Chapter 23
Effects
INTRODUCTION
When you hear the word “effects,” you might automatically think of visual effects — the creation of the impossible, or maybe you think of special effects — the techniques used to create the car crashes and explosions we’ve so routinely come to expect in our action movies. The effects explored in this chapter, however, will include visual, physical, mechanical — even special make-up effects — all of which collectively seem to be getting bigger, bolder and more outrageous with each subsequent picture and each passing year. And it’s these collective effects that greatly aid and enhance the storytelling process, because there are no longer any limits to a writer’s imagination or a director’s vision (given a sufficient budget, of course). Even if you know what you’re watching isn’t real, it looks and feels real, and it allows you to be temporarily swept away into a state of suspended reality.
As the technology improves and directors, producers and technicians strive to continually push the limits (it’s like a form of one-upsmanship on steroids), I’m reminded of a line in the classic movie Key Largo. In it, Lionel Barrymore insistently keeps asking Edward G. Robinson what he wants, and Bogey (there watching from the side) finally shouts out, “He wants more!”
Visual effects are created when outside elements, such as animation, matte shots, and computer-generated images (CGI) are integrated with original photography. The term visual effect also refers to the more traditional processes done during post production — reverses, dupes, flops, freeze frames, etc. Physical effects refers to the fabrication and development of models (miniatures); prosthetics; mechanically operated vehicles, puppets, robots and creatures and the creation of specialty props. Special make-up effects, used in the preparation of prosthetics, are included in this category as well. Mechanical effects, better known as special effects, encompasses the recreation of rain, wind and snow; explosions; crashes; bullet hits, etc.
The technologies and processes needed to create different types of effects are often interdependent, and those involved must routinely collaborate and rely on each other’s expertise to achieve the desired results. To help put it all into perspective, imagine that you’re looking at a storyboard depicting a rainy scene featuring an overweight old man being chased by an alien in Paris. Momentarily disoriented, the alien crashes into an open-air market stall that collapses around him, giving the old man a chance to escape. So here’s one scenario of how it might all fit together:
• PHYSICAL EFFECTS: The overweight old man is actually a thin, young actor transformed by prosthetics and special make-up effects.
• VISUAL EFFECTS: Fast-forward to where the overweight old man is running in a partial foreground air market) set. Behind this is a green screen that covers the area of the shot that the intended background environment (Paris and the Eiffel Tower) will eventually be composited into. Following the old man is a person in a full body and head black leotard which is covered with little reflective balls (targets) attached to strategic parts of his body.
• MECHANICAL EFFECTS: The partial open-air market has several off-camera wires attached to certain parts of the set to aid in its resettable collapse, and overhead plumbing has been installed to provide a partial rain effect to the foreground set.
• VISUAL EFFECTS: The actions of the bizarre dude in black (or rather, the reference targets on his body) are being tracked and recorded via multiple “motion capture” infrared cameras, so that his exact movements can later be assigned to and therefore replicated by the 3D, CGI-created alien. (As a side note, but sticking to the topic of motion capture, you might have read that in making Avatar, James Cameron took this technique to a whole new level by creating a small skull cap that hung a camera in front of the actors’ faces, so as they performed, the camera also transmitted facial movements which were then assigned to their virtual characters.)
• POST PRODUCTION: The visual effects house will create a CG alien along with some CG rain and puddle elements. These will then be combined or “composited” with the set footage of the old man and some footage of the Paris background.
VISUAL EFFECTS
Once upon a time, visual effects shots were limited to processes such as double exposures, rear-screen projection, stop-motion photography, matte shots and miniatures. Today, as you’re probably well aware, the sky’s the limit. As a result, several studios, production companies and individual shows regularly employ entire visual effects units, headed by a visual effects supervisor, to oversee the entire process. The number of people needed to facilitate the effects on any one show will depend on the number of effects to be created, how complicated the work is, how many effects houses will be utilized, and, most importantly — what all film work boils down to — budgetary and scheduling considerations. Advancements in computer technology and software continue to be a tremendous asset to the field — creating an infinite number of creative options. High-speed Internet connections make it possible for CGI artists to live and work from anywhere, stills and quick-time movies can be e-mailed to and from anywhere with enough resolution to make professionally qualified decisions and a 15-second CGI shot can be transmitted over the Internet (at full resolution) in minutes (sometimes a bit longer, depending on the quality).
Few shows are currently being produced — from the mega-budget productions to the ultra-low-budgets — that don’t use some visual effects. In an article in Produced by magazine (Fall 2008) called “Everyday Invention: Invisible Visual effects,” Colleen Wassel writes about the prevalent trend of undetected visual effects: “Undetectable fixes and enhancements called ‘invisible’ effects, can be found in nearly every production. Everything from cityscapes to sunshine to tears can be added, and unwanted buildings, signs and wrinkles can be removed.
Cost-saving advancements have made effects feasible for productions that traditionally shied away. Low-budget and independent projects benefit most from invisible effects like sky replacements, which can save takes when the light or weather doesn’t match. Explosions can be small on the day, then digitally enhanced to big-budget effect. And a modest group of extras can be duplicated to fill a stadium.”
Also helped tremendously by the ability to create invisible effects are TV shows on fixed schedules and budgets. Continuing with the ain’t-technology-great theme, digital effects are now responsible for a myriad of creative solutions — like the ability to transport an entire cast anywhere in the world, to any imaginary galaxy or fantasy-like setting without having to purchase one firstclass plane ticket or book seats on the space shuttle.
Visual effects are now routinely being created on digital editing systems (professional and home-based software systems (like Adobe’s After effects®, Apple’s Final Cut Pro: Visual Effect® and Shake® and the various Avid programs). effects for TV shows and smaller independent films are commonly being done this way, and on some shows, the editorial staff will include someone dedicated solely to creating digital effects. For larger-budgeted shows, deciding whether to do your own effects will depend on how experienced you are at the software and whether you have an experienced eye. You need to know what looks good enough or you need to have someone with an experienced eye looking over your shoulder letting you know if what you’re doing looks real. Doing it yourself or having the work done at a visual effects house will depend on the complexity, resolution and technical requirements needed to achieve the desired shots, and your visual effects supervisor (or producer) will be able to tell you when an outside facility is required.
Although the possibilities appear to be endless, don’t make the mistake of thinking digital just because everyone else is doing it. Depending on your project and budget, it’s not always practical, cost-effective or necessary. If traditional techniques can be employed to achieve your shot, go for it. Ask your special effects supervisor which effects can be done practically, and consider more traditional photographic elements whenever possible. Don’t just assume that anything can be accomplished by means of CGI, because that’s not always the case. Be realistic about which effects will truly enhance or advance your story, understand what can be done and how much it will cost.
If your company doesn’t have its own visual effects department, it’s a good idea to bring an independent visual effects supervisor onto your film. If it’s an effects-heavy show with a budget that will accommodate a larger department, you might want to consider a visual effects producer as well. Although their jobs may overlap at times, the producer is generally the one who will stay on top of the budget and schedule, line up shoots, facilities and equipment and keep things organized and running smoothly. The supervisor, on the other hand, is the more creative and technically involved. If you can only hire one, then a supervisor would function in both capacities.
On smaller-budgeted projects, you can make a deal with an effects house that will assign one of its own supervisors to your show, but this works best when you have a producer who’s effects-savvy, or when you can hire a VFX (visual effects) coordinator to work with the effects house.
If your budget is tight and you think you can coordinate the visual effects work yourself, think again. Don’t make the mistake of trying to save money by not having a qualified supervisor or coordinator onboard. Depending on the effects, you’ll need at least one person, and possibly more, with a good working knowledge of visual effects (and related methodology) to coordinate and evaluate the work being created from multiple sources, schedule production work that must be done in conjunction with certain effects, monitor costs, make sure delivery dates are met and watch out, at all times, for the interest of the production. An effective supervisor or producer will know where to locate the best quality for least amount of money by making good deals with the houses that specialize in creating the exact type of effects you’re looking for.
Smaller production companies shopping for one effects house to do their entire show will begin the process by asking those under consideration for samples of their work. Those who pass the first hurdle will be sent a script along with storyboards or previz pages (or footage) illustrating potential visual effects shots, from which a bid will be submitted. Once the bids are all in and assessed, those still in the running will be asked to come in for a meeting, where, along with discussions of methodology, the director will share his or her creative vision. The chosen house will designate a supervisor who will usually come in for a second meeting where all shots, costs and schedules are discussed and confirmed. This is also the time to identify difficult effects, so the supervisor can focus more attention on achieving the most challenging and intricate shots. By working with only one house, you can often make a flat deal for the entire show. Though this will afford some amount of protection against overages for things such as added shots or effects that turnout to be more complicated than originally anticipated, the downside is that you also take the risks associated with remaining with one house and accept the results you get. Also, be aware that some VFX facilities, especially the larger houses, will have their resources booked six to twelve months in advance, which could obviously create certain limitations when shopping for bids.
On TV series as well as features, the VFX house supervisor, as well as the show’s supervisor, will generally attend all production and concept meetings. Episodic series will generally budget for a certain number of visual effects shots per episode, and the show’s visual effects supervisor will be responsible for suggesting the shots most needed to enhance or further the story. The supervisor will also collaborate with the show’s editor on digitally created effects that can be done in-house. Whether it’s an independent supervisor (or producer) or a house supervisor, expect that he or she is knowledgeable in choosing the right techniques and will endeavor to produce photographic realism. And expect that your supervisor will be on set handling all of your VFX shots, ready to catch any mistakes that could result in higher costs if not caught in time. Not choosing the right people in this field may not only leave you with effects of lesser quality than desired, but can also adversely affect both your budget and schedule.
One of the most common misconceptions regarding visual effects is that it’s strictly a facet of post production. It isn’t! It involves collaboration with multiple other departments as well (such as Costume, Camera, Editorial and Art). That’s why the process must begin at the very earliest stages of pre-production, and it generally continues right up through the end of post production. And when you hear someone say, “We’ll fix it in post,” beware! That usually means it’ll cost a whole lot more than you’ve anticipated, so you want to avoid committing to any effects work before confirming that you have a sufficient budget in which to do them correctly and sufficient time to complete them on schedule. Waiting too long to start the process will, at the very least, create added expenses and scheduling delays.
The steps one takes when contemplating visual effects are as follows:
• Breakdown your script and identify all shots you believe cannot be achieved by conventional production photography or mechanical effects.
• Have someone who specializes in conceptual design, storyboard all effects shots with clearly defined drawings or create visual aids such as video clips, photographs to help describe the desired effect.
• List each visual effects shot. Discuss and assess the methods to be used to accomplish each.
• Send the breakdowns and storyboards (and previz pages or footage if you have it) out to four or five visual effects houses for bids. Select houses that specialize in the type of effects work you’re trying to create as well as those you know to be flexible and easy to work with. The bids should include estimated time frames needed to accomplish the work, as well as estimates on the cost of doing the work.
Once bids have come in, you may want to:
• Make script changes to eliminate or modify effects that are too costly and/or too time consuming to create as currently written.
• Go back to studio executives or your funding source to request a budget increase if your current effects budget is not sufficient.
• Extend your delivery date to accommodate the time necessary to create certain desired effects.
Once bids have been accepted, your visual effects supervisor will work with the various effects houses in creating an overall schedule. Upon budget and schedule approval, the work must start immediately. Some effects may take six months to a year to develop and perfect, and creating computer-generated effects is also a very lengthy process. Certain effects will take longer to create than anticipated, and concept or design changes are often made along the way. Starting the process as early as possible will enable you to better support these delays and changes.
Although your effects supervisor will work closely with both the UPM and first assistant director, having a first AD who’s effects-savvy will be extremely helpful when it comes to scheduling, setting up effects shots to be done during production and working with a special effects crew or unit. When it comes to equipment, the effects supervisor will let the UPM know in advance if any special equipment will be needed, such as a blue screen, green screen, a motion control camera system, etc. A motion control or MC system is a computer-controlled camera rig used to create complex and repeatable camera movement in visual effects shots. It’s an essential tool in VFX photography when different elements of the same shot require identical camera motion, for example when live action is being combined with either miniatures (by scaling down the repeated move to the scale of the miniature), or with CGI elements (when motion data can be exported or imported into or from a 3D computer graphics system).
As for the blue and green screens, I’ve always been a bit confused when it comes to the difference between using blue or green, but I found a good explanation in the Fall ’08 edition of the Producers Guild publication The Networker in an article called “Green Screen Workshop” by Mark Marabella. In it, Marabella explains that although blue screens are still being used, green is the color of choice these days. The particular green being used is unique and rarely found in the natural world, wardrobe or set design. This tends to make it easier to separate from the foreground. Though if you plan to incorporate natural elements like fire, rain or snow, then a black background may work best. Marabella goes on to explain that whatever the color, the lighting is critical. The screen must be lit softly and evenly — as close to sunlight on an overcast day as possible. And if not lit correctly, digital artists will have to fix it in post.
All effects-related production needs — shooting, crew, and equipment — must be worked into the budget and schedule during pre-production. If the proper time and budgetary requirements aren’t considered up front, it could become a much more costly and time-consuming process to squeeze them into the schedule at a later date or after the completion of principal photography. Also, not having the necessary production footage in a timely manner may likely hold up the work being done at the effects house.
Certain effects elements, such as matte shots (which are achieved by masking out parts of an image using a matte and superimposing another image so that it may be combined with the rest of the original), can be added during post production; but, remember, visual effects is not just a function of post production — it requires planning and work that must begin during the very earliest stages of pre-production. Not being able to anticipate and integrate the elements essential to achieving the effects you desire may prove to be disastrous to your budget, to your schedule, and, perhaps, to your picture.
PHYSICAL EFFECTS
One does not generally hire a physical effects coordinator or department, but retains the services of individuals or outside companies who specialize in the fabrication of prosthetics, models, puppets, mechanically operated creatures, etc. Most of these elements are used in conjunction with visual and/or mechanical effects, and examples of this might include the construction of a 3D model enhanced with digital imagery or a mechanically operated vehicle rigged to blow-up in the heat of an action sequence. Some special effects supervisors have the ability to construct models, props and anything mechanically driven, and others collaborate with those who specialize in these fields.
The use of models (such as model ships, aircraft, bridges, entire towns, etc.) can eliminate the need to build expensive sets and allows you the opportunity to shoot in far-away locations without leaving your own backyard. Well-constructed and well-lit 3D models, photographed in-camera will produce shadows and depth that make the image come alive and appear real. A like digital image with a single light source may appear flat and devoid of lifelike shadows without getting into costly CGI expenses.
Prosthetics are three-dimensional “appliances” affixed to a body to alter the body’s image. This would include such things as aging skin, scars, burns, mutilations, a sixth finger, a mermaid tail, a full creature or animal suit. (Think Brad Pitt in The Curious Case of Benjamin Button or some of the quirky-looking crew members in Star Trek.) It’s a process that often combines propmaking, special make-up effects and puppeteering. More complicated prosthetics might require a mold of an actor’s body (a “life cast”) that’s sculpted to create a desired effect. The materials used to create prosthetic pieces will depend on their location on the body and how flexible they need to be. Foam latex is often used for facial appliances, because it’s natural looking — although fragile and not reusable. Denser silicones and certain urethanes are also used. They’re reusable, but not as naturally flexible. Facial appliances can involve anywhere from a single to dozens of individual prosthetic pieces, depending on the complexity of the desired look. Prosthetics are also sometimes rigged to include cable or radio-controlled facial movements and expressions. These processes can be both time-consuming and expensive.
As with visual effects, locate individuals who specialize in the physical effects you’re seeking, see samples of their work and get bids. Those selected should be brought into your project during the early stages of pre-production, as sufficient time must be allowed for development, construction, testing and possible changes. Keep in mind that prosthetics work cannot begin until respective actors have been cast. Arrange meetings between all those involved if models, prosthetics, props, etc. are to be integrated with other effects and/or departments, and closely monitor the construction of these effects to ensure that they are meeting your expectations and are remaining on budget and on schedule.
MECHANICAL EFFECTS
There are few shows that don’t utilize the services of a special effects crew, even if it’s just for a day or two to create fog or rain. As current production trends and competition for box office revenues create the desire for bigger, better, and more innovative effects, this entire aspect of filmmaking is expanding and becoming increasingly complex.
But even though it makes more sense to create an effects shot practically instead of digitally, sometimes the opposite is true. When contemplating what’s going to be done practically, consult with your SFX supervisor as to what these shots will cost, how long they’ll take to accomplish, what the safety risks will be and if they’re even possible given the limits of your location(s), schedule and budget. Know what you’re getting yourself into before you even start in order to make the best decisions for your show.
Mechanical effects are most commonly known as special (or practical) effects, and those who work in this field are responsible for activities such as the:
• Recreation of atmospheric conditions such as: wind, rain, snow and fog (ranging from mild to extreme)
• Handling of fire and steam
• Rigging for accidents, crashes, near-misses, etc.
• Rigging for all types of explosions
• Handling or supervising of hydraulic work
• Rigging of bullet hits (“squibs”)
• Rigging and handling of all flying work (whether it’s a person, creature or vehicle doing the flying)
• Rigging of tanks and pools for water work
• Handling and supervision of retractables (such as knives) and breakaways (rubber, balsawood, glass, etc. — made objects manufactured to easily and safely break)
• Handling, supervision and possibly the manufacture of synthetic (rubber) props — or “mold making”
• Miscellaneous maintenance, repairs and rigging for other departments
Special effects supervisors and coordinators generally have their own workshops and mobile facilities (usually housed in at least one 40-foot trailer) and are the bearers of several federal, state and local licenses. The primary federal license issued here in United States is from the BATF (Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms), and it governs the use of explosives and the handling of hazardous materials. Local pyrotechnic licenses are usually obtained through the city fire marshall. Certain licenses are required for each state in which you are working, so before shooting on a distant location, make sure your effects crew is certified to work there. Because the regulations associated with licenses issued in different states and municipalities all vary to some degree, and more than one may be required in any one location, the rule is that the strictest regulations take precedent. Other licenses and certifications held by effects personnel include those in: welding, scuba, AC/DC electronics and mechanics.
There are special effects supervisors and coordinators who do it all — their own model-making, hydraulic work, molds, etc. — but not all are that versatile. Those who don’t do it all need to know who to bring on to their crew or which company to contract with that specializes in exactly what they need. Bringing in the best people available will help to assure the quality, accuracy and safety of any given gag.
Safety is one of the most important factors to consider when incorporating effects into your show — both the safety record of your effects crew and the safe construction and implementation of gags. Pertinent safety bulletins should be attached to call sheets the day before major effects are scheduled and safety meetings held on-set prior to their execution. When it comes to safety, corners should never be cut, schedules compromised or money saved to prevent accidents and injuries.
The effects coordinator works closely with both the stunt coordinator in the design and rigging of stunts and with the construction coordinator in the building of structures that are to be rigged for explosions, crashes, etc. Also, as previously mentioned, he works in conjunction with the visual and physical effects people on the overall creation and implementation of effects. Although the physical effects people might provide a model of a house, for example, it’s the mechanical team that makes that model come alive with smoke coming out of the chimney or a stream running along the side of the house. And while the visual effects crew will supervise this shot against a green screen, it’s the mechanical crew that rigs the mermaid — allowing her to leap out of the water and through the air in front of the green screen (ultimately to be replaced with a shot of the harbor).
Utilizing different methodologies, there are certain effects that can be accomplished either visually or mechanically. It’s therefore prudent to have both visual and special effects supervisors provide bids and time tables for accomplishing each gag. It is also helpful to see examples of similar work they’ve done, so in addition to cost and time factors, you can compare quality and believability as well.
Bring your special effects coordinator on as early as possible during pre-production, and have at least one effects meeting (more if time permits), so all effects work — visual, physical and mechanical — can be discussed, coordinated and scheduled.
My thanks to Michael Owens, Matt Kutcher and Don Pennington for their contributions to this chapter.