^[61] Brian Mahoney, "Now That's an Odd Bounce: Stern Reverts to Leather Ball," Columbus Dispatch (December 12, 2006).

^[62] For a general overview. See Jay W. Lorsch (ed.), Handbook of Organizational Behavior (Englewood Cliffs. NJ: Prentice Hall, 1987); and, Julian Barling, Cary Li Cooper, Stewart Clegg (Eds.), the Sage Handbook of Organizational Behavior: Volumes l and 2 (San Francisco, CA: sage, 2009).

^[63] Jeffrey Pfeffer and Robert I. Sutton, Hard Facts, Dangerous Half-Truths, and Total Nonsense: Profiting from Evidence-Based Management (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2006). See also Jeffrey Pfeffer and Robert I. Sutton, "Management Half-Truths and Nonsense," California Management Review 48.3, (2006), pp. 77–100; and Jeffrey Pfeffer and Robert I. Sutton, Evidence-Based Management, Harvard Business Review (January, 2006), R0601E.

^[64] Geert Hofslede. "Cultural Constraints in Management Theories," Academy of Management Executive 7 (1993), pp. 81–94.

^[65] John Huey, "Managing in the Midst of Chaos," Fortune (April 5, 1993), pp. 38–18. See also Tom Peters, Thriving on Chaos (New York: Knopf, 1991); Jay R. Galbraith, Edward E. Lawler III, and Associates, Organizing for the Future: The New Logic for Managing Organizations (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1993); William H. Davidow and Michael S. Malone, The Virtual Corporation: Structuring and Revitalizing the Corporation of the 21st Century (New York HarperBusiness, 1993); Charles Handy, The Age of Unreason (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1994); Peter Drucker, Managing in a Time of Great Change (New York: Truman Talley, 1995); Peter Drucker, Management Challenges for the 21st Century (New York: Harper, 1999).

^[66] For historical foundations see Jay A. Conger, Winning 'Em Over: A New Model for Managing in the Age of Persuasion (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998), pp. 180–181; Stewart D. Friedman, Perry Christensen, and Jessica DeGroot, "Work and Life: The End of the Zero-Sum Game," Harvard Business Review (November/December 1998), pp. 119–129; C. Argyris, "Empowerment: The Emperor's New Clothes," Harvard Business Review (May/June 1998), pp. 98–105.

^[67] Robert B. Reich, "The Company of the Future," Fast Company (November 1998), p. 124ff.

^[68] For more on mission statements see Patricia Jones and Larry Kahaner, "Say It and Live It: The 50 Corporate Mission Statements That Hit the Mark" (New York: Currency/Doubleday, 1995); John Graham and Wendy Havlick, Mission Statements: A Guide to the Corporate and Nonprofit Sectors (New York: Garland, 1995).

^[69] James C. Collins and Jerry L. Porras, "Building Your Company's Vision," Harvard Business Review (September/October 1996), pp. 65–77.

^[70] These mission statements and others are found on corporate Web sites.

^[71] See Michel E. Porter, Competitive Strategy Techniques for Analyzing Industries and Competitors (New York: Free Press, 1980); Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance (New York: Free Press, 1986); Gary Hamel and C. K. Prahalad, "Strategic Intent," Harvard Business Review (May/June 1989), pp. 63–76; Richard A. D'Aveni, Hyper Competition: Managing the Dynamics of Strategic Managing (New York: Free Press, 1994).

^[72] Edgar Schein, Organizational Culture and Leadership, 2nd ed. (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1997); Edgar Schein, The Corporate Culture Survival Guide (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1999). See also Terrence E. Daeal and Alan A. Kennedy, Corporate Cultures: The Rites and Rituals of Corporate Life (Reading, MA: Addison Wesley, 1982).

^[73] Rajiv Dutta, "eBay's Meg Whitman on Building a Company's Culture." BusinessWeek (March 27, 2009): www.businessweek.com.

^[74] Roger O. Crockett, "How P&G Finds—And Keeps—A Prized Workforce," BusinessWeek (April 20, 2009), p. 55.

^[75] Ibid.

^[76] See the OCI and other resources at www.humansynergistics.com.

^[77] Robert A. Cooke and J. L Szurnal, "Measuring Normative Beliefs and Shared Behavioral Expectations in Organizations: The Reliability and Validity of the Organizational Culture Inventory," Psychological Reports 72 (1993), pp. 1299–1330.

^[78] Ibid; Robert A. Cooke and J. L. Szurnal, "Using the Organizational Culture Inventory to Understand the Operating Cultures of Organizations," in N. M. Ashkanasy, C. P. M. Wilerom, and M. F. Peterson (eds.), Handbook of Organizational Culture and Climate (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2000), pp. 147–162.

^[79] A baseline report on diversity in the American workplace is Workforce 2000: Work and Workers in the 21st Century (Indianapolis: Hudson Institute, 1987). For comprehensive discussions see Martin M. Chemers, Stuart Oskamp, and Mark A. Costanzo, Diversity in Organization: New Perspectives for a Changing Workplace (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1995); Robert T. Golembiewski, Managing Diversity in Organizations (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1995).

^[80] See Taylor Cox Jr., "The Multicultural Organization," Academy of Management Executive 5 (1991), pp. 34–47; Cultural Diversity in Organizations: Theory, Research and Practice (San Francisco: Bernett-Koehler, 1993).

^[81] R. Roosevelt Thomas Jr., Beyond Race and Gender (New York: AMACOM, 1992), p. 10; see also R. Roosevelt Thomas Jr., "From 'Affirmative Action' to 'Affirming Diversity,'" Harvard Business Review (November/December 1990), pp. 107–117; R. Roosevelt Thomas Jr., with Marjorie I. Woodruff, Building a House for Diversity (New York: AMACOM, 1999).

^[82] "In CEO pay, Another Gender Gap," BusinessWeek (November 24, 2008), p. 22; "The View from the Kitchen Table," Newsweek (January 26, 2009), p. 29; and, Del Jones, "Women Slowly Gain on Men," USA Today (January 2, 2009), p. 6B; Catalyst research reports at www.catalyst.org; "Nicking the Glass Ceiling," BusinessWeek (June 9, 2009), p. 18.

^[83] We're Getting Old," The Wall Street Journal (March 26, 2009), p. D2; and Les Christie, "Hispanic Population Boom Fuels Rising U.S. Diversity," CnnMoney: www.cnn.com; and Betsy Towner, "The New Face of 50+ America," AARP Bulletin (June, 2009), p. 31. See also U.S. Census Bureau reports at www.factfinder.census.gov.

^[84] Cox, op. cit.; Thomas, 1990, 1992, op. cit.

^[85] Thomas and Woodruff (1991).

^[86] See Thomas and Woodruff, op. cit; Thomas, 1990, 1992, op. cit.

^[87] "In CEO Pay, another Gender gap, "op. cit.; Jones, op. cit.; Catalyst, op. cit.

^[88] William M. Bulkeley, "Xerox Names Burns Chief as Mulcahy Retires Early," The Wall Street Journal (May 22, 2009), pp. B1, B2.

^[89] For more on the management process, see John R. Schermerhorn Jr., Management, 10th ed. (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2010).

^[90] The review is from Henry Mintzberg, The Nature of Managerial Work (New York: Harper & Row, 1973). For related and further developments, see Morgan W. McCall Jr., Ann M. Morrison, and Robert L. Hannan, Studies of Managerial Work: Results and Methods, Technical Report No. 9 (Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership, 1978); John P. Kotter, The General Managers (New York: Free Press, 1982); Fred Luthans, Stuart Rosenkrantz, and Harry Hennessey, "What Do Successful Managers Really Do?" Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 21.2 (1985), pp. 255–270; Robert E. Kaplan, The Warp and Woof of the General Manager's Job, Technical Report No. 27 (Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership, 1986); Fred Luthans, Richard M. Hodgetts, and Stuart A. Rosenkrantz, Real Managers (New York: HarperCollins, 1988).

^[91] Mintzberg (1973). See also Henry Mintzberg, Mintzberg on Management (New York: Free Press, 1989); "Rounding Out the Manager's Job," Sloan Management Review (Fall 1994), pp. 11–26.

^[92] Kotter (1982), "What Effective General Managers Really Do," Harvard Business Review 60 (November/December 1982), p. 161. See Kaplan (1986).

^[93] Herminia Ibarra, "Managerial Networks," Teaching Note: 9-495-039, Harvard Business School Publishing, Boston, MA.

^[94] Robert L. Katz, "Skills of an Effective Administrator, Harvard Business Review 52 (September/October 1974), p. 94. See also Richard E. Royatzis, The Competent Manager: A Model for Effective Performance (New York: Wiley, 1982).

^[95] Daniel Goleman, Emotional Intelligence (New York: Bantam, 1995); Daniel Goleman, Working with Emotional Intelligence (New York: Bantam, 1998). See also Daniel Goleman "What Makes a Leader," Harvard Business Review (November/December 1998), pp. 93–102; and "Leadership That Makes a Difference," Harvard Business Review (March/April 2000), pp. 79–90, quote from p. 80.

^[96] Archie B. Carroll, "In Search of the Moral Manager," Business Horizons (March/April 2001), pp. 7–15.

^[97] Mahzarin R. Banagji, Max H. Bazerman, and Dolly Chugh, "How (Un)ethical are You?" Harvard Business Review (December 2003).

^[98] Terry Thomas, John R. Schermerhorn Jr., and John W. Dinehart, "Strategic Leadership of Ethical Behavior in Business," Academy of Management Executive (2004).

^[99] See Peter Senge, The Fifth Discipline (New York: Harper, 1990); D. A. Garvin, "Building a Learning Organization," Harvard Business Review (November/December 1991), pp. 78–91; Chris Argyris, On Organizational Learning, 2nd ed. (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1999).

^[100] For a discussion of experiential learning, see D. Christopher Kayes, "Experiential Learning and Its Critics: Preserving the Role of Experience in Management Learning and Education," Academy of Management Learning and Education 1.2, (2002), pp. 137–149.

^[101] Institute for Learning Styles, Perceptual Modality Preferences Survey: www.learningstyles.org.

^[102] Ibid.

^[103] Betsy Morris, "Xerox's Dynamic Duo," Fortune (Nov. 19, 2007), accessed online at http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/2007/10/15/100536857/index.htm.

^[104] See Dorothy Leonard and Susan Strauss, "Putting Your Company's Whole Brain to Work," Harvard Business Review 75.4 Jul-Aug 1997, pp. 110–121. Also, Daniel Pink's A Whole New Mind: Why Right-Brainers Will Rule the Future (New York: Riverhead Books, 2005).

^[105] Viktor Gecas, "The Self-Concept," in Annual Review of Sociology 8, ed. Ralph H. Turner and James F. Short Jr. (Palo Alto, CA: Annual Review, 1982), p.3. Also see Arthur P. Brief and Ramon J. Aldag, "The Self in Work Organizations: A Conceptual Review," Academy of Management Review (January 1981), pp. 75–88; Jerry J. Sullivan, "Self Theories and Employee Motivation," Journal of Management (June 1989), pp. 345–363.

^[106] Compare Philip Cushman, "Why the Self Is Empty," American Psychologist (May 1990), pp. 599–611.

^[107] Based in part on a definition in Gecas, 1982, p. 3.

^[108] Suggested by J. Brockner, Self-Esteem at Work (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1988), p. 144; John A. Wagner III and John R. Hollenbeck, Management of Organizational Behavior (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1992), pp. 100–101.

^[109] See N. Brody, Personality: In Search of Individuality (San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1988), pp. 68–101; C. Holden, "The Genetics of Personality," Science (August 7, 1987), pp. 598–601.

^[110] See Geert Hofstede, 1984.

^[111] Chris Argyris, Personality and Organization (New York: Harper & Row, 1957); Daniel J. Levinson, The Seasons of a Man's Life (New York: Knopf, 1978); Gail Sheehy, New Passages (New York: Ballantine Books, 1995).

^[112] R. Jacob, "The Resurrection of Michael Dell," Fortune (August 1995), pp. 117–128.

^[113] M. R. Barrick and M. K. Mount, "The Big Five Personality Dimensions and Job Performance: A Meta Analysis," Personnel Psychology 44 (1991), pp. 1–26; M. R. Barrick and M. K. Mount, "Autonomy as a Moderator of the Relationships between the Big Five Personality Dimensions and Job Performance," Journal of Applied Psychology (February 1993), pp. 111–118.

^[114] See Jim C. Nunnally, Psychometric Theory, 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1978), Chapter 14.

^[115] See "Computerized Personality Tests Spawn a Culture of Cheating," from The Wall Street Journal, posted on Ethics Newsline on Jan. 12, 2009. http://www.globalethics.org/newsline/2009/01/12/personality-tests-2/print/. "Nearly One-Fourth of Workers Admit to Lying About Lateness," posted on Ethics Newsline, May 19, 2008. http://www.globalethics.org/newsline/2008/05/19/lying-about-lateness/. "One-Third of Workers 'Called in Sick With Fake Excuses in the Last Year': Survey," posted on Ethics Newsline, December 4, 2006. http://www.globalethics.org/newsline/2006/12/04/one-third-of-workers-called-in-sick-with-fake-excuses-in-the-last-year-survey/. Mary Uhl-Bien, "The Demands on Ethics and Leadership," Report of the Gallup Leadership Institute at the College of Business Administration, University of Nebraska, 2007.

^[116] See David A. Whetten and Kim S. Cameron, Developing Management Skills, 3rd ed. (New York: HarperCollins, 1995), p. 72.

^[117] Raymond G. Hunt, Frank J. Kryzstofiak, James R. Meindl, and Abdalla M. Yousry, "Cognitive Style and Decision Making," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 44.3 (1989), pp. 436–453. For additional work on problem-solving styles, see Ferdinand A. Gul, "The Joint and Moderating Role of Personality and Cognitive Style on Decision Making," Accounting Review (April 1984), pp. 264–277; Brian H. Kleiner, "The Interrelationship of Jungian Modes of Mental Functioning with Organizational Factors: Implications for Management Development," Human Relations (November 1983), pp. 997–1012; James L. McKenney and Peter G. W. Keen, "How Managers' Minds Work," Harvard Business Review (May–June 1974), pp. 79–90.

^[118] Some examples of firms using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicators are given in J. M. Kunimerow and L. W. McAllister, "Team Building with the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator: Case Studies," Journal of Psychological Type 15 (1988), pp. 26–32; G. H. Rice Jr. and D. P. Lindecamps, "Personality Types and Business Success of Small Retailers," Journal of Occupational Psychology 62 (1989), pp. 177–182; B. Roach, Strategy Styles and Management Types: A Resource Book for Organizational Management Consultants (Stanford, CA: Balestrand, 1989).

^[119] J. B. Rotter, "Generalized Expectancies for Internal versus External Control of Reinforcement," Psychological Monographs 80 (1966), pp. 1–28.

^[120] See J. Michael Crant, "Proactive Behavior in Organizations," Journal of Management 26 (2000), pp. 435–462. See also T. S. Bateman, and J. M. Crant, "The proactive component of organizational behavior," Journal of Organizational Behavior 14 (1993), pp. 103–118.

^[121] Don Hellriegel, John W. Slocum Jr., and Richard W. Woodman, Organizational Behavior, 5th ed. (St. Paul, MN: West, 1989), p. 46; Wagner and Hollenbeck (1992), Chapter 4.

^[122] Niccolo Machiavelli, The Prince, trans. George Bull (Middlesex, UK: Penguin, 1961).

^[123] Richard Christie and Florence L. Geis, Studies in Machiavellianism (New York: Academic Press, 1970).

^[124] See M. Snyder, Public Appearances/Private Realities: The Psychology of Self-Monitoring (New York: Freeman, 1987).

^[125] Snyder, 1987.

^[126] Adapted from R. W. Bonner, "A Short Scale: A Potential Measure of Pattern A Behavior," Journal of Chronic Diseases 22 (1969). Used by permission.

^[127] See Meyer Friedman and Ray Roseman, Type A Behavior and Your Heart (New York: Knopf, 1974). For another view, see Walter Kiechel III, "Attack of the Obsessive Managers," Fortune (February 16, 1987), pp. 127–128.

^[128] Arthur P. Brief, Randall S. Schuler, and Mary Van Sell, Managing Job Stress (Boston: Little, Brown, 1981).

^[129] See Orlando Behling and Arthur L. Darrow, Managing Work-Related Stress (Chicago: Science Research Associates, 1984).

^[130] Behling and Darrow, 1984.

^[131] M. J. Burke, A. P. Brief, and J. M. George, "The Role of Negative Affectivity in Understanding Relations between Self-Reports of Stressors and Strains: A Comment on the Applied Psychology Literature," Journal of Applied Psychology 78 (1993), pp. 402–412; D. Watson and L. A. Clark, "Negative Affectivity: The Disposition to Experience Aversive Emotional States" Psychological Bulletin 96 (1984), pp. 465–490.

^[132] A review of research is available in Steve M. Jex, Stress and Job Performance (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1998).

^[133] "Couples Dismayed at Long Workdays, New Study Finds," Columbus Dispatch (January 23, 1999), p. 5A.

^[134] See H. Selye, The Stress of Life, rev. ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976).

^[135] Jeffrey Pfeffer, The Human Equation: Building Profits by Putting People First (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1998). Quotations are from Alan M. Webber, "Danger: Toxic Company," Fast Company (November 1998), p. 152.

^[136] See John D. Adams, "Health, Stress and the Manager's Life Style," Group and Organization Studies 6 (1981), pp. 291–301.

^[137] See Susan Folkman "Personal Control and Stress and Coping Processes: A Theoretical Analysis," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1984, Vol. 46, No. 4, p. 844.

^[138] "Attitude is Everything," adapted by Rachel Fleming '00 from the pamphlet "Your Attitude and You" by Channing L. Bete Co., Inc. copyright Academic Skills Center, Dartmouth College 2001. http://www.dartmouth.edu/~acskills/success/stress.html, accessed May 5, 2009.

^[139] Information from Mike Pramik, "Wellness Programs Give Businesses Healthy Bottom Line," Columbus Dispatch (January 18, 1999), pp. 10–11.

^[140] Pramik, 1999.

^[141] Pfeffer, 1998.

^[142] See P. E. Jacob, J. J. Flink, and H. L. Schuchman, "Values and Their Function in Decision Making," American Behavioral Scientist 5, suppl. 9 (1962), pp. 6–38.

^[143] See M. Rokeach and S. J. Ball Rokeach, "Stability and Change in American Value Priorities, 1968–1981," American Psychologist (May 1989), pp. 775–784.

^[144] Milton Rokeach, The Nature of Human Values (New York: Free Press, 1973).

^[145] See W. C. Frederick and J. Weber, "The Values of Corporate Managers and Their Critics: An Empirical Description and Normative Implications," Business Ethics Research Issues and Empirical Studies, ed. W. C. Frederick and L. E. Preston (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1990), pp. 123–144.

^[146] Gordon Allport, Philip E. Vernon, and Gardner Lindzey, Study of Values (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1931).

^[147] Adapted from R. Tagiuri, "Purchasing Executive: General Manager or Specialist?" Journal of Purchasing (August 1967), pp. 16–21.

^[148] Bruce M. Meglino and Elizabeth C. Ravlin, "Individual Values in Organizations: Concepts, Controversies and Research," Journal of Management 24 (1998), pp. 351–389.

^[149] Meglino and Ravlin, 1998.

^[150] Daniel Yankelovich, New Rules! Searching for Self-Fulfillment in a World Turned Upside Down (New York: Random House, 1981); Daniel Yankelovich, Hans Zetterberg, Burkhard Strumpel, and Michael Shanks, Work and Human Values: An International Report on Jobs in the 1980s and 1990s (Aspen, CO: Aspen Institute for Humanistic Studies, 1983); William Fox, American Values in Decline: What We Can Do (Gainesville, FL: 1st Books Library, 2001).

^[151] See D. Jamieson and Julia O'Mara, Managing Workplace 2000 (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1991), pp. 28–29.

^[152] Geert Hofstede, Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values, 2nd ed. (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 2001); Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden- Turner, Riding the Waves of Culture: Understanding Cultural Diversity in Global Business, 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1998). For an excellent discussion of culture, see also "Culture: The Neglected Concept," in Social Psychology Across Cultures, 2nd ed., Peter B. Smith and Michael Harris Bond (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1998). See also Michael H. Hoppe, "An Interview with Geert Hofstede," Academy of Management Executive 18 (2004), pp. 75–79; Harry C. Triandis, "The Many Dimensions of Culture," Academy of Management Executive 18 (2004), pp. 88–93.

^[153] Geert Hofstede, Culture and Organizations: Software of the Mind (London: McGraw-Hill, 1991).

^[154] Hofstede, 2001; Geert Hofstede and Michael H. Bond, "The Confucius Connection: From Culture Roots to Economic Growth," Organizational Dynamics 16 (1988), pp. 4–21.

^[155] Hofstede, 2001.

^[156] Chinese Culture Connection, "Chinese Values and the Search for Culture-Free Dimensions of Culture," Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 18 (1987), pp. 143–164.

^[157] Hofstede and Bond, 1988; Geert Hofstede, "Cultural Constraints in Management Theories," Academy of Management Executive 7 (1993), pp. 81–94. For a further discussion of Asian and Confucian values, see also Jim Rohwer, Asia Rising: Why America Will Prosper as Asia's Economies Boom (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995).

^[158] For an example, see John R. Schermerhorn Jr. and Michael H. Bond, "Cross-Cultural Leadership Dynamics in Collectivism + High Power Distance Settings," Leadership and Organization Development Journal 18 (1997), pp. 187–193.

^[159] Accessed May 5, 2009 from http://www.diversityhotwire.com/business/diversity_statistics.html#fem_workforce.

^[160] Rob McInnes, "Workforce Diversity: Changing the Way You Do Business," accessed May 3, 2009 from http://www.diversityworld.com/Diversity/workforce_diversity.htm.

^[161] Adapted from Rob McInnes, Diversity World www.diversityworld.com.

^[162] Accessed May 4, 2009 from http://www.catalyst.org/publication/207/women-in-management-1950-present. Note: this category excludes farm.

^[163] See Lois Joy, "Advancing Women Leaders: The Connection between Women Corporate Board Directors and Women Corporate Officers." Catalyst, 2008. email: [email protected]; www.catalyst.org.

^[164] Joy, 2008.

^[165] See Catalyst report "The Double-Bind Dilemma for Women in Leadership: Damned if You Do, Doomed if You Don't," 2007. email: [email protected]; www.catalyst.org.

^[166] http://www.catalyst.org/publication/132/us-women-in-business, published in March 2009.

^[167] Joy, 2008.

^[168] See Lynda Gratton "Inspiring Women: Corporate Best Practice in Europe," The Lehman Brothers Centre for Women in Business, 2007.

^[169] See Catalyst report "The Double-Bind Dilemma for Women in Leadership: Damned if You Do, Doomed if You Don't," 2007. email: [email protected]; www.catalyst.org.

^[170] See Catalyst report "The Double-Bind Dilemma for Women in Leadership: Damned if You Do, Doomed if You Don't," 2007. email: [email protected]; www.catalyst.org.

^[171] See Catalyst report "The Double-Bind Dilemma for Women in Leadership: Damned if You Do, Doomed if You Don't," 2007. email: [email protected]; www.catalyst.org.

^[172] See Catalyst report "The Double-Bind Dilemma for Women in Leadership: Damned if You Do, Doomed if You Don't," 2007. email: [email protected]; www.catalyst.org; "The Leaking Pipeline: Where are our Female Leaders?" Pricewaterhouse Coopers report, March 2008. PwC Gender Advisory Council, www.pwc.com/women.

^[173] Accessed May 5, 2009 from http://www.eeoc.gov/types/race.html.

^[174] See Katharine Esty, "From Diversity to Inclusion," April 30, 2007, http://www.boston.com/jobs/nehra/043007.shtml, downloaded May 3, 2009.

^[175] Esty, 2007.

^[176] See Henri Tajfel and John Turner, (1979), "An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict," in Austin, G. William; Worchel, Stephen. The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations. Monterey, CA: Brooks-Cole. pp. 94–109.

^[177] See Carol Mithers, "Workplace Wars," in Ladies' Home Journal, May 2009, pp. 104–109.

^[178] Mithers, 2009.

^[179] http://www.accessiblesociety.org/topics/ada/index.htm

^[180] http://www.accessiblesociety.org/topics/ada/index.htm

^[181] Fernandez (1991); Patrick Digh, "Finding New Talent in a Tight Market," Mosaics 4.3 (March–April, 1998), pp. 1, 4–6.

^[182] See Fernandez, 1991, p. 236; "Diversity News: Age Discrimination Unrest in Britain," Mosaics 4.2 (March-April 1998), p. 4.

^[183] http://www.hawking.org.uk/index.php/about-stephen/questionsandanswers.

^[184] http://www.pollingreport.com/civil.htm.//

^[185] See Lauren Prince, "Marketers: Buying Power of Gays to Exceed $835 Billion." Dec. 8, 2007. Accessed May 4, 2009 from http://www.gfn.com/recordDetails.php?page_id=19&section_id=18&pcontent_id=2,//

^[186] http://www.eeoc.gov/facts/fs-orientation_parent_marital_political.html.

^[187] See "The Workplace Improves for Gay Americans," Dec. 17, 2007 GFN News. Accessed May 5, 2009 from http://www.gfn.com/recordDetails.php?page_id=19&section_id=22&pcontent_id=18.

^[188] See "Where Are The Gay-Friendly Companies?" accessed Jan. 11, 2008 from http://www.gfn.com/recordDetails.php?page_id=19&section_id=22&pcontent_id=152.

^[189] See "The Workplace Improves for Gay Americans," Dec 17, 2007 GFN News. Accessed May 5, 2009 from http://www.gfn.com/recordDetails.php?page_id=19&section_id=22&pcontent_id=18.

^[190] See "The Workplace Improves for Gay Americans," Dec 17, 2007 GFN News. Accessed May 5 2009 from http://www.gfn.com/recordDetails.php?page_id=19&section_id=22&pcontent_id=18.

^[191] See "Where Are The Gay-Friendly Companies?" Jan 11, 2008. Accessed from http://www.gfn.com/recordDetails.php?page_id=19&section_id=22&pcontent_id=152.

^[192] http://www.catalystwomen.org/press_room/factsheets/factwoc3.htm. Accessed May 4, 2009.

^[193] These concept definitions and discussions are based on J. M. George, "Trait and State Affect," p. 45 in Individual Differences in Behavior in Organizations, ed. K. R. Murphy (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1996); N. H. Frijda, "Moods, Emotion Episodes and Emotions," pp. 381–403 in Handbook of Emotions, M. Lewis and J. M. Haviland (ed.) (New York: Guilford Press, 1993); H. M. Weiss and R. Cropanzano, "Affective Events Theory: A Theoretical Discussion of the Structure, Causes, and Consequences of Affective Experiences at Work," pp. 17–19 in Research in Organizational Behavior, 18, eds. B. M. Staw and L. L. Cummings (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1996); P. Ekman and R. J. Davidson, eds., The Nature of Emotions: Fundamental Questions (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1994); Frijda, 1993, p. 381.

^[194] For an example see Mary Ann Hazen, "Grief and the Workplace," Academy of Management Perspective, Vol. 22 (August 2008), pp. 78–86.

^[195] J. A. Fuller, J. M. Stanton, G. G. Fisher, C. Spitzmuller, S. S. Russell, and P. C. Smith, "A Lengthy Look at the Daily Grind: Time Series Analysis of Events, Mood, Stress, and Satisfaction," Journal of Applied Psychology 88 (2003), pp. 1019–1033; C. J. Thoreson, S. A. Kaplan, A. P. Barsky, C. R. Warren, and K. de Chermont, "The Affective Underpinnings of Job Perceptions and Attitudes; A Meta-Analytic Review and Integration," Psychological Bulletin 129 (2003), pp. 914–925.

^[196] Daniel Goleman, "Leadership That Gets Results," Harvard Business Review (March-April 2000), pp. 78–90. See also his books Emotional Intelligence (New York: Bantam Books, 1995) and Working with Emotional Intelligence (New York: Bantam Books, 1998).

^[197] See Davies, L. Stankow and R. D. Roberts "Emotion and Intelligence: In Search of an Elusive Construct," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 75 (1998), pp. 989–1015; I. Greenstein, The Presidential Difference: Leadership Style from FDR to Clinton (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001); Goleman, op. cit. (2000).

^[198] Goleman, op. cit. (1998).

^[199] J. P. Tangney and K. W. Fischer, eds., "Self-conscious Emotions: The Psychology of Shame, Guilt, Embarrassment and Price (New York: Guilford Press 1995); J. L. Tracy and R. W. Robbins, "Putting the Self into Self-Conscious Emotions: A Theoretical Model," Psychological Inquiry 15 (2004), pp. 103–125; D. Keltner and C. Anderson, "Saving Face for Darwin: The Functions and Uses of Embarrassment," Current Directions in Psychological Science 9 (2000), pp. 187–192; J. S. Beer, E. A. Heery, D. Keltner, D. Scabini, and R. T. Knight, "The Regulatory Function of Self-Conscious Emotion: Insights from Patients with Orbitofrontal Damage," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 85 (2003), pp. 594–604; R. P. Vecchio, "Explorations of Employee Envy: Feeling Envious and Feeling Envided," Cognition and Emotion 19 (2005), pp. 69–81; C. F. Poulson II, "Shame and Work," pp. 490–541 in Emotions in the Workplace: Research, Theory, and Practice, eds. N. M. Ashkanasy, W. Zerby, and C. E. J. Hartel (Westport, CT: Quorum Books).

^[200] Diane Brady, "Charm Offensive," BusinessWeek (June 26, 2006), pp. 76–80.

^[201] Lewis and Haviland, op. cit.

^[202] Damon Darlin and Matt Richtel, "Chairwoman Leaves Hewlett in Spying Furor," The Wall Street Journal (September 23, 2006), pp. A1, A9.

^[203] R. E. Lucas, A. E. Clark, Y. Georgellis, and E. Deiner, "Unemployment Alters the Set Points for Life Satisfaction," Psychological Science 15 (2004), pp. 8–13; C. Graham, A. Eggers, and S. Sukhtaner, "Does Happiness Pay?: An Exploration Based on Panel Data from Russia," Journal of Economic Behaviour and Organization Vol. 55 (November 2004), pp. 319–342; C. J. Howell, R. T. Howell, and K. A. Schwabe, "Does Wealth Enhance Life Satisfaction for People Who Are Materially Deprived?: Exploring the Association among the Orang Asli of Peninsular Malaysia," Social Indicators Research (in press, 2006); G. L. Clore, N. Schwartz, and M. Conway, "Affective Causes and Consequences of Social Information Processing," pp. 323–417 in Handbook of Social Cognition, Vol. 1, eds. R. S. Wyer Jr. and T. K. Srull (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1994); K. D. Vohs, R. F. Baumeister, and G. Lowenstein, Do Emotions Help or Hurt Decision Making? (New York: Russell Sage Foundation Press, in press 2006); H. M. Weiss, J. P. Nicholas, and C. S. Daus, "An Examination of the Joint Effects of Affective Experiences and Job Beliefs on Job Satisfaction and Variations in Affective Experiences over Time," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 78 (1999), pp. 1–24; N. M. Ashkanasy "Emotion and Performance," Human Performance 17 (2004), pp. 137–144.

^[204] See Robert G. Lord, Richard J. Klimoski, and Ruth Knafer (Eds.), Emotions in the Workplace: Understanding the Structure and Role of Emotions in Organizational Behavior (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2002); Roy L. Payne and Cary L. Cooper (Eds.), Emotions at Work: Theory Research and Applications for Management (Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, 2004); Daniel Goleman and Richard Boyatzis, "Social Intelligence and the Biology of Leadership," Harvard Business Review (September, 2008), Reprint R0809E.

^[205] Caroline Bartel and Richard Saavedra, "The Collective Construction of Work Group Moods," Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 45 (June 2000), pp. 197–231.

^[206] Joyce E. Bono and Remus Ilies, "Charisma, Positive Emotions and Mood Contagion," Leadership Quarterly 17 (2006), pp. 317–334; Goleman and Boyatzis, op. cit.

^[207] Daniel Goleman, Richard Boyatzis, and Annie McKie, Primal Leadership: Realizing the Power of Emotional Intelligence (Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Publishing, 2002); Quote from "Managing the Mood Is Crucial When Times Are Tough," Financial Times (March 24, 2009).

^[208] Quote from ibid.

^[209] S. M. Kruml and D. Geddes, "Catching Fire without Burning Out: Is There an Ideal Way to Perform Emotional Labor?" pp. 177–188 in N. M. Ashkanasy, C. E. J. Hartel, and W. J. Zerby (eds.), Emotions in the Workplace (New York: Quorum, 2000).

^[210] A. Grandey, "Emotional Regulation in the Workplace: A New Way to Conceptualize Emotional Labor," Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 5.1 (2000), pp. 95–110; R. Cropanzano, D. E. Rupp, and Z. S. Byrne, "The Relationship of Emotional Exhaustion to Work Attitudes, Job Performance and Organizational Citizenship Behavior," Journal of Applied Psychology (2003), pp. 160–169.

^[211] W. Tasi and Y. Huang, "Mechanisms Linking Employee Affective Delivery and Customer Behavioral Intentions," Journal of Applied Psychology 87 (2002), pp. 1001–1008.

^[212] M. Eid and E. Diener, "Norms for Experiencing Emotions in Different Cultures: Inter- and Intranational Differences," Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 81.5 (2001), pp. 869–885.

^[213] Ibid. (2001).

^[214] B. Mesquita, "Emotions in Collectivist and Individualist Contexts," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 80.1 (2001), pp. 68–74.

^[215] D. Rubin, "Grumpy German Shoppers Distrust the Wal-Mart Style," Seattle Times (December 30, 2001), p. a15; A. Rafaeli, "When Cashiers Meet Customers: An Analysis of Supermarket Cashiers," Academy of Management Journal (1989), pp. 245–273.

^[216] H. M. Weiss and R. Cropanzano, "An Affective Events Approach to Job Satisfaction," pp. 1–74 in Research in Organizational Behavior, Vol. 18, ed. B. M. Staw and L. L. Cummings (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1996); N. M. Ashkanasy and C. S. Daus, "Emotion in the Workplace: New Challenges for Managers," Academy of Management Executive 16 (2002), pp. 76–86.

^[217] A. G. Miner and C. L. Hulin, Affective Experience at Work: A Test of Affective Events Theory. Poster presented at the 15th annual conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (2000).

^[218] See L. Cosmides and J. Tooby (eds.), "Evolutionary Psychology and the Emotions," pp. 91–115; in Handbook of Emotions, 2nd ed., M. Lewis and J. M. Haviland-Jones (eds.), (New York: Guilford Press, 2000).

^[219] Information and quote from Joann S. Lublin, "How One Black Woman Lands Her Top Jobs: Risks and Networking," The Wall Street Journal (March 4, 2003), p. B1.

^[220] Compare Martin Fishbein and Icek Ajzen, Belief, Attitude, Intention and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1973).

^[221] See A. W. Wicker, "Attitude Versus Action: The Relationship of Verbal and Overt Behavioral Responses to Attitude Objects," Journal of Social Issues (Autumn 1969), pp. 41–78.

^[222] L. Festinger, A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 1957).

^[223] See "The Things They Do for Love," Harvard Business Review (December, 2004), pp. 19–20.

^[224] Tony DIRomualdo, "The High Cost of Employee Disengagement" (July 7, 2004), www.wistechnology.com.

^[225] Information from Sue Shellenbarger, "Employers Are Finding It Doesn't Cost Much to Make a Staff Happy," The Wall Street Journal (November 19, 1997), p. B1; see also "Job Satisfaction on the Decline," The Conference Board (July 2002).

^[226] See for example Remus Ilies, Kelly Schwind Wilson, and David T. Wagner, "The Spillover of Daily Job Satisfaction onto Employees' Family Lives: The Facilitating Role of Work-Family Integration," Academy of Management Journal 52 (February 2009), pp. 87–102.

^[227] See W. E. Wymer and J. M. Carsten, "Alternative Ways to Gather Opinions," HR Magazine 37.4 (April 1992), pp. 71–78.

^[228] The Job Descriptive Index (JDI) is available from Dr. Patricia C. Smith, Department of Psychology, Bowling Green State University; the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) is available from the Industrial Relations Center and Vocational Psychology Research Center, University of Minnesota.

^[229] Salary.com, "Survey Shows Impact of Downturn on Job Satisfaction," OH&S: Occupational Health and Safety (February 7, 2009), www.ohsonline.com.

^[230] See ibid.; Timothy A. Judge, "Promote Job Satisfaction Through Mental Challenge," Chapter 6 in Edwin A. Locke (ed.), The Blackwell Handbook of Principles of Organizational Behavior (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004); "U.S. Employees More Dissatisfied with Their Jobs," Associated Press (February 28, 2005), www.msnbc.com; "U.S. Job Satisfaction Keeps Falling, The Conference Board Reports Today," The Conference Board (February 28, 2005), www.conference-board.org; Salary.com, op. cit. (2009).

^[231] Information from What Workers Want: A Worldwide Study of Attitudes to Work and Work-Life Balance (London: FDS International Limited, 2007).

^[232] B. M. Staw, "The Consequences of Turnover," Journal of Occupational Behavior 1 (1980), pp. 253–273; J. P. Wanous, Organizational Entry(Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1980).

^[233] C. N. Greene, "The Satisfaction-Performance Controversy," Business Horizons 15 (1972), pp. 31–41; M. T. Iaffaldano and P. M. Muchinsky, "Job Satisfaction and Job Performance: A Meta-Analysis," Psychological Bulletin 97 (1985), pp. 251–273; D. Organ, "A Reappraisal and Reinterpretation of the Satisfaction-Causes-Performance Hypothesis," Academy of Management Review 2 (1977), pp. 46–53; P. Lorenzi, "A Comment on Organ's Reappraisal of the Satisfaction-Causes-Performance Hypothesis," Academy of Management Review 3 (1978), pp. 380–382.

^[234] Salary.com, op. cit. (2009).

^[235] Tony DIRomualdo, "The High Cost of Employee Disengagement" (July 7, 2004), www.wistechnology.com.

^[236] Dennis W. Organ, Organizational Citizenship Behavior: The Good Soldier Syndrome (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1988); Dennis W. Organ, "Organizational Citizenship Behavior: It's Constructive Cleanup Time," Human Performance, 10 (1997), pp. 85–97.

^[237] See Mark C. Bolino and William H. Turnley, "Going the Extra Mile: Cultivating and Managing Employee Citizenship Behavior," Academy of Management Executive, vol. 17 (August 2003), pp. 60–67.

^[238] See Venetta I. Coleman and Walter C. Borman, "Investigating the Underlying Structure of the Citizenship Performance Domain," Human Resource Management Review 10 (2000), pp. 115–126.

^[239] Sandra L. Robinson and Rebecca J. Bennett, "A Typology of Deviant Workplace Behaviors: A Multidimensional Scaling Study," Academy of Management Journal 38 (1995), pp. 555–572.

^[240] Reeshad S. Dalal, "A Meta-Analysis of the Relationship Among Organizational Citizenship Behavior and Counter- productive Work Behavior," Journal of Applied Psychology 90 (2005), pp. 1241–1255.

^[241] Timothy A. Judge and Remus Ilies, "Affect and Job Satisfaction: A Study of Their Relationship at Work and at Home," Journal of Applied Psychology 89 (2004), pp. 661–673.

^[242] Ilies et al., op. cit. (2009).

^[243] See Benjamin Schneider, Paul J. Hanges, D. Brent Smith, and Amy Salvaggio, "Which Comes First: Employee Attitudes or Organizational, Financial, and Market Performance?" Journal of Applied Psychology 88.5 (2003), pp. 836–851.

^[244] See Satoris S. Culbertson, "Do Satisfied Employees Mean Satisfied Customers?" The Academy of Management Perspectives 23 (February 2009), pp. 76–77.

^[245] L. W. Porter and E. E. Lawler III, Managerial Attitudes and Work Performance (Homewood, IL: Irwin, 1968).

^[246] Schneider, Hanges, Smith, and Salvaggio, op. cit.

^[247] Ibid.

^[248] H. R. Schiffmann, Sensation and Perception: An Integrated Approach, 3rd ed. (New York: Wiley, 1990).

^[249] Example from John A. Wagner III and John R. Hollenbeck, Organizational Behavior, 3rd ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1998), p. 59.

^[250] See Georgia T. Chao and Steve W. J. Kozlowski, "Employee Perceptions on the Implementation of Robotic Manufacturing Technology," Journal of Applied Psychology 71 (1986), pp. 70–76; Steven F. Cronshaw and Robert G. Lord, "Effects of Categorization, Attribution, and Encoding Processes in Leadership Perceptions," Journal of Applied Psychology 72 (1987), pp. 97–106.

^[251] See Robert G. Lord, "An Information Processing Approach to Social Perceptions, Leadership, and Behavioral Measurement in Organizations," pp. 87–128 in B. M. Staw and L. L. Cummings (eds.), Research in Organizational Behavior 7 (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1985); T. K. Srull and R. S. Wyer, Advances in Social Cognition (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1988); U. Neisser, Cognitive and Reality (San Francisco: Freeman, 1976), p. 112.

^[252] See J. G. Hunt, Leadership: A New Synthesis (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1991), ch. 7; R. G. Lord and R. J. Foti, "Schema Theories, Information Processing, and Organizational Behavior," pp. 20–48 in H. P. Simms Jr. and D. A. Gioia (eds.), Thinking Organization (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1986); S. T. Fiske and S. E. Taylor, Social Cognition (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1984).

^[253] Quotation from Sheila O'Flanagan, "Underestimate Casual Dressers at Your Peril," Irish Times (July 22, 2005).

^[254] See William L. Gardner and Mark J. Martinko, "Impression Management in Organizations," Journal of Management (June 1988), p. 332.

^[255] See B. R. Schlenker, Impression Management: The Self-Concept, Social Identity, and Interpersonal Relations (Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1980); W. L. Gardner and M. J. Martinko, "Impression Management in Organizations," Journal of Management (June 1988), p. 332; R. B. Cialdini, "Indirect Tactics of Image Management: Beyond Banking" in Impression Management in the Organization, R. A. Giacolini and P. Rosenfeld (eds.) (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1989), pp. 45–71; and Sandy Wayne and Robert Liden, "Effects of Impression Management on Performance Ratings," Academy of Management Journal (February 2005), pp. 232–252.

^[256] See, for example, Stephan Thernstrom and Abigail Thernstrom, America in Black and White (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997); David A. Thomas and Suzy Wetlaufer, "A Question of Color: A Debate on Race in the U. S. Workspace, "Harvard Business Review Vol. 2 (September-October 1997), pp. 118–132.

^[257] Information from "Misconceptions about Women in the Global Arena Keep Their Number Low," www.catalyst-women.org/home.html.

^[258] These examples are from Natasha Josefowitz, Paths to Power (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1980), p. 60. For more on gender issues, see Gray N. Powell (ed.), Handbook of Gender and Work (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1999).

^[259] For a recent report on age discrimination, see Joseph C. Santora and William J. Seaton, "Age Discrimination: Alive and Well in the Workplace?" The Academy of Management Perspectives 22 (May 2008), pp. 103–104.

^[260] Survey reported in Kelly Greene, "Age Is Still More Than a Number," The Wall Street Journal (April 10, 2003), p. D2.

^[261] "Facebook Gets Down to Business, "BusinessWeek (April 20, 2009), p. 30.

^[262] Dewitt C. Dearborn and Herbert A. Simon, "Selective Perception: A Note on the Departmental Identification of Executives," Sociometry 21 (1958), pp. 140–144.

^[263] J. Sterling Livingston, "Pygmalion in Management," Harvard Business Review (July–August 1969), pp. 81–89.

^[264] D. Eden and A. B. Shani, "Pygmalion Goes to Boot Camp," Journal of Applied Psychology 67 (1982), pp. 194–199.

^[265] See H. H. Kelley, "Attribution in Social Interaction," in E. Jones et al. (eds.), Attribution: Perceiving the Causes of Behavior (Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press, 1972).

^[266] See Terence R. Mitchell, S. G. Green, and R. E. Wood, "An Attribution Model of Leadership and the Poor Performing Subordinate," Barry Staw and Larry L. Cummings (eds.), pp. 197–234, in Research in Organizational Behavior (New York: JAI Press, 1981); John H. Harvey and Gifford Weary, "Current Issues in Attribution Theory and Research," Annual Review of Psychology 35 (1984), pp. 427–459.

^[267] See F. Fosterling, "Attributional Retraining: A Review," Psychological Bulletin (November 1985), pp. 496–512.

^[268] See J. M. Crant and T. S. Bateman, "Assignment of Credit and Blame for Performance Outcomes," Academy of Management Journal (February 1993), pp. 7–27; E. C. Pence, W. E. Pendelton, G. H. Dobbins, and J. A. Sgro, "Effects of Causal Explanations and Sex Variables on Recommendations for Corrective Actions Following Employee Failure," Organizational Behavior and Human Performance (April 1982), pp. 227–240.

^[269] R. M. Steers, S. J. Bischoff, and L. H. Higgins, "Cross Cultural Management Research," Journal of Management Inquiry, Vol. 1 (December 1992), pp. 325–326; J. G. Miller, "Culture and the Development of Everyday Causal Explanation," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 46 (1984), pp. 961–978.

^[270] Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1977); and Albert Bandura, Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control (New York: W. H. Freeman, 1997).

^[271] See, for example, A. M. Morrison, R. P. White, and E. Van Velsor, Breaking the Glass Ceiling (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1987); J. D. Zalesny and J. K. Ford, "Extending the Social Information Processing Perspective: New Links to Attitudes, Behaviors and Perceptions," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 47 (1990), pp. 205–246; M. E. Gist, C. Schwoerer, and B. Rosen, "Effects of Alternative Training Methods of Self-Efficacy and Performance in Computer Software Training," Journal of Applied Psychology 74 (1989), pp. 884–891; D. D. Sutton and R. W. Woodman, "Pygmalion Goes to Work: The Effects of Supervisor Expectations in a Retail Setting," Journal of Applied Psychology 74 (1989), pp. 943–950; M. E. Gist, "The Influence of Training Method on Self-Efficacy and Idea Generation among Managers," Personnel Psychology 42 (1989), pp. 787–805.

^[272] Bandura, op. cit., 1977 and 1997.

^[273] See M. E. Gist, "Self Efficacy: Implications in Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management," Academy of Management Review 12 (1987), pp. 472–485; A. Bandura, "Self-Efficacy Mechanisms in Human Agency," American Psychologist 37 (1987), pp. 122–147.

^[274] For good overviews of reinforcement-based views, see W. E. Scott Jr. and P. M. Podsakoff, Behavioral Principles in the Practice of Management (New York: Wiley, 1985); Fred Luthans and Robert Kreitner, Organizational Behavior Modification and Beyond (Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman, 1985).

^[275] For some of B. F. Skinner's work, see Walden Two (New York: Macmillan, 1948); Science and Human Behavior (New York: Macmillan, 1953); Contingencies of Reinforcement (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1969).

^[276] Fred Luthans and Robert Kreitner, Organizational Behavior Modification (Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman, 1975); Fred Luthans and Robert Kreitner, Organizational Behavior Modification and Beyond (Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman, 1985); and Fred Luthans and Alexander D. Stajkovic, "Reinforce for Performance: The Need to Go Beyond Pay and Even Rewards," Academy of Management Executive 13 (1999), pp. 49–57.

^[277] E. L. Thorndike, Animal Intelligence (New York: Macmillan, 1911), p. 244.

^[278] Example adapted from Luthans and Kreitner (1985), op. cit., 1985.

^[279] Luthans and Kreitner, op. cit., 1985.

^[280] Both laws are stated in Keith L. Miller, Principles of Everyday Behavior Analysis (Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1975), p. 122.

^[281] This example is based on a study by Barbara Price and Richard Osborn, "Shaping the Training of Skilled Workers," working paper (Detroit: Department of Management, Wayne State University, 1999).

^[282] A. R. Korukonda and James G. Hunt, "Pat on the Back Versus Kick in the Pants: An Application of Cognitive Inference to the Study of Leader Reward and Punishment Behavior," Group and Organization Studies 14 (1989), pp. 299–234.

^[283] Edwin A. Locke, "The Myths of Behavior Mod in Organizations," Academy of Management Review 2 (October 1977), pp. 543–553. For a counterpoint, see Jerry L. Gray, "The Myths of the Myths about Behavior Mod in Organizations: A Reply to Locke's Criticisms of Behavior Modification," Academy of Management Review 4 (January 1979), pp. 121–129.

^[284] Robert Kreitner, "Controversy in OBM: History, Misconceptions, and Ethics," in Lee Frederiksen (ed.), Handbook of Organizational Behavior Management (New York: Wiley, 1982), pp. 71–91.

^[285] W. E. Scott Jr. and P. M. Podsakoff, Behavioral Principles in the Practice of Management (New York: Wiley, 1985); also see W. Clay Hamner, "Reinforcement Theory and Contingency Management in Organizational Settings," in Richard M. Steers and Lyman W. Porters (eds.), Motivation and Work Behavior (4th ed.) (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1987), pp. 139–165; Luthans and Kreitner, op. cit. (1985); Charles C. Manz and Henry P. Sims Jr., Superleadership (New York: Berkeley, 1990).

^[286] See John P. Campbell, Marvin D. Dunnette, Edward E. Lawler III, and Karl E. Weick Jr., Managerial Behavior Performance and Effectiveness (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1970), ch. 15.

^[287] Geert Hofstede, "Cultural Constraints in Management Theories," Academy of Management Executive 7 (February 1993), pp. 81–94.

^[288] Geert Hofstede, Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values, abridged ed. (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1984); Geert Hofstede, Cultures Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions across Nations (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2001).

^[289] Abraham Maslow, Eupsychian Management (Homewood, IL: Irwin, 1965); Abraham Maslow, Motivation and Personality, 2nd ed. (New York: Harper & Row, 1970).

^[290] Lyman W. Porter, "Job Attitudes in Management: Perceived Importance of Needs as a Function of Job Level," Journal of Applied Psychology 47 (April 1963), pp. 141–148.

^[291] Douglas T. Hall and Khalil E. Nougaim, "An Examination of Maslow's Need Hierarchy in an Organizational Setting," Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 3 (1968), pp. 12–35; John M. Ivancevich, "Perceived Need Satisfactions of Domestic versus Overseas Managers," Journal of Applied Psychology 54 (August 1969), pp. 274–278.

^[292] Mahmoud A. Wahba and Lawrence G. Bridwell, "Maslow Reconsidered: A Review of Research on the Need Hierarchy Theory," Academy of Management Proceedings (1974), pp. 514–520; Edward E. Lawler III and J. Lloyd Shuttle, "A Causal Correlation Test of the Need Hierarchy Concept," Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 7 (1973), pp. 265–287.

^[293] Nancy J. Adler (2nd ed.), International Dimensions of Organizational Behavior (Boston: PWS-Kent, 1991), p. 153; Richard M. Hodgetts and Fred Luthans, International Management (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991), ch. 11.

^[294] Clayton P. Alderfer, "An Empirical Test of a New Theory of Human Needs," Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 4 (1969), pp. 142–175; Clayton P. Alderfer, Existence, Relatedness, and Growth (New York: Free Press, 1972); Benjamin Schneider and Clayton P. Alderfer, "Three Studies of Need Satisfaction in Organization," Administrative Science Quarterly 18 (1973), pp. 489–505.

^[295] Lane Tracy, "A Dynamic Living Systems Model of Work Motivation," Systems Research 1 (1984), pp. 191–203; John Rauschenberger, Neal Schmidt, and John E. Hunter, "A Test of the Need Hierarchy Concept by a Markov Model of Change in Need Strength," Administrative Science Quarterly 25 (1980), pp. 654–670.

^[296] Sources pertinent to this discussion are David C. McClelland, The Achieving Society (New York: Van Nostrand, 1961); David C. McClelland, "Business, Drive and National Achievement," Harvard Business Review 40 (July/August 1962), pp. 99–112; David C. McClelland, "That Urge to Achieve," Think (November/December 1966), pp. 19–32; G. H. Litwin and R. A. Stringer, Motivation and Organizational Climate (Boston: Division of Research, Harvard Business School, 1966), pp. 18–25.

^[297] George Harris, "To Know Why Men Do What They Do: A Conversation with David C. McClelland," Psychology Today 4 (January 1971), pp. 35–39.

^[298] David C. McClelland and David H. Burnham, "Power Is the Great Motivator," Harvard Business Review 54 (March/April 1976), pp. 100–110; David C. McClelland and Richard E. Boyatzis, "Leadership Motive Pattern and Long-Term Success in Management," Journal of Applied Psychology 67 (1982), pp. 737–743.

^[299] P. Miron and D. C. McClelland, "The Impact of Achievement Motivation Training in Small Businesses," California Management Review (Summer 1979), pp. 13–28.

^[300] The complete two-factor theory is well explained by Herzberg and his associates in Frederick Herzberg, Bernard Mausner, and Barbara Bloch Synderman, The Motivation to Work, 2nd ed. (New York: Wiley, 1967); Frederick Herzberg, "One More Time: How Do You Motivate Employees?" Harvard Business Review 46 (January/February 1968), pp. 53–62.

^[301] From Herzberg, (1968), op. cit.

^[302] See Robert J. House and Lawrence A. Wigdor, "Herzberg's Dual-Factor Theory of Job Satisfaction and Motivation: A Review of the Evidence and a Criticism," Personnel Psychology 20 (Winter 1967), pp. 369–389.

^[303] Adler, op. cit.; Nancy J. Adler and J. T. Graham, "Cross Cultural Interaction: The International Comparison Fallacy," Journal of International Business Studies (Fall 1989), pp. 515–537; Frederick Herzberg, "Workers' Needs: The Same Around the World," Industry Week (September 27, 1987), pp. 29–32.

^[304] See, for example, J. Stacy Adams, "Toward an Understanding of Inequality," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 67 (1963), pp. 422–436; J. Stacy Adams, "Inequity in Social Exchange," in L. Berkowitz (ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 2 (New York: Academic Press, 1965), pp. 267–300.

^[305] Adams, op. cit. (1965).

^[306] These issues are discussed in C. Kagitcibasi and J. W. Berry, "Cross-Cultural Psychology: Current Research and Trends," Annual Review of Psychology 40 (1989), pp. 493–531.

^[307] See Blair Sheppard, Roy J. Lewicki, and John Minton, Organizational Justice: The Search for Fairness in the Workplace (New York: Lexington Books, 1992); Jerald Greenberg, The Quest for Justice on the Job: Essays and Experiments (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1995); Robert Folger and Russell Cropanzano, Organizational Justice and Human Resource Management (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1998); and Mary A. Konovsky, "Understanding Procedural Justice and Its Impact on Business Organizations," Journal of Management 26 (2000), pp. 489–511.

^[308] Interactional justice is described by Robert J. Bies, "The Predicament of Injustice: The Management of Moral Outrage," in L. L. Cummings and B. M. Staw (eds.), Research in Organizational Behavior 9 (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1987), pp. 289–319. The example is from Carol T. Kulik and Robert L. Holbrook, "Demographics in Service Encounters: Effects of Racial and Gender Congruence on Perceived Fairness," Social Justice Research 13 (2000), pp. 375–402.

^[309] Victor H. Vroom, Work and Motivation (New York: Wiley, 1964).

^[310] Ibid.

^[311] See Terence R. Mitchell, "Expectancy Models of Job Satisfaction, Occupational Preference and Effort: A Theoretical, Methodological, and Empirical Appraisal," Psychological Bulletin 81 (1974), pp. 1053–1077; Mahmoud A. Wahba and Robert J. House, "Expectancy Theory in Work and Motivation: Some Logical and Methodological Issues," Human Relations 27 (January 1974), pp. 121–147; Terry Connolly, "Some Conceptual and Methodological Issues in Expectancy Models of Work Performance Motivation," Academy of Management Review 1 (October 1976), pp. 37–47; and Terrence Mitchell, "Expectancy-Value Models in Organizational Psychology," in N. Feather (ed.), Expectancy, Incentive and Action (New York: Erlbaum & Associates, 1980).

^[312] See Adler, op. cit.

^[313] Edwin A. Locke, Karyll N. Shaw, Lise M. Saari, and Gary P. Latham, "Goal Setting and Task Performance: 1969–1980," Psychological Bulletin 90 (July/November 1981), pp. 125–152; Edwin A. Locke and Gary P. Latham, "Work Motivation and Satisfaction: Light at the End of the Tunnel," Psychological Science 1.4 (July 1990), pp. 240–246; Edwin A. Locke and Gary Latham, A Theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1990).

^[314] Edwin A. Locke and Gary P. Latham, "Has Goal Setting Gone Wild, or Have Its Attackers Abandoned Good Scholarship?" The Academy of Management Perspective 23 (February 2009), pp. 17–23.

^[315] Gary P. Latham and Edwin A. Locke, "Goal Setting—A Motivational Technique That Works," Organizational Dynamics 8 (Autumn 1979), pp. 68–80; Gary P. Latham and Timothy P. Steele, "The Motivational Effects of Participation versus Goal-Setting on Performance," Academy of Management Journal 26 (1983), pp. 406–417; Miriam Erez and Frederick H. Kanfer, "The Role of Goal Acceptance in Goal Setting and Task Performance," Academy of Management Review 8 (1983), pp. 454–463; R. E. Wood and E. A. Locke, "Goal Setting and Strategy Effects on Complex Tasks," in B. Staw and L. L. Cummings (eds.), Research in Organizational Behavior (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1990).

^[316] See E. A. Locke and G. P. Latham, "Work Motivation and Satisfaction," Psychological Science 1.4 (July 1990), p. 241.

^[317] For recent debate on goal setting, see Lisa D. Ordónez, Maurice E. Schwitzer, Adam D. Galinsky, and Max H. Bazerman, "Goals Gone Wild: The Systematic Side Effects of Overprescribing Goal Setting," The Academy of Management Perspective 23 (February 2009), pp. 6–16; Locke and Latham, op. cit. (2009).

^[318] Ibid.

^[319] For a good review of MBO, see Anthony P. Raia, Managing by Objectives (Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman, 1974).

^[320] Ibid. Steven Kerr summarizes the criticisms well in "Overcoming the Dysfunctions of MBO," Management by Objectives 5.1, 1976.

^[321] For complete reviews of theory, research, and practice see Edward E. Lawler III, Pay and Organizational Effectiveness (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971); Edward E. Lawler III, Pay and Organizational Development (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1981); Edward E. Lawler III, "The Design of Effective Reward Systems," in Jay W. Lorsch (ed.), Handbook of Organizational Behavior (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1987), pp. 255–271.

^[322] Reasons for Pay Raises," BusinessWeek (May 29, 2006), p. 11.

^[323] As an example, see D. B. Balkin and L. R. Gómez-Mejia (eds.), New Perspectives on Compensation (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1987).

^[324] Jone L. Pearce, "Why Merit Pay Doesn't Work: Implications from Organization Theory," in Balkin and Gómez-Mejia op. cit. (1987), pp. 169–178; Jerry M. Newman, "Selecting Incentive Plans to Complement Organizational Strategy," in Balkin and Gómez-Mejia op. cit. (1987), pp. 214–224; Edward E. Lawler III, "Pay for Performance: Making It Work," Compensation and Benefits Review 21 (1989), pp. 55–60.

^[325] See Daniel C. Boyle, "Employee Motivation That Works," HR Magazine (October 1992), pp. 83–89; Kathleen A. McNally, "Compensation as a Strategic Tool," HR Magazine (July 1992), pp. 59–66.

^[326] Erin White, "How to Reduce Turnover," The Wall Street Journal (November 21, 2005), p. B5.

^[327] See Brian Graham-Moore, "Review of the Literature," in Brian Graham-Moore and Timothy L. Ross (eds.), Gainsharing (Washington, DC: Bureau of National Affairs, 1990), p. 20.

^[328] S. E. Markham, K. D. Scott, and B. L. Little, "National Gainsharing Study: The Importance of Industry Differences," Compensation and Benefits Review (January/February 1992), pp. 34–45.

^[329] Jeffrey Pfeffer and John F. Veiga, "Putting People First for Organizational Success," Academy of Management Executive 13 (May 1999), pp. 37–48.

^[330] L. R. Gómez-Mejia, D. B. Balkin, and R. L. Cardy, Managing Human Resources (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1995), pp. 410–411.

^[331] N. Gupta, G. E. Ledford, G. D. Jenkins, and D. H. Doty, "Survey Based Prescriptions for Skill-Based Pay," American Compensation Association Journal 1.1 (1992), pp. 48–59; L. W. Ledford, "The Effectiveness of Skill-Based Pay," Perspectives in Total Compensation 1.1 (1991), pp. 1–4.

^[332] Mina Kines, "P&G's Leadership Machine," Fortune (April 14, 2009).

^[333] For more details, see G. P. Latham and K. N. Wexley, Increasing Productivity through Performance Appraisal (2nd ed.); Stephen J. Carroll and Craig E. Schneier, Performance Appraisal and Review Systems (Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman, 1982).

^[334] See George T. Milkovich and John W. Boudreau, Personnel/Human Resource Management: A Diagnostic Approach, 5th ed. (Plano, TX: Business Publications, 1988).

^[335] Mark R. Edwards and Ann J. Ewen, 360-Degree Feed back: The Powerful New Tool for Employee Feedback and Performance Improvement (New York: Amacom, 1996).

^[336] For discussion of many of these errors, see David L. Devries, Ann M. Morrison, Sandra L. Shullman, and Michael P. Gerlach, Performance Appraisal on the Line (Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership, 1986), ch. 3.

^[337] Frederick W. Taylor, The Principles of Scientific Management (New York: Norton, 1967).

^[338] Frederick Herzberg, "One More Time: How Do You Motivate Employees?" Harvard Business Review 46 (January/February 1968), pp. 53–62.

^[339] For a complete description, see J. Richard Hackman and Greg R. Oldham, Work Redesign (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1980).

^[340] See J. Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham, "Development of the Job Diagnostic Survey," Journal of Applied Psychology 60 (1975), pp. 159–170.

^[341] For forerunner research, see Charles L. Hulin and Milton R. Blood, "Job Enlargement, Individual Differences, and Worker Responses," Psychological Bulletin 69 (1968), pp. 41–55: Milton R. Blood and Charles L. Hulin. "Alienation, Environmental Characteristics and Worker Responses," Journal of Applied Psychology 51 (1967), pp. 284–290.

^[342] Gerald Salancik and Jeffrey Pfeffer, "An Examination of Need-Satisfaction Models of Job Attitudes," Administrative Science Quarterly 22 (1977), pp. 427–456; Gerald Salancik and Jeffrey Pfeffer, "A Social Information Processing Approach to Job Attitude and Task Design." Administrative Science Quarterly 23 (1978), pp. 224–253.

^[343] For overviews, see Allan R. Cohen and Herman Gadon, Alternative Work Schedules: Integrating Individual and Organizational Needs (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1978); and Jon L. Pearce, John W. Newstrom, Randall B. Dunham, and Alison E. Barber, Alternative Work Schedules (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1989). See also Sharon Parker and Toby Wall, Job and Work Design (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1998).

^[344] C. Latack and L. W. Foster, "Implementation of Compressed Work Schedules: Participation and Job Redesign as Critical Factors for Employee Acceptance," Personnel Psychology 38 (1985), pp. 75–92.

^[345] Olga Kharif, "Chopping Hours, Not Heads," Business Week (January 5, 2009), p. 85.

^[346] Sue Shellenbarger, "Does Avoiding a 9-to-5 Grind Make You a Target for Layoffs?" The Wall Street Journal (April 22, 2009), p. D1.

^[347] Mararet Harding, "Uncommon Co-Workers," The Columbus Dispatch (March 22, 2009), p. D1.

^[348] "Hurting, But Often Uncounted," BusinessWeek (April 20, 2009), p. 20.

^[349] See, for example, Jon R, Katzenbach and Douglas K. Smith, "The Discipline of Teams," Harvard Business Review (March/April 1993a), pp. 111–120; Jon R. Katzenbach and Douglas K. Smith, The Wisdom of Teams: Creating the High-Performance Organization (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1993b).

^[350] Katzenbach and Smith (1993a), op. cit., p. 112.

^[351] Information from Scott Thurm, "Teamwork Raises Everyone's Game," The Wall Street Journal (November 7, 2005), p. B7.

^[352] Ibid.

^[353] Katzenbach and Smith (1993a, 1993b), op. cit.

^[354] For a good overview, see Greg L. Stewart, Charles C. Manz, and Henry P. Sims, Team Work and Group Dynamics (New York: Wiley, 1999).

^[355] Katzenbach and Smith (1993a, 1993b), op. cit.

^[356] See Jon R. Katzenbach, "The Myth of the Top Management Team," Harvard Business Review 75 (November/December 1997), pp. 83–91.

^[357] Information from Stratford Shermin, "Secrets of HP's 'Muddled' Team," Fortune (March 18, 1996), pp. 116–120.

^[358] See Stewart, Manz, and Sims (1999), pp. 43–44.

^[359] Rensis Likert, New Patterns of Management (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961).

^[360] Jay A. Conger, Winning 'Em Over: A New Model for Managing in the Age of Persuasion (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998).

^[361] Ibid., p. 191.

^[362] See Jay R. Galbraith, Designing Organizations (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998).

^[363] Robert P. Steel, Anthony J. Mento, Benjamin L. Dilla, Nestor Ovalle, and Russell F. Lloyd, "Factors Influencing the Success and Failure of Two Quality Circles Programs," Journal of Management 11.1 (1985), pp. 99–119; Edward E. Lawler III and Susan A. Mohrman, "Quality Circles: After the Honeymoon," Organizational Dynamics 15.4 (1987), pp. 42–54.

^[364] See D. Duarte and N. Snyder, Mastering Virtual Teams: Strategies, Tools, and Techniques That Succeed (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1999); Jessica Lipnack and Jeffrey Stamps, Virtual Teams: Reaching across Space, Time, and Organizations with Technology (New York: Wiley, 1997).

^[365] For reviews see Wayne F. Cascio, "Managing a Virtual Workplace," Academy of Management Executive, vol. 14 (2000), pp. 81–90; Sheila Simsarian Webber, "Virtual Teams: A Meta-Analysis," www.shrm.org/foundation/findings.asp.

^[366] Stacie A. Furst, Martha Reeves, Benson Rosen, and Richard S. Blackburn, "Managing the Life Cycle of Virtual Teams," Academy of Management Executive 18.2 (2004), pp. 6–11; ibid.; Duarte and Schneider, op. cit.; Lipnack and Stamps, op. cit.; and J. Richard Hackman by Diane Coutu, "Why Teams Don't Work," Harvard Business Review (May 2009), pp. 99–105.

^[367] See, for example, Paul S. Goodman, Rukmini Devadas, and Terri L. Griffith Hughson, "Groups and Productivity: Analyzing the Effectiveness of Self-Managing Teams," Chapter 11 in John R. Campbell and Richard J. Campbell, Productivity in Organizations (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1988); Jack Orsbrun, Linda Moran, Ed Musslewhite, and John H. Zenger, with Craig Perrin, Self-Directed Work Teams: The New American Challenge (Homewood, IL: Business One Irwin, 1990); Dale E. Yeatts and Cloyd Hyten, High Performing Self-Managed Work Teams (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997).

^[368] Marvin E. Shaw, Group Dynamics: The Psychology of Small Group Behavior, 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976).

^[369] Bib Latané, Kipling Williams, and Stephen Harkins, "Many Hands Make Light the Work: The Causes and Consequences of Social Loafing," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 37 (1978), pp. 822–832; E. Weklon and G. M. Gargano, "Cognitive Effort in Additive Task Groups: The Effects of Shared Responsibility on the Quality of Multi-Attribute Judgments," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 36 (1985), pp. 348–361; John M. George, "Extrinsic and Intrinsic Origins of Perceived Social Loafing in Organizations," Academy of Management Journal (March 1992), pp. 191–202; W. Jack Duncan, "Why Some People Loaf in Groups While Others Loaf Alone," Academy of Management Executive 8 (1994), pp. 79–80.

^[370] D. A. Kravitz and B. Martin, "Ringelmann Rediscovered," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 50 (1986), pp. 936–941.

^[371] John M. George, "Extrinsic and Intrinsic Origins of Perceived Social Loafing in Organizations," Academy of Management Journal (March 1992), pp. 191–202; and W. Jack Duncan, "Why Some People Loaf in Groups While Others Loaf Alone," Academy of Management Executive, vol. 8 (1994), pp. 79–80.

^[372] A classic article by Richard B. Zajonc, "Social Facilitation," Science 149 (1965), pp. 269–274.

^[373] See, for example, Leland P. Bradford, Group Development, 2nd ed. (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1997).

^[374] J. Steven Heinen and Eugene Jacobson, "A Model of Task Group Development in Complex Organization and a Strategy of Implementation," Academy of Management Review 1 (October 1976), pp. 98–111; Bruce W. Tuckman, "Developmental Sequence in Small Groups," Psychological Bulletin 63 (1965), pp. 384–399; Bruce W. Tuckman and Mary Ann C. Jensen, "Stages of Small Group Development Revisited," Group & Organization Studies 2 (1977), pp. 419–427.

^[375] Quote from Alex Markels, "Money & Business," U.S. News online (October 22, 2006).

^[376] Ibid.

^[377] Example from "Designed for Interaction," Fortune (January 8, 2001), p. 150.

^[378] David M. Herold, "The Effectiveness of Work Groups," in Steven Kerr (ed.), Organizational Behavior (New York: Wiley, 1979), p. 95; see also the discussion of group tasks in Stewart, Manz, and Sims, op. cit. (1999), pp. 142–143.

^[379] F. J. Thomas and C. F. Fink, "Effects of Group Size," in Larry L. Cummings and William E. Scott (eds.), Readings in Organizational and Human Performance (Home-wood, IL: Irwin, 1969), pp. 394–408.

^[380] Robert D. Hof, "Amazon's Risky Bet," BusinessWeek (November 13, 2006), p. 52.

^[381] Thomas and Fink, op. cit.

^[382] Shaw, op. cit.

^[383] William C. Schultz, FIRO: A Three-Dimensional Theory of Interpersonal Behavior (New York: Rinehart, 1958).

^[384] William C. Schultz, "The Interpersonal Underworld," Harvard Business Review 36 (July/August 1958), p. 130.

^[385] Matt Golosinski, "Teamwork Takes Center Stage," Northwestern (Winter 2005), p. 39.

^[386] Daniel R. Ilgen, Jeffrey A. LePine, and John R. Hollen-beck, "Effective Decision Making in Multinational Teams," in P. Christopher Earley and Miriam Erez (eds.), New Perspectives on International Industrial/Organizational Psychology (San Francisco: New Lexington Press, 1997); Warren Watson, "Cultural Diversity's Impact on Interaction Process and Performance," Academy of Management Journal 16 (1993).

^[387] Stewart, Manz, and Sims, op. cit.

^[388] See Daniel, R Ilgen, Jeffrey A. LePiner, and John R. Hollenbeck, "Effective Decision Making in Multinational Teams," in P. Christopher Earley and Miriam Erez (eds.), New Perspectives on International Industrial/Organizational Psychology (San Francisco: New Lexington Press, 1997), pp. 377–409.

^[389] L. Argote and J. E. McGrath, "Group Processes in Organizations: Continuity and Change," in C. L. Cooper and I. T. Robertson (eds.), International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology (New York: Wiley, 1993), pp. 333–389.

^[390] See Ilgen, LePiner, and Hollenbeck, op. cit.

^[391] Golosinski, op. cit., p. 39.

^[392] "Dream Teams," Northwestern (Winter 2005), p. 10; and, Matt Golosinski, "Teamwork Takes Center Stage," North-western (Winter 2005), p. 39.

^[393] George C. Homans, The Human Group (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1950).

^[394] See Owen Linzmeyer and Owen W. Linzmeyer, Apple Confidential 2.0: The Definitive History of the World's Most Colorful Company (San Francisco: No Starch Press, 2004); and Jeffrey L. Cruikshank, The Apple Way (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2005).

^[395] Diane Coutu, "Why Teams Don't Work," Harvard Business Review (May 2009), pp. 99–105.

^[396] Ibid.

^[397] Ibid.

^[398] Steven Levy, "Insanely Great," Wired (February 1994), www.wired.com.

^[399] For an interesting discussion of sports teams, see Ellen Fagenson-Eland, "The National Football League"s Bill Parcells on Winning, Leading, and Turning Around Teams," Academy of Management Executive 15 (August 2001), pp. 48–57; and Nancy Katz, "Sport Teams as a Model for Workplace Teams: Lessons and Liabilities," Academy of Management Executive 15 (August 2002), pp. 56–69.

^[400] See William D. Dyer, Team Building, 3rd ed. (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1995).

^[401] Dennis Berman, "Zap! Pow! Splat!" BusinessWeek, Enterprise Issue (February 9, 1998), p. ENT22.

^[402] Developed from a discussion by Edgar H. Schein, Process Consultation (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1969), pp. 32–37; Edgar H. Schein, Process Consultation, Vol. 1 (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1988), pp. 40–49.

^[403] The classic work is Robert F. Bales, "Task Roles and Social Roles in Problem-Solving Groups," in Eleanor E. Maccoby, Theodore M. Newcomb, and E. L. Hartley (eds.), Readings in Social Psychology (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1958).

^[404] For a good description of task and maintenance functions, see John J. Gabarro and Anne Harlan, "Note on Process Observation," Note 9-477-029 (Harvard Business School, 1976).

^[405] Christine Porath and Christine Pearson, "How Toxic Colleagues Corrode Performance," Harvard Business Review (April 2009), p. 24.

^[406] See Daniel C. Feldman, "The Development and Enforcement of Group Norms," Academy of Management Review 9 (1984), pp. 47–53.

^[407] See Robert F. Allen and Saul Pilnick, "Confronting the Shadow Organization: How to Select and Defeat Negative Norms," Organizational Dynamics (Spring 1973), pp. 13–17; and Alvin Zander, Making Groups Effective (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1982), ch. 4; Feldman (1984).

^[408] For a summary of research on group cohesiveness, see Marvin E. Shaw, Group Dynamics (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971), pp. 110–112, 192.

^[409] See Jay R. Galbraith, Designing Organizations (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998).

^[410] Jerry Yoram Wind and Jeremy Main, Driving Change: How the Best Companies Are Preparing for the 21st Century (New York: Free Press, 1998), p. 135.

^[411] The concept of interacting, coacting, and counteracting groups is presented in Fred E. Fiedler, A Theory of Leadership Productivity (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967).

^[412] Research on communication networks is found in Alex Bavelas, "Communication Patterns in Task-Oriented Groups," Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 22 (1950), pp. 725–730. See also "Research on Communication Networks," as summarized in Shaw (1976), pp. 137–153.

^[413] A classic work on proxemics is Edward T. Hall's book, The Hidden Dimension (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1986).

^[414] Mirand Wewll, "Alternative Spaces Spawning Desk-Free Zones," Columbus Dispatch (May 18, 1998), pp. 10–11.

^[415] "Tread: Rethinking the Workplace," BusinessWeek (September 25, 2006), p. IN.

^[416] Amy Saunders, "A Creative Approach to Work," The Columbus Dispatch (May 2, 2008), pp. C1, C9.

^[417] Michelle Conlin and Douglas MacMillan, "Managing the Tweets," BusinessWeek (June 1, 2009), pp. 20–21.

^[418] See Wayne F. Cascio, "Managing a Virtual Workplace," Academy of Management Executive 14 (2000), pp. 81–90; Sheila Simsarian Webber, "Virtual Teams: A Meta-Analysis," http://www.shrm.org/foundation/findings.asp; and Stacie A. Furst, Martha Reeves, Benson Rosen, and Richard S. Blackburn, "Managing the Life Cycle of Virtual Teams," Academy of Management Executive 18 (2004), pp. 6–20.

^[419] Adam Bryant, "He Wants Subjects, Verbs and Objects," The New York Times (April 26, 2009), www.nytimes.com.

^[420] The discussion is developed from Schein (1988), pp. 69–75.

^[421] Developed from guidelines presented in the classic article by Jay Hall, "Decisions, Decisions, Decisions," Psychology Today (November 1971): 55–56.

^[422] Norman R. F. Maier, "Assets and Liabilities in Group Problem Solving," Psychological Review 74 (1967): 239–249.

^[423] Irving L. Janis, "Groupthink," Psychology Today (November 1971): 33–36; Irving L. Janis. Groupthink, 2nd ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1982). See also J. Longley and D. G. Pruitt, "Groupthink: A Critique of Janis' Theory," in L. Wheeler (ed.), Review of Personality and Social Psychology (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1980); Carrie R. Leana, "A Partial Test of Janis's Groupthink Model: The Effects of Group Cohesiveness and Leader Behavior on Decision Processes," Journal of Management 1.1 (1985): pp. 5–18. See also Jerry Harvey, "Managing Agreement in Organizations: The Abilene Paradox," Organizational Dynamics (Summer 1974): 63–80.

^[424] See Janis, op. cit. (1971, 1982).

^[425] Gayle W. Hill, "Group Versus Individual Performance: Are Two Leads Better Than One?" Psychological Bulletin 91 (1982): 517–539.

^[426] Bryant, op, cit.

^[427] These techniques are well described in George P. Huber. Managerial Decision Making (Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, 1980); Andre L. Delbecq, Andrew L. Van de Ven, and David H. Gustafson, Group Techniques for Program Planning: A Guide to Nominal Groups and Delpbi Techniques (Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman. 1975); William M. Fox, "Anonymity and Other Keys to Successful Problem-Solving Meeting," National Productivity Review 8 (Spring 1989): 145–156.

^[428] Delbecq, Van de Ven, and Gustafson, op. cit. (1975): Fox, op. cit. (1989).

^[429] Information from Jessi Hempel, "Big Blue Brainstorm," BusinessWeek (August 7, 2006), p. 70.

^[430] Delbecq et al., op. cit.

^[431] "Skills Stakeholders Want," Bi_ZEd (May/June 2009), p. 11.

^[432] For concise overviews, see Susan J. Miller, David J. Hickson, and David C. Wilson, "Decision-Making in Organizations" in Steward R. Clegg, Cynthia Hardy, and Walter Nord, Handbook of Organizational Studies (London: Sage, 1996); George P. Huber, Managerial Decision Making (Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman, 1980), pp. 293–312.

^[433] This figure and the related discussion are developed from conversations with Dr. Alma Acevedo of the University of Puerto Rico at Rio Piedras and from her articles "Of Fallacies and Curricula: A Case of Business Ethics," Teaching Business Ethics 5 (2001), pp. 157–170; and "Business Ethics: An Introduction," working paper (2009).

^[434] Acevedo, op. cit. (2009).

^[435] Based on Gerald F. Cavanagh, American Business Values, 4th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1998).

^[436] www.josephsoninstitute.org.

^[437] Stephen Fineman, "Emotion and Organizing," in Clegg, Hardy, and Nord (eds.), op. cit., pp. 542–580.

^[438] For discussion of ethical frameworks for decision making, see Joseph R. Desjardins, Business, Ethics and the Environment (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2007); Linda A. Trevino and Katherine A. Nelson, Managing Business Ethics (New York: Wiley, 1995); Saul W. Gellerman, "Why 'Good' Managers Make Bad Ethical Choices," Harvard Business Review 64 (July/August 1986), pp. 85–90; and Barbara Ley Toffler, Tough Choices: Managers Talk Ethics (New York: Wiley, 1986).

^[439] For scholarly reviews, see Dean Tjosvold, "Effects of Crisis Orientation on Managers" Approach to Controversy in Decision Making," Academy of Management Journal 27 (1984), pp. 130–138; and Ian I. Mitroff, Paul Shrivastava, and Firdaus E. Udwadia, "Effective Crisis Management," Academy of Management Executive 1 (1987), pp. 283–292.

^[440] Quote from Chesley Sullenberger III in photo feature from Robert I. Sutton, "In Praise of Simple Competence," BusinessWeek (April 13, 2009), p. 67.

^[441] This section stems from the classic work on decision making found in Michael D. Cohen, James G. March, and Johan P Olsen, "The Garbage Can Model of Organizational Choice," Administrative Science Quarterly 17 (1972), pp. 1–25; and James G. March and Herbert A. Simon, Organizations (New York: John Wiley, 1958), pp. 137–142.

^[442] See, for example, Jonathan Rosenoer and William Scherlis, "Risk Gone Wild," Harvard Business Review (May 2009), p. 26.

^[443] See KPMG, Enterprise Risk Management Services, www.kpmg.com.

^[444] This traditional distinction is often attributed to Herbert Simon, Administrative Behavior (New York: Free Press, 1945); see also Herbert Simon, The New Science of Management Decision (New York: Harper and Row, 1960).

^[445] For a historical review, see Leight Buchanan and Andrew O'Connell, "Thinking Machines," Harvard Business Review 84.1 (2006), pp. 38–49. For recent applications, see Jiju Antony, Raj Anand, Maneesh Kumar, and M. K. Tiwari, "Multiple Response Optimization Using Taguchi Methodology and Nero-Fuzzy Based Model," Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management 17.7 (2006), pp. 908–112; and Craig Boutilier, "The Influence of Influence Diagrams on Artificial Intelligence," Decision Analysis 2.4 (2005), pp. 229–232.

^[446] Also see Mary Zey (ed.), Decision Making: Alternatives to Rational Choice Models (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1992).

^[447] Simon, Organizations (1958).

^[448] For discussions, see Cohen, March, and Olsen (1972); Miller, Hickson, and Wilson (1996); and Michael Masuch and Perry LaPontin; "Beyond Garbage Cans: An AI Model of Organizational Choice," Administrative Science Quarterly 34 (1989), pp. 38–67.

^[449] For a good discussion, see Watson H. Agor, Intuition in Organizations: Leading and Managing Productively (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989); Herbert A. Simon, "Making Management Decisions: The Role of Intuition and Emotion," Academy of Management Executive, vol. 1 (1987), pp. 57–64; Orlando Behling and Norman L. Eckel, "Making Sense Out of Intuition," Academy of Management Executive, vol. 1 (1987), pp. 57–64; Orlando Behling and Norman L. Eckel, "Making Sense Out of Intuition," Academy of Management Executive, vol. 5 (1991), pp. 46–54.

^[450] Agor, op cit. (1989).

^[451] Alan Deutschman, "Inside the Mind of Jeff Bezos," Fast Company 85 (August 2004), www.fastcompany.com.

^[452] The classic work in this area is found in a series of articles by D. Kahneman and A. Tversky, "Subjective Probability: A Judgment of Representativeness," Cognitive Psychology 3 (1972), pp. 430–454; "On the Psychology of Prediction," Psychological Review 80 (1973), pp. 237–251; "Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decision under Risk," Econometrica 47 (1979), pp. 263–291; "Psychology of Preferences," Scientific American (1982), pp. 161–173; and "Choices, Values, Frames," American Psychologist 39 (1984), pp. 341–350.

^[453] See Max H. Bazerman, Judgement in Managerial Decision Making, 6th ed. (New York: John Wiley, 2005).

^[454] See discussion by James A. F. Stoner, Management, 2nd ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1982), pp. 167–168.

^[455] Quote from Susan Carey, "Pilot 'in Shock' as He landed Jet in River," The Wall Street Journal (February 9, 2009), p. A6.

^[456] They may also try and include too many others as shown by Phillip G. Clampitt and M. Lee Williams, "Decision Downsizing," MIT Sloan Management Review 48.2 (2007), pp. 77–89.

^[457] Victor H. Vroom and Arthur G. Jago, The New Leadership: Managing Participation in Organizations (Engle-wood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1988). This is based on earlier work by Victor H. Vroom, "A New Look in Managerial Decision-Making," Organizational Dynamics (Spring 1973), pp. 66–80; and Victor H. Vroom and Phillip Yetton, Leadership and Decision-Making (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1973).

^[458] Vroom and Yetton, op. cit. (1973); and Vroom and Jago, op. cit. (1988).