consider the earliest map examples to be traced back 8–12 millennia and are those carved on rock or painted murals on walls (Barras, 2013; Choi & Brahic, 2009; Clarke, 2013; Meese, 2006; Siebold, n.d.; UNESCO, 1979; Utrilla, Mazo, Sopena, Martínez-Bea, & Domingo, 2009) (see Fig. 1.2). Regardless of the age, dissemination of the map was limited given fixed geographic locations of rock outcrops and buildings. As map making progressed from carvings on rocks to etchings on clay tablets, cartographers also advanced from hand-carved or hand-drawn maps to reusable map printing methods. Thus, printing techniques and lighter-weight formats increased dissemination as materials used for making maps went beyond a fixed stone or wall.

Woodblock printing was introduced in China as early as the 8th century, and the movable type printing press began in Europe by the 15th century; both of these are effective techniques for printing and reproducing text and images, see Figure 1.3 (Klooster, 2009; Temple, 2007). These improved methods for creating and printing maps were obvious advantages for dissemination, over rock and clay. Woodblock printing, common by the 13th century, gave way to copper-engraved sheets and plates by the 16th century, see Figure 1.4. This modification allowed maps to be more detailed and easier to reprint from the reusable metal sheets that could be hammered and re-engraved if changes were needed (Woodward, 1975, 2007). In fact, the copper-engraved plate for map printing was state-of-the-art for some 300 years until recently (Fitzgerald, 2002; Evans & Frye, 2009; Woodward, 2007).

The trend today is moving from print-based map making to film or digital-based cartographic methods. In fact, the main American mapping agency, USGS, discarded their historic copper and steel engraving sheets and plates in 2014, in favor of digital map making, storage, and printing (Newell & Domaratz, 2015; Morais, 2014).

As each method for map printing changed, the materials used evolved as well, from papyrus, parchment, silk, linen, hand-made or machine-made paper to synthetic film and on to digital data images (Brandt-Grau & Forde, 2000). Just as map-making methods and materials evolved, so did the role of cartographer, who was both the map-making professional as well as the printer, who engraved metal plates and combined ink with moveable metal type using a mechanical press.

According to the Occupational Outlook Handbook, the job of a cartographer today is primarily a profession in teaching and research (Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, 2014a). The cartographer role as map maker works with surveyors and photogrammetrists (Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, 2014b). The entry for printer is no longer a specialized profession, but as a print worker technician who can “operate laser plate-making equipment that converts electronic data to plates”; the worker is expected to “calibrate color settings on printers, identify and fix problems with printing equipment” (Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, 2014c). Just as the cartography professional has changed focus, the printer usually refers to an electronic machine, not a person in a professional career.

The advent of digital map making and printing arrived in the latter half of the 20th century, with the last decade being the tipping point. In “early 1990s, nearly all maps were distributed on paper,” and by the end of the decade, more maps were transmitted through the Internet than printed on paper (Peterson, 2014, pp. 1, 12).

In the early 2000s, web development advances created the Geoweb Revolution (Dangermond, 2009; Haklay, Singleton, & Parker, 2008). The GeoWeb led Goodchild (2007) to propose the term Volunteered Geographic Information when describing nonexpert citizens who create, assemble, and disseminate geographic information using web services and digital sources without the use of Geographic Information Systems or GIS. By 2010, Penn State Public Broadcasting summarized the power of digital mapping with the online project, Geospatial Revolution (PennState, 2010). Penn State offered a free, online course, Maps and the Geospatial Revolution (PennState, 2016). These rapid changes herald a new perspective on map formats and map-making methods or a new geography and cartography that expanded the definition of geo-literacy.

1.4 What Are NeoGeography and NeoCartography?

NeoGeography is a recent term that describes the divisions between traditional geographic roles of subject, producer, communicator, and consumer blurring together (Goodchild, 2009). Where traditional geographic work involved a more regimented hierarchy between these factors, NeoGeography leverages technological and social changes since the turn of the century to allow consumers to be subjects, producers, and communicators all at once. This movement has been made possible largely by the power of the Internet, where most NeoGeographic activity takes place (Rana & Joliveau, 2009). The empowering of users through geospatially enabled technologies such as Global Positioning Systems (GPS), the Internet, and user-friendly cartography tools has allowed for those without formal training to become involved in a broad range of NeoGeographic activities (Clark, 2008). One factor that sets NeoGeography apart from traditional geography is that its practitioners are often not geographers by training; instead, they come from technology and engineering fields which are already deeply involved in online and mobile development. This has created a discrepancy or disconnect, as traditional geographers come from an academic world built on peer-review, whereas many NeoGeographers come from a more entrepreneurial technology background (Rana & Joliveau, 2009).

NeoCartography technologies are the flip side of the NeoGeography coin, providing a visual platform for individuals to present and analyze their work (Monmonier, 2013). Like NeoGeography, many individuals involved in Neocartography lack a background in cartographic work. Their efforts often involve open-source data and GIS/cartography technologies (Commission on Neocartography, 2011–2015). These include platforms such as OpenStreetMap, Google Maps and Earth, Mapbox, and more coding-centric web platforms like D3, jQuery, and Leaflet. Other data sources include social media content, such as public Twitter and Facebook feeds.

One example of this divide between traditional geography and cartography and their Neo- equivalents can be seen in Google’s Earth and Maps products. Traditionally, maps are treated as arbiters of truth and reality, serving as authoritative sources of knowledge about topics like borders and place names. With a global audience, Google’s products pragmatically deviate from this tradition by inviting users to participate in knowledge production and tailoring knowledge to local audiences rather than presenting one single vision of the world (McLaughlin, 2008). In practice this means that borders and place names may change on the map depending on where they are accessed. For example, the boundaries of the contested Kashmir region located between India, Pakistan, and China are drawn differently in Google Maps depending on the origin of a user’s IP address (Dominguez, Hurt, Wezerek, & Zhu, 2014). The Crimean peninsula is another contested territory whose borders change depending on whether you are viewing Maps from the United States, Russia, or Ukraine.

The existence of multiple truths for different audiences may be a pragmatic move on Google’s part in terms of not upsetting local populations, and therefore being allowed to continue to do business in nations such as China, but it deviates from geographic and cartographic convention. It also leads to tensions between nations and in some cases has inflamed existing international conflicts (Gravois, 2010). Naturally, this issue is larger than Google’s specific practices and speaks to the interconnected nature of human existence today, but it also highlights some of the modern challenges that NeoGeography, NeoCartography, and their practitioners face.

A good example of the positive influence of NeoGeography and NeoCartography is what is known as crisis mapping. In online crisis mapping, volunteers search and process data collected from individuals via mobile phone, e-mail, and social networks such as Facebook and Twitter; then place the information into an online mapping interface. The information presented as a map mashup of multiple data sources could be produced a continent away, yet still communicate what is most urgent for local responders. The immediate consumers of this geographic information are disaster-relief workers, provided with exact coordinates to direct them where to go and images to prepare them for what to expect. An example is the rapid response teams from the GIS Corps who mapped the human impact of a massive 2013 typhoon on islands in the Philippines (Joyce Monsees, personal communication, Nov. 11, 2013).

These practices have had a direct, positive impact on human lives through disaster response. Our past and present reliance on print and digital maps, as well as geospatial technology to navigate and communicate, extends locally to globally in both scope and purpose. This underscores the fact that we are immersed in a global geospatial revolution that is ubiquitous and invaluable. Crisis mapping efforts exemplify NeoGeography, the blending of communicator and consumer.

1.5 Historic Progression of Map Librarianship

Given the long history of cartography, map caretakers likely existed for millennia. However, map librarianship as a professional Library and Information Science (LIS) career track is a 20th-century phenomenon. The demand for map library collections and librarians was evident with improved map making and printing techniques as well as greater interest in geography given two World Wars, ease of travel, and globalization of information and business. What really filled most library collections was the plethora of military maps created by 1945. This was followed by an enormous volume of print maps resulting from the USGS program to map the nation with large-scale maps at a 1:24,000 scale produced from 1947 to 1992 (Cooley, Davis, Fishburn, Lestinsky, & Moore, 2011). This U.S. topographic map series was distributed for free to all designated libraries participating in the Federal Depository Library program (Federal Depository Library Program, 2013). Knowledgeable map librarians were needed to classify and catalog these collections and help patrons, since public access to maps in depository libraries is required by the government (Federal Depository Library Program, 2014). Although there were exceptions of some academic libraries, these map collections were rarely classified and cataloged, which was primarily due to a scarcity of LIS map courses and librarians who were trained in map cataloging.

Without geo-literacy, librarians lack experience and have treated maps as the problem children of the collection. This was the belief of Walter Ristow who passed away in 2006 at age 97. He has been called the most influential figure in U.S. map librarianship. While Ristow was a prolific map librarian scholar and did much to advance the field, librarians were slow to provide needed technical, reference, and instructional services in the library. Historically, Larsgaard (1998) explained that "in the early 1900s, most spatial-data collections were administered by persons with varied academic and professional backgrounds, few of whom had any professional training in library science" (p. 297). Larsgaard believed that these librarians became caretakers who were expected to develop, describe, classify, and catalog map and geospatial collections that refused to conform to the traditional procedures in cataloging and filing for text-based books and journals, with the exception of an atlas.

Ristow (1980) suggested difficulties in processing and promoting did not lie with the maps but rather a lack of parental understanding. Larsgaard (1998) affirmed this when she described how librarians often gained the title of map librarian in the late 20th century, as “anyone who became ‘stuck with the maps’ (and it was often so expressed) either was lowest on the totem pole, or had made the mistake of not being at the meeting where the issue was decided" (p. 298). These fortuitous map librarians were tasked with caring for spatial-data collections, but likely had neither geoscience educational background nor a formal introductory course specific to map resources and services as library students.

1.6 What Is NeoMap Librarianship?

Today, the demand is for the geo-literate librarian who would combine knowledge of basic map and spatial-data concepts with a solid background in instruction services, reference services, collection development, classification schemes, and cataloging systems. This is NeoMap Librarianship. It would include both traditional map and the new geospatial librarians who vary in the level of geo-literacy, but coexist in the 21st century. Librarians are living the global geospatial revolution as they interact with the world of geospatially enabled technologies, the Internet, and user-friendly cartography tools. As such, in spite of some librarians lacking formal background in geography and cartography, these NeoMap Librarians may be proficient using web-mapping tools, open-source data, and GIS technologies. Virtual globe, map, satellite imagery, and aerial photography are being heralded as poster children of Web 2.0 by Patrick McGlamery, a seasoned academic map librarian, who used Google Map and Google Earth as examples (as cited in Abresch, Hanson, Heron, & Reehling, 2008, p. ix). It is the NeoMap Librarian who may turn map resources from problem children to valued resource collections.

NeoMap Librarianship is defined in part through job advertisements. Job descriptions can be specific to map cataloging or acquisitions specialist for Sanborn Fire Insurance maps. However, other job announcements call for a geospatial librarian, listing qualifications such as a graduate degree in a geoscience-related discipline and academic background plus demonstrated abilities in GIS. These qualifications are in addition to or in lieu of the Master in Library Science (MLS) from an American Library Association or ALA-accredited LIS degree program.

Prior to 1945, approximately 30 libraries had full-time map librarians (Hanson & Heron, 2008, p. 96). Today, the Map and Geospatial Information Round Table (MAGIRT), a professional map librarian organization under the ALA has nearly 300 members as of Dec. 2014 (MAGIRT, 1996–2016; J. Clemons, personal communication, Feb. 26, 2015). In 2008, the first technical textbook devoted to integrating GIS into academic library services was written by Abresch et al. (2008), all of whom are librarians with geography and cataloging specialty backgrounds. Like-minded, Eva Dodsworth (2012) believed that library professionals should upgrade geo-literacy skills; she wrote the first book to teach GIS and mapping skills to non-GIS librarians. She described her book as a “training package for all library staff interested in gaining the most up-to-date and relevant mapping skills” (Dodsworth, 2012, p. xi).

This book strives to provide a pragmatic guide written for the community of LIS students and working librarians who want to reach a higher level of geo-literacy. This book may inform the community of geography and geospatial savvy graduates to better understand how their knowledge could be enhanced with library skills to meet the job description expectations for working in libraries. As NeoGeography and NeoCartography have become commonplace, it is time library school programs support NeoMap Librarianship and join the Geospatial Revolution.