1.1

Brainstorming is a technique that is most needed when there is a deficiency in the plant role in the group/team (see Part V, Section R Team Roles, paragraph 1.3). It is perhaps the commonest technique used and is also the most self‐evident. Nevertheless, there are a few basic rules that must be followed if it is to be truly effective. Try to limit the number of people present to a manageable group – probably no more than eight to ten.

1. The problem or issue to be addressed, together with the objective of the session, should be written up on a board or flip chart so that it is clear for everyone to see.
2. Allow a few minutes for people to get their thoughts together.
3. Generate as large a number of ideas as possible. Build on each other's ideas.
4. Record and number all ideas and keep them visible. An appointed scribe is not allowed to change any of the words that have been suggested.
5. Everyone must be given an equal chance to participate in an unrestricted manner. This can be carried out in two ways:
   1. The structured approach is where everyone contributes an idea in turn. A ‘pass’ is acceptable if no idea comes easily to mind. This method encourages everyone to participate and stops a few people from dominating the process. It can, however, create pressure to contribute.
   2. An unstructured and more relaxed approach allows everyone to contribute as ideas come to mind. However, it risks domination by the most vocal team members.
   3. A combination of both methods may generate the most ideas. Use a structured approach until ideas start to dry up, and then use an unstructured process to capture all the remaining ideas.
6. No evaluation of ideas is carried out at this stage since it will slow down the process.
7. Most importantly of all: no criticism is allowed of other people's ideas.

1.2

After a list of ideas has been generated, the team should select some of the most significant ideas by using the following steps.

1. Make sure everyone understands each idea on the list in the same way.
2. Eliminate duplicates.
3. Combine items of a similar nature in a manner that the authors of the original items can agree to.
4. Select the top ideas using a voting system (see Section H Prioritising Techniques).

2.1

Frequently, it is necessary to collect data to enable the team to analyse a problem. A check sheet is a form for recording data. However, before designing the check sheet, it is necessary to determine the following.

1. Firstly, what will be proved or disproved by collecting data?
2. What specific data are to be collected? How much is required?
3. What is the source of the data? How much historical data is needed?
4. Who should record the data?
5. Over what time period should the data be collected?

2.2

An example might be to determine why orders are placed late. In this situation the X axis of our check box would be the various stages in the ordering process from producing the requisition, agreeing the tender list, placing the enquiry, answering tenderers' questions, evaluating tenders, and so on until eventually placing orders. On the Y axis would be a list of the various departments. A check mark is then placed in the box for any department that is late with their input to a particular stage of the process. At the bottom of the sheet there would be an indication that the data was collected from time period a to time period b.

2.3

An advantage of check sheets is that specific data such as date, time period, or duration does not need to be recorded. In the above example, just a tick that someone was late.

3.1

Line Graphs: These are generally used to present data over a period of time in order to indicate a trend in the characteristic being measured. The classic project example is the use of ‘S’ curves.

3.2

Pie Charts: These generally show how a fixed amount is distributed or used for different purposes.

3.3

Bar Charts/Graphs: These can either be horizontal or vertical bars, with the units being measured on one axis and time measured on the other axis (usually the X axis).

3.4

Histograms (vertical bars): These show the frequency of actual measurements (on the Y axis) in equal groups of measurements (on the X axis).

3.5

Pareto Diagrams: These are a special form of the vertical bar chart or histogram where the groups of measurements are arranged in descending order from left to right. The exception is the group of measurement classified as ‘other’ that, if used, is always positioned on the far right of the diagram (even when it is not the smallest of all the groups).

4.1

This is the most complex diagram, but it is fairly straightforward to construct. Draw a horizontal arrow (left to right) with a rectangle at the right‐hand end. The effect (problem or issue) is written in the box. See Figure VI.K.1.

4.2

The major categories of possible causes are then connected to the line from above and below. As a starting point use the 4 M's: materials, method (process), manpower (people) and machines (equipment). Use other categories, such as environment, if necessary.

4.3

Brainstorm possible causes of the effect and write them on the diagram under the relevant category.

4.4

Using the experience and capability of the team, determine/identify the most likely cause. It may then be necessary to collect and analyse data in order to verify the cause.

5.1

Write the subject/problem/issue/proposition to be addressed at the top of a sheet of flip chart paper. Divide the sheet in half with a vertical line. The vertical line represents the present situation and the extreme right hand side of the sheet represents the desired outcome. See Figure VI.K.2.

5.2

The left‐hand side is titled ‘Positive’ for recording the positive forces that help us to achieve our objective. The right‐hand side is titled ‘Negative’ for recording the forces working against our ability to achieve the desired outcome.

5.3

Brainstorm all the issues that are in favour of the proposition and assess/decide whether they are large, medium, or small forces contributing to the desired outcome. Draw large, medium, or small arrows (left to right), and label them accordingly.

5.4

Similarly, brainstorm all the negative forces preventing you from achieving your objective with large, medium, or small arrows from right to left.

5.5

Firstly, select each of the small positive forces in turn. Then get the group to work on how to increase the perceived size of these forces (one could, perhaps, use a cause‐and‐effect diagram for this process).

5.6

Secondly, select in turn, each of the large negative forces and work on how to reduce/mitigate the issues working against you in achieving your desired outcome.

5.7

If necessary, work on the medium‐sized forces in a similar manner.