NOTES

Preface

1. Hannah Boland, “Amazon Plans Cashierless Store at Heart of London’s West End,” The Telegraph (December 10, 2018), https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/2018/12/09/amazon-plans-cashierless-store-heart-londons-west-end.

2. Glenn Taylor, “Sainsbury’s Pilots Cashierless Checkout Store,” Retail Touchpoints (April 30, 2019), https://retailtouchpoints.com/topics/digital-marketing/mobile-marketing/sainsbury-s-pilots-cashierless-checkout-store.

3. Vivek Wadhwa and Alex Salkever, The Driver in the Driverless Car: How Your Technology Choices Create the Future, 2nd ed. (Oakland, California: Berrett-Koehler, 2019).

Introduction

1. Chris Gebhart, “Falcon Heavy Soars; SpaceX Lands Critical NASA Double Asteroid Redirect Launch,” NASA Spaceflight.com (April 12, 2019), https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2019/04/falcon-heavy-spacex-nasa-asteroid-redirect.

2. Eric Berger, “SpaceX Details Its Plans for Landing Three Falcon Heavy Boosters at Once,” Ars Technica (January 12, 2018), https://arstechnica.com/science/2017/01/spacex-details-its-plans-for-landing-three-falcon-heavy-boosters-at-once.

3. Peter B. de Selding, “SpaceX’s Reusable Falcon 9: What Are the Real Cost Savings for Customers?” SpaceNews (April 15, 2016), https://spacenews.com/spacexs-reusable-falcon-9-what-are-the-real-cost-savings-for-customers.

4. “Boeing Tests Augmented Reality in the Factory,” Boeing (January 19, 2018), https://www.boeing.com/features/2018/01/augmented-reality-01-18.page.

5. Dan Koeppel, “The Best Men’s Razors (for Any Face),” Wirecutter (July 10, 2019), https://thewirecutter.com/reviews/best-manual-razor.

6. All dollar amounts in this book without a currency specification refer to U.S. dollars.

7. Michael Dubin and Diana Ransom, “How Dollar Shave Club Rode a Viral Video to Sales Success,” Inc. (July–August 2015), https://www.inc.com/magazine/201507/diana-ransom/how-youtube-crashed-our-website.html.

8. Scott Cook, “#37 Gillette,” Forbes (May 22, 2019), https://www.forbes.com/companies/gillette/#3733984c10a0.

9. John Mannes, “Unilever Buys Dollar Shave Club for Reported $1B Value,” Techcrunch (July 20, 2016), https://techcrunch.com/2016/07/19/unilever-buys-dollar-shave-club-for-reported-1b-value.

PART I:
Why Exponential Disruptions Are Happening More Quickly and More Often

1. U.S. Healthweather™ Map (updated 22 May 2020), https://healthweather.us/?mode=C.+Atypical.

Chapter One:
The Technological Basis of Breakthrough Disruption

1. As of this writing, Uber has lost its license to operate in London, after Transport for London identified “several breaches that placed passengers and their safety at risk.” This illustrates that taking advantage of new sources of competitive advantage does not obviate the need for compliance with the basics of good operating methods. Costas Pitas, “‘Unfit’ Uber Loses London License over Safety Failures,” Reuters Technology News (November 25, 2019), https://www.reuters.com/article/us-uber-britain/unfit-uber-loses-london-license-over-safety-failures-idUSKBN1XZ0VL.

2. “Garmin Market Cap 2006–2019,” Mactotrends.net, https://www.macrotrends.net/stocks/charts/GRMN/garmin/market-cap (accessed April 17, 2020).

3. Howard Smith, “Garmin Stock Clears $100: Does It Still Have Room to Run?” The Motley Fool (January 28, 2020), https://www.fool.com/investing/2020/01/28/garmin-stock-clears-100-does-it-have-room-to-run.aspx.

4. Ajay Agrawal, Joshua Gans, and Avi Goldfarb, Prediction Machines: The Simple Economics of Artificial Intelligence (Harvard: Harvard Business Review, 2018).

5. National Human Genome Research Institute, “The Cost of Sequencing a Human Genome,” Genome.gov (October 30, 2019), https://www.genome.gov/about-genomics/fact-sheets/Sequencing-Human-Genome-cost.

6. The behavior and manipulation of minute quantities of fluids in narrow spaces.

Chapter Two:
The Unexpected Consequences of Advancing Technologies

1. Jackie Fenn, “Meet Jackie Fenn: Gartner Analyst, Hype Cycle Inventor and Novelist,” Gartner Blog (August 19, 2019), https://blogs.gartner.com/careers/2019/08/19/meet-jackie-fenn-gartner-analyst-hype-cycle-inventor-novelist.

2. Everett Rogers, Diffusion of Innovations, 5th ed. (New York and London: Simon & Schuster, 2003).

3. Nathan Bomey, “Shareholders of USA TODAY Owner Gannett and New Media Investment Group Approve Merger,” USA TODAY (November 14, 2019), https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/2019/11/14/gannett-new-media-investment-group-merger-vote-results/2578352001.

Chapter Three:
The Old Innovator’s Dilemma versus the New Innovator’s Dilemma

1. Clayton M. Christensen, The Innovator’s Dilemma: When New Technologies Cause Great Firms to Fail (Harvard: Harvard Business Review Press, 2016).

2. Todd Spangler, “Netflix Bandwidth Consumption Eclipsed by Web Media Streaming Applications,” Variety (September 10, 2019), https://variety.com/2019/digital/news/netflix-loses-title-top-downstream-bandwidth-application-1203330313.

3. Benjamin Mullin and Lillian Rizzo, “Altice U.S.A. Buys Streaming-Video Network Cheddar for $200 Million,” The Wall Street Journal (February 16, 2020), https://www.wsj.com/articles/altice-usa-buys-streaming-video-network-cheddar-for-200-million-11556640120.

4. “Bloomberg to Take Over BusinessWeek,” NBC News (October 13, 2009), http://www.nbcnews.com/id/33299108.

5. Michael Corkery, “Sears, the Original Everything Store, Files for Bankruptcy,” The New York Times (October 14, 2018), https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/14/business/sears-bankruptcy-filing-chapter-11.html.

6. Spencer Soper, “More than 50% of Shoppers Turn First to Amazon in Product Search,” Bloomberg (September 27, 2016), https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-09-27/more-than-50-of-shoppers-turn-first-to-amazon-in-product-search.

7. Julie Creswell, “How Amazon Steers Shoppers to Its Own Products,” The New York Times (June 23, 2018), https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/23/business/amazon-the-brand-buster.html.

8. James Vincent and Chaim Gartenberg, “Here’s Amazon’s New Transforming Prime Air Delivery Drone,” The Verge (June 5, 2019), https://www.theverge.com/2019/6/5/18654044/amazon-prime-air-delivery-drone-new-design-safety-transforming-flight-video.

9. Max Chafkin, “Warby Parker Sees the Future of Retail,” Fast Company (February 17, 2015), https://www.fastcompany.com/3041334/warby-parker-sees-the-future-of-retail.

10. Stefanie Fogel, “Tesla Model S Breaks Acceleration Record with Ludicrous Mode,” Engadget (February 7, 2017), https://www.engadget.com/2017/02/07/tesla-model-s-ludicrous-acceleration-record.

11. Travis Hoium, “Tesla’s Solar Business Hits Another Roadblock,” The Motley Fool (March 11, 2020), https://www.fool.com/investing/2020/03/11/teslas-solar-business-is-falling-apart.aspx.

PART II:
Why Top-Down Innovation Efforts Usually Fail

1. William Langewiesche, “What Really Brought Down the Boeing 737 Max?” The New York Times Magazine (September 18, 2019, revised January 21, 2020), https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/18/magazine/boeing-737-max-crashes.html.

2. Erik Brynjolfsson and Andrew McAfee, The Second Machine Age: Work, Progress, and Prosperity in a Time of Brilliant Technologies (New York: W.W. Norton, 2016).

Chapter Four:
False Assumptions, Broken Models, Wasted Effort

1. Stuart W. Leslie and Robert H. Kargon, “Selling Silicon Valley: Frederick Terman’s Model for Regional Advantage,” The Business History Review 1996 winter 70, no. 4 (winter 1996):435–72, https://www.jstor.org/stable/3117312.

2. Antonio Regalado, “In Innovation Quest, Regions Seek Critical Mass,” MIT Technology Review 116, no. 3 (July–August 2013), https://www.technologyreview.com/s/516501/in-innovation-quest-regions-seek-critical-mass.

3. AnnaLee Saxenian, Regional Advantage: Culture and Competition in Silicon Valley (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996).

4. Vivek Wadhwa, AnnaLee Saxenian, Ben A. Rissing, and G. Gereffi, America’s New Immigrant Entrepreneurs: Part I (Chapel Hill, NC: Duke University, 2007), https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=990152.

5. Lance Whitney, “Google Closes $3.2 Billion Purchase of Nest,” CNet (February 12, 2014), https://www.cnet.com/news/google-closes-3-2-billion-purchase-of-nest.

6. “Capgemini Consulting and Altimeter Global Report Reveals Leading Businesses Continue to Struggle with Innovation, with Traditional R&D Model ‘Broken,’” Capgemini (July 23, 2015), https://www.capgemini.com/news/capgemini-consulting-and-altimeter-global-report-reveals-leading-businesses-continue-to.

7. Marc Andreessen, “The PMARCA Guide Startups: Part 4: The Only Thing That Matters,” Pmarchive (June 25, 2007), https://pmarchive.com/guide_to_startups_part4.html.

Chapter Five:
The Rules of the Game Have Changed in Critical Ways

1. John Zealley, Robert Wollan, and Joshua Bellin, “Marketers Need to Stop Focusing on Loyalty and Start Thinking about Relevance,” Harvard Business Review (March 21, 2018), https://hbr.org/2018/03/marketers-need-to-stop-focusing-on-loyalty-and-start-thinking-about-relevance.

2. Paige Leskin, “Inside the Rise of TikTok, the Viral Video-Sharing App Whose Ties to China Are Raising Concerns in the U.S.,” Business Insider Australia (July 7, 2019), https://www.businessinsider.com.au/tiktok-app-online-website-video-sharing-2019-7.

3. Nick Statt, “TikTok’s Global Social Media Takeover Is Starting to Slow Down,” The Verge (November 4, 2019), https://www.theverge.com/2019/11/4/20948731/tiktok-bytedance-china-social-media-growth-users-decline-first-time.

4. Clay Shirky, Here Comes Everybody: The Power of Organizing without Organizations (London and New York: Penguin, 2008).

5. Don Tapscott and Anthony D. Williams, Wikinomics: How Mass Collaboration Changes Everything (London and New York: Penguin, 2006).

6. Kevin Kelly, “1,000 True Fans,” in Timothy Ferriss, Tools of Titans: The Tactics, Routines, and Habits of Billionaires, Icons, and World-Class Performers (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2016).

7. Michelle He Yee Lee, “Billionaire Owner of SoulCycle, Miami Dolphins Faces Backlash over Trump Fundraiser,” The Washington Post (August 8, 2019), https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/billionaire-owner-of-soulcycle-miami-dolphins-endures-backlash-over-trump-fundraiser/2019/08/07/ce816790-b936-11e9-b3b4-2bb69e8c4e39_story.html.

Chapter Six:
What Has Not Changed

1. Rob von Behren and Jonathan Wall, “Coming Soon: Make Your Phone Your Wallet,” Google Blog (May 26, 2011), https://googleblog.blogspot.com/2011/05/coming-soon-make-your-phone-your-wallet.html.

2. “Apple Pay Overtakes Starbucks as Top Mobile Payment App in the U.S.,” eMarketer (October 23, 2019), https://www.emarketer.com/content/apple-pay-overtakes-starbucks-as-top-mobile-payment-app-in-the-us.

3. Peter Cohan, “Zoom Scoops Customers from Cisco in $16 Billion Video Conferencing Market,” Forbes (3 October 3, 2017), https://www.forbes.com/sites/petercohan/2017/10/03/zoom-scoops-customers-from-cisco-in-16-billion-videoconferencing-market.

Chapter Seven:
The Eight Deadly Sins That Disable Change Efforts

1. Charles A. O’Reilly III and Michael L. Tushman, Lead and Disrupt: How to Solve the Innovator’s Dilemma (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 2016), https://www.gsb.stanford.edu/faculty-research/books/lead-disrupt-how-solve-innovators-dilemma.

2. Philip Beeching, “Why Did HMV Fail?” The Guardian (January 16, 2013), https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/jan/15/why-did-hmv-fail.

3. O’Reilly and Tushman, Lead and Disrupt.

4. Chris Smith, “Nike FuelBand: The Rise and Fall of the Wearable That Started It All,” Wareable (February 22, 2016), https://www.wareable.com/fitness-trackers/not-so-happy-birthday-nike-fuelband-2351.

5. Kaomi Goetz, “How 3M Gave Everyone Days Off and Created an Innovation Dynamo,” Fast Company (January 2, 2011), 6, https://www.fastcompany.com/1663137/how-3m-gave-everyone-days-off-and-created-an-innovation-dynamo.

6. Hayagreeva Rao, Robert Sutton, and Allen P. Webb, “Innovation Lessons from Pixar: An Interview with Oscar-Winning Director Brad Bird,” McKinsey Quarterly (April 2008), https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/strategy-and-corporate-finance/our-insights/innovation-lessons-from-pixar-an-interview-with-oscar-winning-director-brad-bird.

7. Ellen McGirt, “How Cisco’s CEO John Chambers Is Turning the Tech Giant Socialist,” Fast Company (December 1, 2008), https://www.fastcompany.com/1093654/how-ciscos-ceo-john-chambers-turning-tech-giant-socialist.

8. Martha Lagace, “Gerstner: Changing Culture at IBM—Lou Gerstner Discusses Changing the Culture at IBM,” Harvard Business School Working Knowledge (December 9, 2002), https://hbswk.hbs.edu/archive/gerstner-changing-culture-at-ibm-lou-gerstner-discusses-changing-the-culture-at-ibm.

9. Simon London, “Microsoft’s Next Act,” McKinsey Quarterly (April 2018), https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/technology-media-and-telecommunications/our-insights/microsofts-next-act.

Chapter Eight:
“Don’t Buy This Jacket”: Subverting Retail Expectations

1. Patagonia, “Don’t Buy This Jacket, Black Friday and The New York Times,” Patagonia (November 25, 2011), https://www.patagonia.com/blog//2011/11/dont-buy-this-jacket-black-friday-and-the-new-york-times.

2. Jeff Beer, “How Patagonia Grows Every Time It Amplifies Its Social Mission,” Fast Company (March–April 2018), https://www.fastcompany.com/40525452/how-patagonia-grows-every-time-it-amplifies-its-social-mission.

Chapter Nine:
Platform Technologies and Marketplaces

1. Rob Fijneman, Karina Kuperus, and Jochem Pasman, Unlocking the Value of the Platform Economy: Mastering the Good, the Bad and the Ugly (Amsterdam: Transformation Forums, 2018), https://dutchitchannel.nl/612528/dutch-transformation-platform-economy-paper-kpmg.pdf.

2. Geoffrey G. Parker, Marshall W. Van Alstyne, and Sangeet Paul Choudary, Platform Revolution: How Networked Markets Are Transforming the Economy and How to Make Them Work for You (New York: W. W. Norton, 2016).

Chapter Ten:
How to (Dis)organize for Innovation

1. Dave Gershgorn and Harlan Murphy, “The 10 Greatest Home Innovations of the Year,” Popular Science (October 19, 2016), https://www.popsci.com/10-greatest-home-innovations-year.

2. Barry Jaruzelski, Robert Chwalik, and Brad Goehle, “What the Top Innovators Get Right,” Strategy+Business 93 (winter 2018), https://www.strategy-business.com/feature/What-the-Top-Innovators-Get-Right.

Chapter Eleven:
The Tactics of Innovative Companies

1. Gov.UK, Innovation Funding Service, “SBRI: Competition in Railway Platform Edge and End Technology,” Funding Competition (December 2019), https://apply-for-innovation-funding.service.gov.uk/competition/511/overview.

2. “Stuck at Prom Scholarship Contest,” duckbrand.com 2020 (n.d.), https://www.duckbrand.com/stuck-at-prom.

3. “What Is Design Thinking?” IDEO U (n.d.), https://www.ideou.com/blogs/inspiration/what-is-design-thinking.

4. The Lean Startup (n.d.), http://theleanstartup.com/.

5. PBS, “The Television Program Transcripts: Part III: PBS Triumph of the Nerds,” http://www.pbs.org/nerds/part3.html.

6. Rao, Sutton, and Webb, “Innovation Lessons from Pixar: An Interview with Brad Bird.”

Chapter Twelve:
Change Management and Company Culture: An Innovation Manifesto

1. Jay Greene, “10 Years Later, Amazon Celebrates Prime’s Triumph,” The Seattle Times (February 2, 2015), https://www.seattletimes.com/business/amazon/10-years-later-amazon-celebrates-primes-triumph.

2. Todd Spangler, “Amazon has more than 100 million Prime subscribers, Jeff Bezos discloses”, Variety 18 April 2020, https://variety.com/2018/digital/news/amazon-prime-100-million-subscribers-jeff-bezos-1202757832.

3. Gabriela Barkho, “Amazon’s Q3 Earnings Show Company Invested Billions in Prime One-Day Delivery,” Observer (October 25, 2019), https://observer.com/2019/10/amazon-q3-earnings-prime-one-day-delivery-costs.

4. Mark Ellis, “Flush with Cash: British Airways Saves £600,000 on Fuel by Descaling Its Toilet Pipes,” The Mirror (February 23, 2012), https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/flush-with-cash-british-airways-saves-740383.

5. Goetz, “How 3M Gave Everyone Days Off and Created an Innovation Dynamo.”

6. Eric von Hippel, Free Innovation (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2016), https://evhippel.mit.edu.

7. von Hippel, Free Innovation.

8. von Hippel, Free Innovation.

9. Julia Milner and Trenton Milner, “Most Managers Don’t Know How to Coach People: But They Can Learn,” Harvard Business Review (August 14, 2018), https://hbr.org/2018/08/most-managers-dont-know-how-to-coach-people-but-they-can-learn.

10. Lori Goler, Janelle Gale, Brynn Harrington, and Adam Grant, “Why People Really Quit Their Jobs,” Harvard Business Review (January 11, 2018), https://hbr.org/2018/01/why-people-really-quit-their-jobs.

11. Ed Catmull, “How Pixar Fosters Collective Creativity,” Harvard Business Review (September 2008), https://hbr.org/2008/09/how-pixar-fosters-collective-creativity.

12. Wolfgang Stroebe and Michael Diehl, “Why Groups Are Less Effective Than Their Members: On Productivity Losses in Idea-Generating Groups,” European Review of Social Psychology vol. 5 (1994: 271–303), https://product.design.umn.edu/courses/pdes2701/documents/5701papers/04bluesky/streobe11.pdf.

Chapter Thirteen:
How to Recognize and Use the Strengths of Incumbency

1. “Adieu AYEM!,” AYEM (n.d.), https://www.myayem.co.uk.

2. Kevin White, “First Brand Launched by Danone Accelerator Scheme Rolls Out,” The Grocer (November 15, 2018), https://www.thegrocer.co.uk/buying-and-supplying/new-product-development/first-brand-launched-by-danone-accelerator-scheme-rolls-out/573865.article.

3. Jules Scully, “Danone’s Innovation Incubator Introduces Pati & Coco Desserts,” Foodbev Media (December 22, 2019), https://www.foodbev.com/news/danones-innovation-incubator-introduces-pati-coco-desserts.

4. Charlotte Rogers, “Alcoholic Kombucha and Salmon Skin Crisps: How Sainsbury’s Innovation Team Chases ‘Entrepreneurial Heat,’” MarketingWeek (June 24, 2019), https://www.marketingweek.com/sainsburys-future-brands-innovation.

5. Grand View Research, Nutraceuticals Market Analyses by Product (Dietary Supplements, Functional Food, Functional Beverage), by Region (North America, Asia Pacific, Europe, CSA, MEA), and Segment Forecasts, 2018–2025 (San Francisco: Grand View Research, 2017), https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/nutraceuticals-market.

6. Capital requirements have been the bane of Tesla’s existence and the primary reason the company is constantly raising money.

7. Catherine Clifford, “Coke CEO: Why We Have an Award for Projects That Fail,” CNBC Make It (December 2, 2019), https://www.cnbc.com/2019/12/02/coke-ceo-quincey-why-coca-cola-co-has-award-for-projects-that-fail.html.

Chapter Fourteen:
From Dinosaurs to Eagles: Four Case Studies

1. Apple iPad 2 Keynote, Special Event, March 2011, YouTube, 1:08:43–1:09:09, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TGxEQhdi1AQ.

2. Marshall B. Rosenberg, Nonviolent Communication: A Language of Life, 3rd ed. (Encinitas, California: PuddleDancer Press, 2015), https://www.amazon.com/Nonviolent-Communication-Language-Life-Changing-Relationships/dp/189200528X.

3. Kate Rooney, “Online shopping overtakes a major part of retail for the first time ever”, CNBC (2 April 2019), https://www.cnbc.com/2019/04/02/online-shopping-officially-overtakes-brick-and-mortar-retail-for-the-first-time-ever.html.

4. Alex Grigoryan, “Introducing Electrode, an Open Source Release from @Walmart Labs,” M TECH BLOG Walmart Labs (October 4, 2016), https://medium.com/walmartlabs/introducing-electrode-an-open-source-release-from-walmartlabs-14b836135319.

5. Abha Bhattarai, “Walmart, Gaining on Amazon, Says Its Online Sales Grew 50 Percent,” The Washington Post (November 17, 2017), https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/business/wp/2017/11/16/walmart-gaining-on-amazon-says-its-online-sales-grew-50-percent.

Chapter Fifteen:
Innovation Management Government

1. Henry Farrell, “This Year’s Economics Nobel Winner Invented a Tool That’s Both Brilliant and Undemocratic,” Vox (October 16, 2018), https://www.vox.com/the-big-idea/2017/10/16/16481836/nudges-thaler-nobel-economics-prize-undemocratic-tool.

2. Richard H. Thaler and Cass R. Sunstein, Nudge: Improving Decisions about Health, Wealth, and Happiness (London: Penguin Books, 2008).

3. Michael Hallsworth, John A. List, Robert D. Metcalfe, and Ivo Vlaev, “The Behavioralist as Tax Collector: Using Natural Field Experiments to Enhance Tax Compliance,” Journal of Public Economics 148 (127): 14–31, http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/88777/1/WRAP-behavioralist-tax-collector-Vlaev-2017.pdf.

4. Anna Sallis, Hugo Harper, and Michael Sanders, “Effect of Persuasive Messages on National Health Service Organ Donor Registrations: A Pragmatic Quasi-Randomised Controlled Trial with One Million U.K. Road Taxpayers,” Trials 19 (2018):513, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6150960.

5. Ben Quinn, “The ‘Nudge Unit’: The Experts That Became a Prime U.K. Export,” The Guardian (November 11, 2018), https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2018/nov/10/nudge-unit-pushed-way-private-sector-behavioural-insights-team.

6. Nikhil R. Sahni, Maxwell Wessel, and Clayton M. Christensen, “Unleashing Breakthrough Innovation in Government,” Stanford Social Innovation Review 2013 (summer): 27–31, https://ssir.org/articles/entry/unleashing_breakthrough_innovation_in_government.

7. Emily Files, “Laundromat Libraries Aim to Boost Literacy in Milwaukee,” WUWM (October 10, 2019), https://www.wuwm.com/post/laundromat-libraries-aim-boost-literacy-milwaukee.

8. Joe Buchanan, “Monongalia County Health Department Uses Popular Dating App to Spread Health Alert,” WDTV (November 21, 2019), https://www.wdtv.com/content/news/Monongalia-County-Health-Department-uses-popular-dating-app-to-spread-health-alert-565301431.html.

Conclusion:
You Can’t Ignore It; How Can You Embrace It?

1. Clayton M. Christensen, Michael E. Raynor, and Rory McDonald, “What Is Disruptive Innovation?” Harvard Business Review (December 2015), https://hbr.org/2015/12/what-is-disruptive-innovation.

2. Christensen, Raynor, and McDonald, “What Is Disruptive Innovation?”