Index

Note: Page numbers with “f” denote figures; “t” tables.

A

Adhesion forces, 108
Advanced spray development, 126–133
damage threshold, 129–133, 129f–130f
droplet energy density, 127–128, 128f–129f
Aerobic microorganisms, 143
Aerosol spray cleaning, 116
Alkyl groups, 8
American Type Culture Collection (ATCC), 141
Ammonia peroxide mixtures (APM), 115, 122–123
Ammoniums, 6t
quaternary, 7f
toxicity of, 25f
Anaerobic microorganisms, 143
Anions, 6t, 7–8
Aprotic ionic liquids (AILs), 9–10
Archaea, 141
Art objects/structures, cleaning of, 155
Artworks, cleaning of
using ionic liquids, 39
using microemulsions, 97–98
Atomic force microscopy (AFM), 113–114, 114f, 130
Azoliums, 6t

B

Bacillus, 142
Bacteria, 141
Bacterial characterization, microbial cleaning for, 153
Batch-type wafer cleaning tools, 116
Biocatalyst, 143
Bioremediation, 140–141
Black salt crusts, cleaning of, 155
Borate, 6t
Brush cleaning, 33, 34f–35f
Building exteriors, microemulsion cleaning of, 97

C

Calcium sulfate deposits, removal of, 142
Carbon, as nutrients for microbes, 142–143
Carbonate, 6t
Carbonic acids, 6t
Cations, 5–7, 6t, 7f
Cellulose acetate-replicating tape, 153, 153f
CH completion wells, formation damage removal in, 92–93
Chemical particle removal methods, 115
Cleaning process window, 108–115, 110f, 115f
experimental studies, 113–115
forces acting on 100 nm particle in solution, 110t
theoretical predictions, 110–113
Cleaning tank, before and after microbial cleaning, 152f
Cleanliness, surface
levels, surface contamination and, 140
monitoring of, 153
Compositions, microbial, 145
Contact angle, of microemulsions, 76–77, 76f–77f
Contact angle measurement, 164, 167
traditional and newly digitized methods, 167–173
newly digitized top–down method, 170–172
reflected-angle methods, 172–173
side-on methods, 168–170
Contact lenses, cleaning of, 155
Contact-θ-Meter, 172
Contaminant(s)
removal, with microemulsions, 81
types of, 145–146
Contaminated soil, microemulsion cleaning of, 94–96, 96f
Costs
comparison of conventional solvent process with microbial cleaning, 149t
of microbial cleaning, 148–149
savings, 149
of surface contaminants removal using ionic liquids, 29–30
Cosurfactant effect, on microemulsion formulation, 71
Critical particle diameter, 107–108, 109t
Crude oil reservoirs, microemulsion cleaning of, 98–99
Cyanate, 6t

D

Damage threshold
advanced spray development, 129–133, 129f–130f
relationship between droplet energy density and PRE, 131, 131f
relationship between removed particle counts versus droplet velocity, 130, 131f
Debridement, microbial cleaning for, 154
Deep eutectic solvents (DES), 26–27, 30, 32–33, 36–38, 41
choline chloride-based, 26t, 27f
comparison with ionic liquids, 28t
Desulfovibrio desulfuricans, 142
Desulfovibrio vulgaris, 142
Differential scanning calorimetry, 82
Disinfection, microbial cleaning for, 154–155
Droplet energy density
advanced spray development, 127–128, 128f
correlation with number of damage sites, 129f
relationship with PRE, 131, 131f
Droplet impact energy, 117–121
crown formation, 119–120, 119f
liquid film, impact on, 120–121, 121f–122f
solid surface, impact on, 118–119, 118f
Droplet jet technique, 111, 111f
Drop shape analysis (DSA), 168
See also Side-on contact angle methods
Dual-fluid spray cleaning technique, 107–138
advanced spray development, 126–133
cleaning process window, 108–115
droplet impact energy, 117–121
dual-fluid spray development, 122–126
particle removal techniques, overview of, 115–116
particles and adhesion forces, 108
spray nozzles, 117, 117f
system description, 116–117
DuNouy tensiometer, 166

E

Electropolishing, 36, 36f
Energy, surface, 164–167
Environmental Protection Agency, 140–141
Equivalent alkane carbon number (EACN), 69, 73, 81

F

Fracturing gels from shale, microemulsion cleaning of, 99
Frescoes, microemulsion cleaning of, 97–98
Froth flotation, microemulsion, 94
Fuel desulfurization, ionic liquids applications in, 42
Fungi, 141

G

Gas wells, near-wellbore cleaning in, 88–93
CH completion wells, formation damage removal in, 92–93
OH completion wells, oil-based fluid filter cake removal in, 89–92
Glutaraldehyde, 155
Grease removal, microbial cleaning for, 151–152, 152f
Groundwater, microemulsion cleaning of, 94–96
Guanidiniums, 6t, 7f

H

Half-angle contact angle determination method, 169–170, 169f, 177–179, 178f
See also Side-on contact angle methods
Halide, 6t
Hazardous materials decontamination, cleaning for, 37–38
Historical art objects/structures, cleaning of, 155
Household applications, cleaning for, 156
Hydrocarbon(s)
production, ionic liquids applications in, 40–41
removal of, 142–143, 145
soils, 164
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), 2, 3t, 139–140
Hydrogen sulfide generation, 152–153
Hydrophilic–lipophilic deviation (HLD), 70

I

Imidazoliums, 6t, 7f
toxicity of, 25f
Imide, 6t
Institutional applications, cleaning for, 156
Interfacial tension (IFT), 70–71, 79–85, 89, 93, 96–98, 100
cosurfactants effect on, 71, 72f
of microemulsion systems, 75, 75f
International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS), 107–108
front end surface preparation roadmap for critical particle size and number, 109t
Ionic liquids (ILs), 4–27
abbreviations and nomenclature of, 5–8
alkyl groups, 8
anions, 6t, 7–8
cations, 5–7, 6t, 7f
applications of, 4f
aprotic, 9–10
background of, 5
characteristics of, 9–13, 10t
comparison with deep eutectic solvents, 28t
data compilations of, 24–26
electrical conductance of, 20–22
high-vacuum analytical applications of, 22–23
metal-based, 12f
physical appearance of, 11f
protic, 9–11, 12f
solubility of, 17–18
surface contaminants removal using, See Surface contaminants removal using ionic liquids
thermal properties of, 14
thermodynamic properties, modeling and predictions of, 18–19
toxicity of, 23–24
viscosity, 19–20
volatility of, 16

L

Large surfaces, cleanliness verification on, 163–182
applications of, 179
future developments of, 179
imaging choices, 175–176, 176t
method comparisons, 175, 178
performance comparison, 176, 177t
personnel training, 175, 177–178
scope, 163–164
standard reference objects, 173
materials, 173–175
surface energy, 164–167
traditional and newly digitized contact angle methods, 167–173
See also Sessile drop technique
Laundry detergents, 156
Linkers
effect on microemulsion formulation, 71–73
hydrophilic, 71–72
lipophilic, 71–72
Liquid film, droplets impact on, 120–121, 121f–122f
Liquids surface, droplets impact on, 119–120, 119f–120f

M

Megasonics, 116
Mercury bioremediation, microbial cleaning for, 153–154
Metal halide, 6t
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), 154
Methide, 6t
Microbes, application of, 145
Microbial agents, 141–142
Microbial cleaning, 139–162
advantages and disadvantages of, 149–151
applications of, 151–156
cleanliness levels of, 140
contaminants, types of, 145–146
costs of, 148–149
life cycle diagram of, 142f
microbial agents of, 141–142
principles of, 142–143
substrates, types of, 146
systems, 143–149
Microbial contamination, cleaning of, 38
Microbial mergers, 141
Microemulsions
cleaning applications of, 65–106
artwork, 97–98
basic principles of, 77–80, 80f
building exteriors, 97
cleaners and evaluation techniques, design of, 81–82
contaminant removal, 81
contaminated soil, 94–96, 96f
crude oil reservoirs, 98–99
current trends of, 100
fracturing gels from shale, 99
frescoes, 97–98
froth flotation, 94
future developments of, 100
groundwater, 94–96
oil and gas wells, near-wellbore cleaning in, 88–93
oil-contaminated drill cuttings, 84–85, 84f, 85t, 86f
surface cleaning, 81
textiles, 96–97
using nonaqueous solvents, 97
wastewater cleaning, 94, 95f
formulations, 67–74
cosurfactant effect, 71
linkers effect, 71–73
oil or solvent, type of, 73
salinity effect, 70–71
surfactant selection, 70
temperature effect, 74
properties of, 74–77
contact angle, 76–77, 76f–77f
interfacial tension, 75, 75f
solubilization, 74
wettability, 76–77
M-jet scrubber, 122
Montreal Protocol, 2, 3t

N

NanosprayÅ nozzle, 126–128, 130
droplet size and velocity distributions of, 127f
dual-fluid, threshold curves for particle removal and pattern damage generation with, 132–133, 132f
images of droplets from, 127f
PRE performance for removal of PSL spheres, 133f
Nanospray2 nozzle, 126
damage threshold curve with droplets, 130, 130f
droplet size and velocity distributions of, 127f
dual-fluid, threshold curves for particle removal and pattern damage generation with, 132–133, 132f
images of droplets from, 127f
PRE performance for removal of PSL spheres, 133f
Nanospray nozzle, 124–126, 125f–126f
droplet size distribution and nitrogen flow effect on droplet size for, 125f
See also NanosprayÅ nozzle, Nanospray2 nozzle
Near-wellbore cleaning in oil and gas wells, 88–93
CH completion wells, formation damage removal in, 92–93
OH completion wells, oil-based fluid filter cake removal in, 89–92
Nonaqueous solvents, microemulsion cleaning using, 97
Nonvolatile residue (NVR), 140
Nozzle
advanced spray development, 126–127, 127f
See also specific entries
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), 82

O

OH completion wells, oil-based fluid filter cake removal in, 89–92
Oil-based drilling fluids to water-based fluid displacement, wellbore cleanup during, 85–88
Oil-contaminated drill cuttings, cleaning of, 84–85, 84f, 85t, 86f
Oil-contaminated sands, cleaning of, 37
Oilfields, sulfate-reducing bacteria in, 152–153
Oil removal, microbial cleaning for, 151–152
Oil wells, near-wellbore cleaning in, 88–93
CH completion wells, formation damage removal in, 92–93
OH completion wells, oil-based fluid filter cake removal in, 89–92
Organic solvents, characteristics of, 10t
Other ozone-depleting solvents (ODCs), 2

P

Particle removal efficiency (PRE), 115–116, 124
relationship with droplet energy density, 131, 131f
results from removal of PSL spheres, 133–134, 133f–134f
for silicon nitride particles removal, 123f
Particles, 108
Particulate matter, cleaning of, 37
Parts clean(ers/ing), 33–36, 143–148, 144f, 151
cleaning of parts in wash basin, 147f
operating guidelines, 147–148
sink before and after cleaning, 147f
Peracetic acid, 155
Phase Doppler Particle Analysis technique, 124
Phosphate, 6t
Phosphoniums, 6t, 7f
Physical particle removal methods, 115–116
Physicochemical cleaning effect, 122–123
Piperidiniums, 6t, 7f
Polystyrene latex (PSL) particles, 113–114, 122
spheres, PRE results from removal of, 133–134, 133f–134f
Precision cleanliness level, 140
Prism imaging method, 176f
versus 2D SRO, performance comparison between, 177t
Protein-enhanced surfactants, 152
Protic ionic liquids (PILs), 9–11, 12f, 33–35
Protista, 141
Pseudomonas, 142
Pseudomonas stutzeri, 155, 156f
Pyrazoliums, 6t
Pyridiniums, 6t, 7f
Pyrrolidiniums, 6t

Q

Quantitative structure–activity relationships (QSARs), 24

R

RCA Standard Clean, 115
Reflected-angle contact angle methods, 172–173, 172f, 178, 178f
Ring tensiometry technique, 167
Roll brush scrubbing, 122

S

Salinity effect, on microemulsion formulation, 70–71
Semiconductor cleaning, 32–33
Sessile drop technique, 164
See also Large surfaces, cleanliness verification on
Severe acute respiratory syndrome, 154
Shock waves, 111–112, 111f, 113f, 120f
Side-on contact angle methods, 168–170
apparatus for, 168f
using mirror or prism, 169f
Single-wafer processing tools, 116
Small-angle neutron scattering, 82
Snake method, 178
See also Side-on contact angle methods
Soft Spray nozzle, 122–123, 123f, 125, 125f
droplet size distribution and nitrogen flow effect on droplet size for, 125f
Solid surface, droplets impact on, 118–119, 118f
Solubilization of microemulsions, 74
Solutions, microbial cleaning, 145
Solvent-based cleaning
cost comparison with microbial cleaning, 149t
Solvent cleaning, 139–140
Spray cleaning nozzles, 117, 117f
Spray development
advanced spray, 126–133
dual-fluid, 122–126
Standard reference objects (SROs), 164, 173
materials, 173–175
nominal 54.3°, 174f
nominal 119°, 174f
for reflected-angle contact angle methods, 173
STAR-CD software, 130
Substrates, types of, 146
Sulfate, 6t
Sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB), 142
in oilfields, 152–153
Sulfoniums, 6t, 7f
Supercritical gases, cleaning with, 36–37
Surface cleanliness
levels of, 2–4
with microemulsions, 81
monitoring, microbial cleaning for, 153
Surface contaminants removal using ionic liquids, 1–64
advantages of, 30–31
applications of, 32–42
artworks, 39
brush cleaning, 33, 34f–35f
cleaning in place, 38
consumer product applications, 42
electropolishing, 36, 36f
fuel desulfurization, 42
hazardous materials, decontamination of, 37–38
hydrocarbon production, 40–41
microbial contamination, 38
oil-contaminated sands, 37
particulate matter, 37
parts cleaning, 33–36
semiconductor cleaning, 32–33
supercritical gases, 36–37
basic principles, 28
cost of, 29–30
disadvantages of, 31–32
Surface energy, 164–167
Surface tension, 164
Surfactant(s)
extended, 73
selection, for microemulsion formulation, 70
Surfactant affinity difference (SAD), 69–70
Surgical instruments, cleaning of, 155

T

Temperature effect, on microemulsion formulation, 74
Tensiometry, 164, 166
digital version of, 166
ring tensiometry technique, 167
Textiles, microemulsion cleaning of, 96–97
Thiazolium, 7f
Thiouroniums, 6t
3D standard reference objects, 175, 177, 177f, 179
Top–down contact angle method, digitized, 170–172, 171f
Tosylate, 7f
Toxic Substances Control Act (TOSCA), 141
Triazolium, 7f
Trichloroethane, 2
Triflate, 7f
Truck fueling bay, before and after microbial cleaning, 152f
TVA100, 172
2D standard reference objects, 173, 173f, 175–176
images comparison using prism and mirror, 176f
vs. prism imaging method, performance comparison between, 177t

U

Ultracentrifugation, 82
Ultrasonics technique, 111, 111f
uPrintSE, 175
Uroniums, 6t
U.S. Department of Health, Public Health Service, 141

V

Viruses, 141

W

Wastewater, microemulsion cleaning of, 94, 95f
Weber number, 117
Wellbore cleaning
near-wellbore cleaning, in oil and gas wells, 88–93
CH completion wells, formation damage removal in, 92–93
OH completion wells, oil-based fluid filter cake removal in, 89–92
during oil-based drilling fluids to water-based fluid displacement, 85–88
Wettability, of microemulsions, 76–77
Winsor phase behavior, 67–70, 67f–68f, 81
Wound debridement, microbial cleaning for, 154

X

X-ray diffraction, 82

Z

Zisman plot, 165–166, 166f
of aqueous SDS solutions on an aluminum surface, 165f
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