Index

Note: Page numbers followed by f and t indicate figures and tables respectively.

A
ABAQUS software, 260
Abram’s law, 332, 334, 336–337, 356–357
Abrasion, 165
Acid or basic attack, 165
Adobe, 1, 4–5, 8, 461–462
earth-based masonry blocks, 361–378
durability of, 372–373
eco-efficient constructions, future trends of, 373–374
hygro-thermal properties of, 369–372, 370t
materials of, 361–366, 362f–364f
mechanical properties of, 366–369, 368f, 369t, 371f
Aerated concrete, autoclaved, 215–230
Agricultural waste
-based fired masonry bricks, 112–122
charcoal, 117–119, 117f, 118t, 119f, 120t
sawdust, 116–117
sugarcane bagasse ash, 115–116, 115f
in compressed earth–based masonry bricks and blocks, 407–408, 408f
Alkaline activators, 278–279
Alkaline solution, strength development with, 346, 346f
molarity of, 348, 348f
Alternative raw materials and clay minerals, comparison between, 135–138, 137f
Alumina extraction, Bayer’s process for, 311–312, 311f
Aluminosilicate source material, 293–294
Ambient cured geopolymer blocks, 342–355, 344t
future trends of, 356–357
model validation, 351, 352t–354t
phenomenological model, development of, 350–351, 351f
strength development with
age, 343, 345f
binder, 349–350, 350f
binder-to-aggregate ratio, 346, 347f
degree of saturation, 346–348, 347f
fine aggregate, 348–349, 349f
fly ash, 345–346, 345f
molarity of alkaline solution, 348, 348f
size and shape, 351–355, 354f–355f, 355t, 356f
strength with, 346, 346f
alkaline solution, 346, 346f
Analysis of variance (ANOVA), 164
Apparent density, of clay fly-ash–based fired masonry bricks, 92–94, 95f
Assessment and Verification of Constancy of Performance (AVCP), 173
Autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) masonry blocks, 215–230, 217f
characterizations of, 223–224
thermal gravimetric analysis, 223–224
X-ray diffraction, 223
compressive strength of, 219–222, 220t, 221f
durability of, 226–227, 227f
flexural strength of, 222
future trends of, 227–228
history and utilization of, 216–217
manufacturing and mechanism of, 217–218
microstructure of, 222–223
physical properties of, 218–219
thermal conductivity of, 224–226, 225f
B
Bagasse ash
See also Sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA)
masonry blocks, 205–207, 207f
morphology of, 195f
Basic requirements for construction works 3 (BRCW 3), 173
Basic requirements for construction works 7 (BRCW 7), 173
Bentley Systems, 492
Binder-to-aggregate ratio, strength development with, 346, 347f
Bottom ash (BA)
autoclaved aerated concrete
compressive strength of, 221, 221f
thermal conductivity of, 224–226, 225f
masonry blocks, 198–202
morphology of, 195f
Boundary conditions, for walls with large and highly perforated fired-clay bricks, 50, 51f
Building Energy Optimization (optimization tools), 65
Building envelope, 63–65, 70–75, 72t
Building information modelling (BIM) software, 499–501
Building Material Decree (BMD), 168
Bulk density, of waste-based fired masonry bricks, 155
C
Calcium
addition on mine tailings-based geopolymeric masonry blocks, 296
-rich cements, 322
Capillarity water absorption coefficient (CWAC), 293
Carbon embodied, in straw and clay masonry blocks, 461–480
current materials and building efficiency, 462–466
fired clay bricks and concrete walls, 463–464
households, affordability of, 464–465
natural gas, 465–466
farming walls, 466–471
straw availability, sustainability issues limiting, 468
straw-bale options, 467, 468f
wheat straw, energy and carbon embodied in, 468–471, 472f
future trends of, 477–478
straw and clay blocks, 471–477
embodied human labour assessment, 473
energy and carbon embodied in, 473–475, 474f
small enterprises, input data from, 472
wall elements, thermal efficiency of, 475–477, 476t
Cassava peels, 388–389
Cavity filling, highly perforated clay bricks with, 69–70, 70f, 75–76
Cement kiln dust (CKD), 289–290, 296, 302–303
morphology of, 195f
Ceramic masonry units, 447–460
environmental and energy assessments in, 450–457, 451f, 452t–453t
ceramic plants, mass and energy flows in, 450–451
firing ceramics, energy consumption and fuels for, 453–457, 455t–456t
gaseous emissions, 450–451
liquid effluents, 450–451
solid wastes, 450–451
life cycle assessments of, 448–450, 449t
Ceramic matrix, 132–135, 134f
Ceramic plants, mass and energy flows in, 450–451
Ceramic products containing waste, patents for, 174t–176t
Charcoal, as pore former, 117–119, 117f, 118t, 119f, 120t
Chinese National Standard (GB), 168
Cigarette butts (CB), as pore former, 121–122
Clay blocks
with flat or indented sides, 436–438, 437t, 438f, 438t, 439f
rectangular, 435–436, 435f, 436t, 437f
square, 435–436, 435f, 436t, 437f
Clay brick, defined, 379
Clay concrete masonry, characteristics of, 263
Clay fly-ash–based fired masonry bricks, 85–102
apparent density of, 92–94, 95f
chemical compositions of, 86–88, 87t
compressive strength of, 92–94, 95f
durability of, 99
environmental characterization of, 89
future trends of, 99
high-sulfate-containing fly ash
compressive strength of, 96–97, 97f
water absorption of, 96–97, 96f
manufacturing of, 89–90, 90f, 91t
mechanical characteristics of, 93t
mineralogical compositions of, 86–88
mineralogical evolution on firing, 92, 94f
physical characteristics of, 88, 93t
thermal behavior of, 88–89
water absorption of, 92–94, 94f
Clay minerals and alternative raw materials, comparison between, 135–138, 137f
Clay substitutes, 135
Coal ash masonry blocks, 198–202
Compressed earth-based (CEB) masonry blocks, 379–392
agricultural waste materials, integration of, 386–389
cassava peels, 388–389
palm oil fuel ash, 387–388
rice husk ash, 386–387
compressive strength of, 379–382, 381f
density of, 382
future trends of, 389, 416–417
industrial and agricultural wastes, use of, 403–408
moisture content of, 382–384, 383f–384f
shrinkage of, 384
thermal conductivity of, 384–386
water absorption of, 382–384, 385f
Compressed earth-based (CEB) masonry bricks, 393–422
durability, tests and indicators of, 408–416, 410f, 411t–412t, 414f
durability of, factors influencing, 394–403
appropriateness and care, 402–403
materials, 394–397
prevailing environment, 400–402, 401f–402f
technology and resultant material engineering properties, 397–400, 398f–399f
future trends of, 416–417
industrial and agricultural wastes, use of, 403–408
Compressed earth blocks, 1, 5
Compression, brick masonry under
elastic properties of, 30
failure modes of, 29, 29f
mechanical performance of, 28–30, 28f
Compressive strength
of adobe earth-based masonry blocks, 368f
of ambient cured geopolymer blocks, 345–347, 345f–347f, 349–350, 349f–350f, 356f
of autoclaved aerated concrete masonry blocks, 219–222, 220t, 221f
of clay fly-ash-based fired masonry bricks, 92–94, 95f
of compressed earth-based masonry blocks, 379–382, 381f
of fly ash–based geopolymeric masonry bricks, 279, 280f
of ground granulated blast furnace slag masonry slabs, 201f
of high-calcium fly ash masonry slabs, 202f
of lightweight concrete blocks, 203f
of limestone powder waste masonry slabs, 202f
of thermal cured geopolymer blocks, 335–339, 337f–340f, 342, 343t
variation at constant density, 332, 333f, 334
of waste-based fired masonry bricks, 154
Concrete masonry blocks with phase change materials, 231–248
analysis methods, 240–246
experimental method, 244–245, 245f
future trends of, 246
numerical method, 240–244, 241f, 243f
PCM selection criteria, 233–234
PCM types, 234–235
Construction and demolition waste (CDW), 5–6, 168
Construction Products Directive (CPD) of 1989, 168–172
Construction Products Regulation (CPR), 130, 168–172, 178
Corn cob ash (CCA) masonry blocks, 206–207
Curing temperature
influence on fly ash–based geopolymeric masonry bricks, 276–278
for mine tailings geopolymerization, 295–296, 295t–296t
Curing time, influence on fly ash–based geopolymeric masonry bricks, 275–276, 276f
D
Degree of saturation, strength development with, 332–334, 333f, 335f
ambient cured geopolymer blocks, 346–348, 347f
thermal cured geopolymer blocks, 335–337, 337f
Dehydroxylation, of mine tailings-based geopolymeric masonry blocks, 293
Density analysis, of fly ash–based geopolymeric masonry bricks, 281–282, 281f, 281t
Design Builder (software), 65, 72
Dimensional tolerances, of fly ash–based geopolymeric masonry bricks, 282, 282t
Discoloration of masonry wall, 397f
Drying shrinkage, of compressed earth–based masonry blocks, 384
Durability
of autoclaved aerated concrete, 226–227, 227f
of clay fly-ash–based fired masonry bricks, 99
compressed earth–based masonry bricks and blocks, 394–403
of mine tailings-based geopolymeric masonry blocks, 303–305, 305f
of pore-forming waste-based fired masonry bricks, 106, 108–109
of red mud–based geopolymeric masonry blocks, 322–325, 324f, 325t
of waste-based fired products, 164–168
Dynamic simulation, 65, 72, 74
Dynamic surface leaching test (DSLT), 172
E
Earth-block houses, embodied energy and CO2 for, 481–514, 487f
assessment
methodology, 485–486, 489–490
object and system boundary, 486–489
calculation and use of tools, 492, 492f
case studies’ applications, 493–499
column footings, concrete for, 498
component, sample computation of, 494
damp-proof course, 497
description, 493–494, 493f–494f
formwork, timber for, 498
foundation, specimen calculation of, 495, 496f
foundation wall joints, mortar for, 497–498
gravel substrate, 499
ground beam, concrete for, 498
ground floor slab, 498–499
lean concrete, 495–497
sand, 499
solid foundation wall, 497
data collection methods, 490
data integration, 492
discussion and analysis, 501–510, 502t–505t
inventory sources, 490–491
mathematical models, 491
overview of, 482–484, 483f
-related studies, 484, 485t
results validation, 499–501
EBSCO (database), 484
EcoBrick, 177
Eco-efficiency, defined, 2
Eco-efficient masonry bricks and blocks, 1–10, 4f
contributions of, 2–6
future trends of, 373–374
historical considerations of, 1–2
EGUSA (optimization tools), 65
EI Compendex (database), 484
Embodied CO2, for earth-block versus sandcrete-block houses, See Earth-block houses, embodied energy and CO2 for
Energy economy, of shape optimized masonry blocks, 255
Energy efficiency, 3, 45
Energy embodied, in earth-block versus sandcrete-block houses, See Earth-block houses, embodied energy and CO2 for
Energy embodied, in straw and clay masonry blocks, 461–480
current materials and building efficiency, 462–466
fired clay bricks and concrete walls, 463–464
households, affordability of, 464–465
natural gas, 465–466
farming walls, 466–471
straw availability, sustainability issues limiting, 468
straw-bale options, 467, 468f
wheat straw, energy and carbon embodied in, 468–471, 472f
future trends of, 477–478
straw and clay blocks, 471–477
embodied human labour assessment, 473
energy and carbon embodied in, 473–475, 474f
small enterprises, input data from, 472
wall elements, thermal efficiency of, 475–477, 476t
EnergyPlus (simulation tool), 72
Energy Road Map 2050, 3
Environmental performance
of mine tailings-based geopolymeric masonry blocks, 305–306
of waste-based fired masonry bricks, 168–172
Environmental Product Declaration (EPD), 130, 173–174, 178
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 168
Environment suitability, of red mud-based geopolymeric masonry blocks, 325
EPBD II, 65–66
Essential Requirements, 168–172
European Assessment Documents (EAD), 173
European Committee for Standardisation (CEN), 168–172
European Energy Performance of Buildings Directive 2002/91/EC (EPBD), 3
European Technical Assessment (ETA), 173
European Waste Catalogue (EWC), 129–132, 131t–132t, 133f, 150
Evolutionary structural optimization (ESO), 426
Evolved gas analysis (EGA), 150–153
External wall requirements, 252–255
energy economy and heat retention, 255
fire safety, 254
hygiene, health and environment, 254
mechanical resistance and stability, 253–254
natural resources, sustainable use of, 255
protection against noise, 255
safety in use, 254–255
F
Fillers, wastes as, 135, 163
Fine aggregate, strength development with, 348–349, 349f
Fineness modulus (FM) method, 193
Finite elements method, 50
Fired-clay bricks, 1–3
Fired-clay thermal conductivity, 49–50
Fired masonry bricks
clay fly-ash-based, 85–102
perforated, 13–44
waste-based, 129–188
agricultural, 112–122
industrial, 104–112
pore-forming, 103–128
Fired perforated clay units
design requirements for, 14–20
dry density
high gross dry density, 16–17, 19f
low gross dry density, 16–17, 18f
geometry requirements for, 16t–17t
physical requirements for, 37t
Fire resistance, 165
Fire safety, in shape optimized masonry blocks, 254
Firing ceramics, energy consumption and fuels for, 453–457, 455t–456t
Flexural strength
of autoclaved aerated concrete masonry blocks, 222
of waste-based fired masonry bricks, 154
Fluxing agent, wastes as, 133–135, 155–163
Fly ash (FA)
-based geopolymeric masonry bricks, See Fly ash–based geopolymeric masonry bricks
Class C, 199
Class F, 199, 273–274
masonry blocks, 198–202, 202f
morphology of, 195f
as pozzolan, 200–201
strength development with, 345–346, 345f
Fly ash–based geopolymeric masonry bricks, 273–288
curing process, 279
future research trends of, 285
microstructure properties of, 282–284
scanning electron microscope analysis, 282–284, 283f
X-ray diffraction analysis, 284, 285f
mix design parameters, 274–278
curing temperature, influence of, 276–278
curing time, influence of, 275–276, 276f
fly-ash-to-sand ratio, by mass, 274–275, 274f–275f
mixing process, 278–279
mixture proportion, 278
physical and mechanical properties of, 279–282
compressive strength of, 279, 280f
density analysis of, 281–282, 281f, 281t
dimensional tolerances, 282, 282t
water absorption of, 279–280, 280f
Fly-ash-to-sand ratio, by mass, 274–275, 274f–275f
Foam concrete, 216
Fourier transform infrared spectrometer (FTIR), 150–153
of red mud-based geopolymeric masonry blocks, 318–319, 319f
Freezing–thawing mechanism, 165, 194
Full-bed joint, in brickwork wall, 49
Full bedded masonry (FBM), 24–25, 25f–26f, 28–29, 28f
Furrowed-bed joint, in brickwork wall, 49
G
Gaseous emissions
in ceramic masonry units, 450–451
during firing waste-based fired masonry bricks, 138–153, 150f, 151t–152t
Genetic algorithm, optimization of masonry walls using, 257–258, 259f
Geopolymer masonry blocks
red mud-based, 311–328
Geopolymeric masonry bricks, fly ash–based, 273–288
curing process, 279
future research trends of, 285
microstructure properties of, 282–284
scanning electron microscope analysis, 282–284, 283f
X-ray diffraction analysis, 284, 285f
mix design parameters, 274–278
curing temperature, influence of, 276–278
curing time, influence of, 275–276, 276f
fly-ash-to-sand ratio, by mass, 274–275, 274f–275f
mixing process, 278–279
mixture proportion, 278
physical and mechanical properties of, 279–282
compressive strength of, 279, 280f
density analysis of, 281–282, 281f, 281t
dimensional tolerances, 282, 282t
water absorption of, 279–280, 280f
Geopolymer mortar
characteristics of, 330–331, 331f
cylinders, 333f
Grass, as pore former, 119–120
Greenhouse gas emissions (GHG), 1–3
Greenhouse Gas Protocol Initiative, 492
Ground furnace slag (GFS), 302–303
Ground granulated blast furnace slab (GGBS), 329–330, 342–343, 349
in compressed earth–based masonry bricks and blocks, 403–404, 404f–405f, 411t
compressive strength of, 201f
concrete block, 194–198
morphology of, 195f
Ground source heat pump (GSHP), 66–68
Gypsum, in autoclaved aerated concrete, 217–218
H
Harmonized European standards (hEN), 173
Heat retention, in shape optimized masonry blocks, 255
Heavy metals, 289, 305–306
High gross dry density (HD) clay units, 16–17, 19f
Highly perforated clay bricks, thermal performance influence on, 63–82
computational results and discussion, 74–77, 75f–77f
future trends of, 77–78
reference building, 65–74
architectural solution and technical equipment, 66–68, 67f, 68t, 69f
computer simulations, 72–74, 73f–74f
constructional solution, 69–72, 70f, 71t–72t
simulation tools for assessing, 65
High-pozzolanic industrial by-products content concrete masonry blocks, 191–214
fresh/hardened properties of, 192–194
future trends of, 207–208
ground granulated blast furnace slag concrete block, 194–198, 201f
masonry blocks
bagasse ash, 205–206, 207f
bottom ash, 198–202
coal ash, 198–202
corn cob ash, 206–207
fly ash, 198–202, 202f
palm oil fuel ash, 206
rice husk ash, 202–205, 205f
saw dust ash, 206–207
mix composition of, 192–194
morphology of, 195f
High-sulfate-containing fly ash
compressive strength of, 96–97, 97f
water absorption of, 96–97, 96f
Hollow clay brick masonry walls, 31–32, 31f
crack patterns for, 36f
experimental characterization of, 32–34
failure modes of, 32–33, 33f
force-lateral displacement of, 34
mechanical performance of, 31–32, 31f
seismic performance indexes for, 34–39, 37f, 37t, 39f
Hollow clay bricks, geometry and shape of, 20–21, 20f
Horizontal joint, in brickwork wall, 49
Hygro-thermal properties, of adobe earth-based masonry blocks, 369–372, 370t
I
Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad, 2f
Industrial waste-based fired masonry bricks, 104–112
marble industry, 110, 110f
paper industry, 111–112, 111f
sludge from industrial wastewater treatment plant, 104–107, 105f, 105t, 107f
textile sludge, 107–109, 108f–109f
Industrial waste reuse, 5–6
Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Directive (IPPC), 146
Intensive Compaction (IC) test, 192–193
International Standards for Life Cycle Assessment, 173–174
Isothermal conduction calorimetry studies, of red mud-based geopolymeric masonry blocks, 315–318, 315f, 317f–318f
J
Jarosite, 134f
JEOL JXA-8230F electron probe microanalyzer, 320
K
Kango Hammer test, 192–193
L
Large and highly perforated fired-clay brick
in single-leaf walls, 45–46
walls with, thermal conductivity of clay influence on, 45–62
Leaching behavior, of waste-based fired masonry bricks, 166t–167t, 172f
Life cycle assessment (LCA)
of ceramic masonry units, 448–450, 449t
earth-block houses, embodied energy and CO2 for, 485–486, 488f, 489–490
of waste-based fired masonry bricks, 130, 173–178
Lightweight concrete blocks
compressive strength of, 203f
drying shrinkage of, 203f
types of, 215–216
Lightweight concrete masonry, characteristics of, 263
Linear firing shrinkage (LFS), of waste-based fired masonry bricks, 155
Liquefied natural gas (LNG), 465
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), 451, 454
Liquid effluents, in ceramic masonry units, 450–451
Loss of ignition (LOI)
bagasse ash, 205–206, 207f
rice husk ash masonry blocks, 205
Low gross dry density (LD) clay units, 16–17, 18f
M
Marble industry waste, as pore former, 110, 110f
Masonry bricks and blocks, eco-efficient, 1–10, 4f
contributions of, 2–6
historical considerations of, 1–2
Mechanical resistance, of shape optimized masonry blocks, 253–254
Mechanical stability, of shape optimized masonry blocks, 253–254
Metakaolin, 329, 349
Microstructural characterization, of red mud-based geopolymeric masonry blocks, 320
Microstructure, of mine tailings-based geopolymeric masonry blocks, 293–294, 298–299, 303–305
Mineral waste, 6
Mine tailings-based geopolymeric masonry blocks, 289–310, 292t
aluminosilicate source material, addition of, 293–294
calcium, addition of, 296
curing temperature, use of, 295–296, 295t–296t
dehydroxylation of, 293
durability, 303–305, 305f
environmental performance of, 305–306
future trends of, 306–307
mechanical properties of, 298–303, 299f–300f, 300t–301t, 302f–303f
physical properties of, 298–303, 299f–300f, 300t–301t, 302f–303f
soluble silica in activation solution, utilization of, 294
synthesis of, 296–297, 297f
Mining exploration activities, wastes from, 136
fired masonry bricks containing
firing conditions for, 139t–141t
technological properties of, 156t–157t
Mining waste, 6
Mixture design of experiments (M-DoE), 163–164, 177
Module of rupture, See Flexural strength
Moisture content, of compressed earth–based masonry blocks, 382–384, 383f–384f
N
National Brazilian Regulations (NBR), 168
Natural gas (NG), 451, 454
Noise protection, in shape optimized masonry blocks, 255
Nonparaffin organics, 235
O
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC), 289–290
P
Palm bunch ash (PBA)
masonry blocks, 206–207
integration with compressed earth–based, 387–388
morphology of, 195f
Paper industry waste, as pore former, 111–112, 111f
Paper processing residues (PPR), 111–112
Paraffin organics, 234, 235t
Passive House Planning Package (PHPP), 65, 72
Passive houses, 64, 66–68
Patents
for ceramic products containing waste, 174t–176t
for waste-based fired masonry bricks, 169t–171t
Perforated fired masonry bricks, 13–44
fired clay units
design requirements for, 14–20
geometry requirements for, 16t–17t
high gross dry density, 16–17, 19f
low gross dry density, 16–17, 18f
physical requirements for, 37t
hollow clay bricks, geometry and shape of, 20–21, 20f
masonry assemblages with, 27–39
brick masonry under compression, mechanical performance of, 28–30, 28f–29f
brick masonry under shear, mechanical performance of, 30–39
hollow clay brick masonry walls, See Hollow clay brick masonry walls
masonry under compression, elastic properties of, 30
mechanical characteristics of, 23–27, 25f–27f
production, raw materials for, 21–23
by-products and additives, 22–23, 24f
conventional materials, 21–22
Phase change materials (PCM), concrete masonry blocks with, 231–248
analysis methods, 240–246, 241f, 243f, 245f
PCM selection criteria, 233–234
PCM types, 234–235
Polystyrene, 3–4
Polyurethane, 3–4
Pore formers, 135
Pore forming agents and/or fuels, wastes as, 163
Pore-forming waste-based fired masonry bricks, 103–128
agricultural waste, 112–122
charcoal, 117–119, 117f, 118t, 119f, 120t
sawdust, 116–117
sugarcane bagasse ash, 115–116, 115f
future trends of, 122
industrial waste, 104–112
marble industry, 110, 110f
paper industry, 111–112, 111f
sludge from industrial wastewater treatment plant, 104–107, 105f, 105t, 107f
textile sludge, 107–109, 108f–109f
Porosity, of waste-based fired masonry bricks, 155
Portland cement (PC)
use in autoclaved aerated concrete, 218–224, 226
use in high-pozzolanic industrial by-products content concrete masonry blocks, 192, 394–395
Preconditional generalized minimum residual (PGMR), 244
Processed waste tea (PWT), as pore former, 119–120
Proctor test
modified, 192–193
standard, 192–193
Product category rules (PCR), 173–174
Property affecting wastes, 135
Pulverized coal combustion (PCC), 194, 201
Pulverized fuel ash (PFA), use in compressed earth–based masonry bricks and blocks, 404–406
Q
Quadrupole mass spectrometer (QMS), 150–153
Quarrying waste, 6
R
RAMP (rational approximation material properties) method, 427, 431–433
Rectangular clay blocks, 435–436, 435f, 436t, 437f
Rectangular voids, equivalent transmittance of bricks with, 52–53, 53t, 54f
Red mud-based geopolymeric masonry blocks, 311–328
characterization of, 313–314, 313f–314f, 314t
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, 318–319, 319f
isothermal conduction calorimetry studies of, 317–318, 317f–318f
mechanical properties of, 319–320, 319f
microstructural characterization of, 320
production of, 320–325, 321f, 323f, 323t
durability behavior, 322–325, 324f, 325t
environment suitability, 325
suitability of, 315–317, 315f–316f
Reinforced concrete framing, 463
Revit (modelling software), 492, 500f–501f
Rhomboidal voids, equivalent transmittance of bricks with, 53–55, 54t, 55f
Rice husk ash (RHA)
integration with compressed earth–based masonry blocks, 386–387
masonry blocks, 202–205
morphology of, 195f, 204
as pore former, 112–115, 113f–114f
Roof tiles, 448–451, 449t, 452t
S
Salt hydrates, 235, 236t
Salts attack, 165
Sandcrete-block houses, embodied energy and CO2 for, 481–514, 487f
assessment
methodology, 485–486, 489–490
object and system boundary, 486–489
calculation and use of tools, 492, 492f
case studies’ applications, 493–499
column footings, concrete for, 498
component, sample computation of, 494
damp-proof course, 497
description, 493–494, 493f–494f
formwork, timber for, 498
foundation, specimen calculation of, 495, 496f
foundation wall joints, mortar for, 497–498
gravel substrate, 499
ground beam, concrete for, 498
ground floor slab, 498–499
lean concrete, 495–497
sand, 499
solid foundation wall, 497
data collection methods, 490
data integration, 492–493
discussion and analysis, 501–510, 506t–509t
inventory sources, 490–491
mathematical models, 491
overview of, 482–484, 483f
-related studies, 484, 485t
results validation, 499–501
Saw dust ash (SDA)
masonry blocks, 206–207
as pore former, 108
Scanning electron microscope analysis, of fly ash–based geopolymeric masonry bricks, 282–284, 283f
Scanning electron microscopy–energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) analysis, 315–317
of red mud-based geopolymeric masonry blocks, 316f
ScienceDirect (database), 484
Shape optimized masonry blocks, 249–270
enhanced performance of, using optimization techniques, 255–264
genetic algorithm, 257–258, 259f
industrial developments, 262–264, 264f–266f
optimal thermal insulation, using topology optimization, 258–262, 261t, 262f
external wall requirements, 252–255
energy economy and heat retention, 255
fire safety, 254
hygiene, health and environment, 254
mechanical resistance and stability, 253–254
natural resources, sustainable use of, 255
protection against noise, 255
safety in use, 254–255
future trends of, 267
modern masonry solutions, 250–252, 251f–253f
Shear, brick masonry under, mechanical performance of, 30–39
Shell bedded masonry (FBM), 24–25, 25f–26f, 28–29, 28f
Silica fume, 349, 356–357
SIMP model, 431
Single-leaf walls, large and highly perforated fired-clay brick in, 45–46
Sludge
from industrial wastewater treatment plant, 104–107, 105f, 105t, 107f
Soil aggregates, 395–396
Solid wastes, in ceramic masonry units, 450–451
Soluble silica in activation solution, utilization of, 294
Spent grains from brewing industry, as pore former, 119–121
Square clay blocks, 435–436, 435f, 436t, 437f
Static compaction device, 331–332, 332f
Straw and clay masonry blocks, energy and carbon embodied in, 461–480
current materials and building efficiency, 462–466
fired clay bricks and concrete walls, 463–464
households, affordability of, 464–465
natural gas, 465–466
farming walls, 466–471
straw availability, sustainability issues limiting, 468
straw-bale options, 467, 468f
wheat straw, energy and carbon embodied in, 468–471, 472f
future trends of, 477–478
straw and clay blocks, 471–477
embodied human labour assessment, 473
energy and carbon embodied in, 473–475, 474f
small enterprises, input data from, 472
wall elements, thermal efficiency of, 475–477, 476t
Strength development, with degree of saturation, 332–334, 333f, 335f
Sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA), 115–116, 115f
Sunflower seed shell, as pore former, 119–121
T
Tekla (calculation tools), 492
Termoarcilla® brick, 46
Textile sludge, as pore former, 107–109, 108f–109f
Thermal compliance, 428–429
Thermal conductivity
of clay, influence on walls with large and highly perforated fired-clay brick, 45–62
boundary conditions, 50, 50f
bricks with rectangular voids, equivalent transmittance of, 52–53, 53t, 54f
bricks with rhomboidal voids, equivalent transmittance of, 53–55, 54t, 55f
comparative analysis, 55–57, 56f, 57t, 58f, 58t
fired-clay thermal conductivity, 49–50
future trends of, 59
horizontal joints, 49
materials and methods, 47–52, 47f–52f
thermal calculations, 50–52, 51f–52f
of compressed earth–based masonry blocks, 384–386
Thermal cured geopolymer blocks, 335–342
fine aggregate on strength, effect of, 338, 338f
future trends of, 356–357
geopolymers, proportioning of, 340
mix proportions of, 336t
model validation, 342
phenomenological model, development of, 340–341, 341f
strength development with/without loss of moisture, 338–340, 339f–340f
strength variation at initial constant degree of saturation, 335–337, 337f
Thermal efficiency
of masonry blocks, 439–441, 439f, 439t, 440f–441f, 441t–442t
of perforated fired masonry bricks, 19–21, 40
Thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA), of autoclaved aerated concrete masonry blocks, 215, 223–224
Thermal performance, influence on traditional fired and highly perforated clay bricks, 63–82
computational results and discussion, 74–77, 75f–77f
future trends of, 77–78
reference building, 65–74
architectural solution and technical equipment, 66–68, 67f, 68t, 69f
computer simulations, 72–74, 73f–74f
constructional solution, 69–72, 70f, 71t–72t
simulation tools for assessing, 65
Thermal performance of masonry blocks, enhanced by topology optimization, 425–446
future perspectives of, 442
numerical investigations for, 434–441, 434t
blocks thermal efficiency, enhancement of, 439–441, 439f, 439t, 440f–441f, 441t–442t
clay blocks with flat or indented sides, 436–438, 437t, 438f, 438t, 439f
square versus rectangular clay blocks, 435–436, 435f, 436t, 437f
problem formulation for, 430–434
continuous formulation, 431–432
discrete formulation, 432–434
thermal and mechanical properties of, interpolation model for, 430–431
steady-state heat conduction problem, 427–429
governing equations, 427–428
transmittance and thermal compliance, 428–429
Thermal transmittance, 428–429
walls with large and highly perforated fired-clay brick, 46–48, 47f, 50
Thermal treatments, waste from, 136–138
fired masonry bricks containing
firing conditions for, 142t–145t
technological properties of, 158t–160t
Thermogravimetry (TGA), 150–153
Thin joint, in brickwork wall, 49
Tobacco residues, as pore former, 119–120
Tobermorite, 218–224
Topology optimization, masonry blocks thermal performance enhancement by, 425–446
future perspectives of, 442
numerical investigations for, 434–441, 434t
blocks thermal efficiency, enhancement of, 439–441, 439f, 439t, 440f–441f, 441t–442t
clay blocks with flat or indented sides, 436–438, 437t, 438f, 438t, 439f
square versus rectangular clay blocks, 435–436, 435f, 436t, 437f
problem formulation for, 430–434
continuous formulation, 431–432
discrete formulation, 432–434
thermal and mechanical properties of, interpolation model for, 430–431
steady-state heat conduction problem, 427–429
governing equations, 427–428
transmittance and thermal compliance, 428–429
Topology optimization, optimal thermal insulation of masonry walls using, 258–262, 261t, 262f
Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP), 168, 325
Traditional fired clay bricks, thermal performance influence on, 63–82
computational results and discussion, 74–77, 75f–77f
future trends of, 77–78
reference building, 65–74
architectural solution and technical equipment, 66–68, 67f, 68t, 69f
computer simulations, 72–74, 73f–74f
constructional solution, 69–72, 70f, 71t–72t
simulation tools for assessing, 65
U
Unconfined compressive strength (UCS), of mine tailings-based geopolymeric masonry blocks, 298–303, 299f, 302f–303f
V
Volatile organic compounds (VOC), 146
W
Waste
mineral, 6
mining, 6
quarrying, 6
reuse, 5–6
Waste-based fired masonry bricks, 129–188
agricultural, 112–119
clay minerals and alternative raw materials, comparison between, 135–138, 137f
current framework for, 173–177
environmental product declaration, 173–174
patents and commercial initiatives, 174–177
durability of, 164–168
environmental behaviour of, 168–172
future trends of, 177–178
industrial, 104–112
industry waste classification, 130–135
European Waste Catalogue, 130–132, 131t–132t, 133f
roles in ceramic matrix, 132–135, 134f
manufacturing of, firing conditions for, 138–153
gaseous emissions during firing process, 138–153, 150f, 151t–152t
waste from thermal treatments, 142t–145t
wastes from mining exploration activities, 139t–141t
wastes from waste management facilities, 147t–149t
technological properties of, 153–164, 156t–157t
analysis and modeling of, 163–164
waste from thermal treatments, 158t–160t
wastes from mining exploration activities, 156t–157t
wastes from waste management facilities, 161t–162t
leaching behaviour of, 166t–167t, 172f
patents for, 169t–171t
pore-forming, 103–128
waste pore-forming, 119–122
Waste Management Act 1996, 5
Waste Management Act 2001, 5
Waste management facilities, wastes from, 136–138
fired masonry bricks containing
firing conditions for, 147t–149t
technological properties of, 161t–162t
Wastepaper sludge ash (WSA), in compressed earth–based masonry bricks and blocks, 406–407, 406f–407f
Water absorption (WA)
of clay fly-ash–based fired masonry bricks, 92–94, 94f
of compressed earth–based masonry blocks, 382–384, 385f
of fly ash–based geopolymeric masonry bricks, 279–280, 280f
of rice husk-based fired masonry bricks, 114–115, 114f
of waste-based fired masonry bricks, 153–154
Weight loss during firing, of waste-based fired masonry bricks, 154–155
Wetting–drying mechanism, 165
Wheat straw, energy and carbon embodied in, 468–471, 472f
X
X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis
autoclaved aerated concrete masonry blocks, 215, 223
of fly ash–based geopolymeric masonry bricks, 284, 285f
of mine tailings-based geopolymeric masonry blocks, 290–291, 291f, 304–305, 305f
of red mud-based geopolymeric masonry blocks, 314, 314f, 316
Y
Young’s modulus, 369
Z
Zero-energy building, 3
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