Index
ability, 33–35, 46, 49–50, 54, 56–58, 62, 73, 76, 85; underrating of, 53–54, 144–145; underperformance, 76–77
achievement, 54
accommodating style, 52, 59, 63, 73
affirmation, 27–28, 43, 46, 55, 87
age, 36, 41, 55–56, 65, 85, 329–330, agenda setting, 243–245, 350
assertiveness: assertive style, 47, 52–53, 58–62, 308; effects of, 203; in women, 58–62, 165–166
Atkeson, Lonna Rae, 22, 38, 40, 42, 49, 64, 279
authoritative acts, 59, 85, 115
authoritative representation, 317–318
authority, 1–2, 5, 18, 25–27, 33, 115, 307; entitlement to, 51, 85; factors contributing to level of, 23, 25, 42–43, 88, 115, 130, 137
authority gender gap, 1, 22–23, 25, 27, 42–43, 53, 55, 58, 71, 138–139, 151
average participation, 1; per capita participation, 101–102
Brady, Henry, 10, 33–34, 36, 38–41, 58, 164
Bryan, Frank, 11, 15, 97, 110, 113, 114
Burns, Nancy, 3, 9, 19, 22–23, 34–39, 41–42, 48–49, 80, 82–86, 116, 141, 170, 194, 276–278, 320, 354
“care” issues, 173–186, 189–193, 199, 267–270, 318, 386–388, 404. See also poor and needy
“care” words, 173–175, 180, 183–191, 196, 198, 375, 377
Chambers, Simone, 24, 26, 29, 238
cheap talk, 314
churches, 9, 40–41, 72, 81, 111
civic associations, 9, 14, 22–23, 43, 81, 83–84, 170, 300; women’s organizations, 82–86. See also intergroup civic dialogue; public meetings
class, 31, 40, 66, 235, 307, 328–239
Clinton, Hillary, 33, 47, 335–336
comfort with disagreement, 27, 58, 65–66, 162–163, 334, 368. See also conflict aversion.
communication styles, 26–27, 59–60, 68, 205, 308; of women, 205, 321–322; community, 319–321; competence, 22, 27–29, 47, 54, 57. See also assertive
competence: perceptions of, 59, 70–72, 74, 166; self-perceptions of, 42, 55, 71, 76
competition, 57, 62–64, 71; competitive norm, 90–92, 171
confidence, 226–227, 245–248, 270, 309, 312–313; confidence gap, 54, 57, 62–63, 70, 144, 155; confidence index, 368; increase of, 245–248; self-confidence, 44, 53–58, 76, 117, 147–148, 150–151, 154–162, 165. See also income redistribution experiment
conflict: conflictual environments or settings, 45, 63–65, 90–92, 146, 321
conflict aversion (or aversion to conflict), 53, 62–65, 79, 146–147, 162–163
confrontation, 59, 346. See also conflict
consensus 63–65, 88–93, 95; consensual norms 95, 171, 205
cooperation, 63–65, 67–68, 79, 93, 95, 167; cooperative norms, 59, 77, 89–90, 92, 171, 319
critical mass theory, 15–19, 303, 315
culture, 63, 66, 330–332; gendered cultures, 27, 29, 79–80, 205. See also masculine styles; feminine styles; gendered roles
de Beauvoir, Simone, 1
decision rule, 29–31, 75, 88–96, 124, 129–130, 137–138, 140–142, 155–156, 196, 205–206, 309–313; changes in behavior, 233; effects of, 88, 122, 213–218, 244–245, 251–260, 372, 396; gender composition, 311; majority decision rule, 30, 88–94, 118–122, 126–129, 132–133, 136–138, 142, 155, 159–160, 165–166, 179–182, 187–189, 195, 206, 309–313, 379–383; proportion talk, 370–371; relation to interruptions, 205–206, 209–218; unanimous decision rule, 29–30, 88–95, 118–119, 121–122, 126–130, 132–133, 136–138, 142, 159–161, 165–166, 171–172, 179–182, 187–189, 195, 205–206, 247, 309–311, 384–385
deliberation, 18–19, 24–29, 104–105, 119; civility in, 234–235; conditions of, 270–272, 307
deliberative democracy, 236, 256, 272, 356–358; deliberative design, 88, 116; democratic deliberation, 5, 9, 14, 20–21, 24, 65, 67, 139–141, 196; enclave deliberation, 81; female preferences for, 69, 146; inequality in, 114–116, 139–141; influence of justice concepts, 240–272; norms, 90–91, 111, 130, 140–141, 165; potential of, 305–306; preconditions for, 24–25, 81; reciprocity, 234–235; recommendations for equal, 141, 195–196
Deliberative Justice Experiment, 97–113; analysis method, 108–109; comments of participants, 105–106; conditions of, 98, 107–109, 324–325; deliberation in, 104–107; description of, 102–108, 111–112; implications of, 341–347, 354–356; limitations of, 326–328; unanimous rule, 342–347
democracy, 22, 28–29, 81, 115–116, 139, 303, 305–307, 357–358; adversary, 236–238; unitary, 237–238
disadvantaged groups, 10, 15, 20, 25–27, 31, 81–83, 142, 198, 234, 341
descriptive representation, 11–14, 16, 21–22, 116, 142, 168, 174–175, 197, 298–299, 317–318
different perspectives welcome, 192, 369
discussion facilitators. See moderators
dominance, 60, 66, 73, 78, 207
Eagly, Alice, 19, 23, 51–52, 59–63, 65–67, 69–70, 72–73, 78, 116, 148
economic inequality, 169, 240, 251–252. See also income redistribution experiment.
education, 35, 39–40, 43–44, 86, 164, 324, 328–329, 328–329; as a women’s issue, 170, 182–184, 276–278, 320; classroom setting, 34, 64, 79–80
efficacy, 37, 131–133, 139, 145, 192–193, 225–227. See also confidence
efficiency hypothesis, 119, 124–126, 136, 140
egalitarianism, 99, 119, 149, 153, 172, 183, 313–314, 333, 362, 367; egalitarianism index, 367; egalitarians, 108, 179, 185; gender-egalitarian condition, 175–178, 212–213; gender-inegalitarian condition, 175–177, 191, 211–212; individual egalitarianism, 108, 131, 179, 182, 186; saturated egalitarianism, 124, 182, 186, 209
elaborated interruption, See interruptions
elaborations, 207–208, 218–222
empathy, 19, 28, 65, 90, 368; empathetic engagement, 28, 140–141, 147–155, 162–164
empowerment, 85–87, 93–94, 132–133, 196, 245, 254–272
enclave hypothesis, 75, 80–81, 87–88, 95, 117–118, 128–130, 171, 311–312
enclaves, 31, 81–87, 138, 160, 180–182, 196, 226, 353–356; effects of, 127–130, 225, 234–238, 331; rapport in, 229–231; nonexperimental, 111, 297–298, 339. See also gender composition
engagement. See political participation
equal disadvantage hypothesis, 117, 127–128, 138
equality ratio, 284–296, 301–302
external validity, 31, 100, 110–113, 273–274
femininity: behavioral norms, 52–53, 59–61, 63, 66; communication style, 17, 20, 27, 47, 59–61, 65–66, 77, 79, 336; habits of mind, 19, 23, 26
“financial” issues, 47, 60, 170–171, 175, 186–190, 268–269, 335, 377, 386–387
“financial” words, 173–175, 180–181, 186–191, 335, 375, 377
Fishkin, James, 14, 24–25, 119, 305, 357
floor constraint, 103–104, 106–107, 241. See also income redistribution experiment
floor income, 241. See also income redistribution experiment
floor time, 10, 11, 114–116, 205, 217, 266; talk time, 25, 73, 115–119, 124–131, 139–141, 151; proportion talk, 11, 119–134, 152–162, 228, 255–258, 370–371
frequency, definition of, 174
friendship, 27–28, 90–91, 146, 236, 339
Gastil, John, 3, 6, 14, 69, 88–93, 111, 237, 305–306, 349–350, 359, 363
gender, 2, 77, 95, 99–100, 203, 313–314; differences in, 19, 52–53, 65, 150–152, 242; inequality of, 5–6, 11–19, 23, 101, 273, 324, 332–333. See also inequality
gender composition, 51–52, 69–87, 110–111, 117, 122–126, 138, 155–156, 275, 317; as a factor in deliberation, 138, 140–143; effects of, 34, 93–95, 298–299, 372, 376, 400, 403; equality ratio, 405; predominantly women, 78–79, 81, 86–87; predominantly men, 78–80, 87, 165; single-gender groups. See enclaves; mixed-gender groups; 84–85, 87, 110, 127, 130, 133, 158–160, 302. See also school board study
gender gap, 35–36, 42, 307, 316, 373; gender gap in speech participation, 1, 30, 38, 88, 94, 120–127, 135–138, 151; gender gap in influence, 1, 23, 32–33, 47, 94, 116, 135–138; school board study, 299–300
gender-egalitarian condition, See also egalitarianism, 175–177, 212
gender-inegalitarian condition, See also egalitarianism, 175–176, 191, 211
gendered institutions, 315–318
gendered norms, 19, 23, 27, 52, 63, 66, 71, 77–78, 85, 314–318; gendered speech, 58, 85; of interaction, 77–80, 95, 316; socialization, 61, 63, 95, 100, 279, 338; violations of, 59–61, 144, 308, 316–317
gender role theory, 52–53, 62, 88, 116–122, 127–128, 138, 171–172, 309–315; gender(ed) roles, 2, 23, 42, 48, 52, 66, 144, 166, 200, 276
gender tokens, 18, 117–118, 126–128, 138, 217, 281–282, 295, 304
Gini coefficient, 127, 129, 293, 371
group composition, See gender composition
group generosity, 30, 239–272; minimum guaranteed income, 107, 240, 257, 263, 314. See also income redistribution experiment
group norms, 4, 88, 117, 147, 269
groups, 3–4, 69–70, 75, 109, 111
Habermas, Jürgen (Habermasian), 24, 26, 81, 238
Huddy, Leonie, 19–20, 47, 65, 194, 209
impostor syndrome, 54
income redistribution experiment, 240–242, 315; agenda setting, 243–245, 397; conditions of, 262–263; effects of decision rule, 248–260; empowerment, 244–245, 246, 249, 254–260, 270–272; expressed preferences, 249, 256–260, 265; influence of women, 260–267; preferences for generosity, 251–260, 262, 269–270, 399–401, 404; results of, 242–248, 251–262, 264–272
inequality: differences in expertise, 323; gender inequality, 71, 99, 101, 234, 273–304, 332–334; gender quota laws and regulations, 12, 16
influence, 30, 33, 51, 59, 72–74, 90, 114, 133; attempts to exert, 59; affects of low, 172; factors in level of, 59–60, 139; perceived influence, 116, 130–137, 139, 191–193; self-assessments, 130–133, 191–192; group assessments 130–133, 137, 191–192
institutions (rules and procedures of group interaction), 88, 95, 113, 118, 130, 141, 197; structuring of, 50
interaction: See communication styles
interaction hypothesis, 93–94, 118, 120–122, 124, 126, 128, 135, 137, 172, 300–303
intergroup civic dialogue, 301; effects of gender composition in, 301–303; equality ratio, 301; fostering inclusion and support in, 301, 303; results of, 301–303; speaking turns in, 301
interpersonal support, 204–205. See also solidarity
interruptions, 201–202, 309, 312, 392; effects of, 204–205, 222–228, 231–233; elaborated, 207–208, 218–222, 229–231; functions of, 201–202, 204, 232; meaning of, 202–204; measurement of, 206–209, 209–210; negative, 78–79, 201, 207, 209–213, 229–231, 311, 312, 393, 394–395; neutral, 207, 229–231; positive, 85, 201–204, 207, 226–228, 229–231, 233, 313, 394–395; relation of to decision rule, 205–206; similarities to volubility, 202; studies of, 204–205
intersubjectivity, 24
Kahn, Kim, 47
Kathlene, Lyn, 17, 21, 64, 67, 80, 111, 146, 198, 200, 203–204, 232, 316, 360
Lawless, Jennifer, 21, 45, 47, 54, 57, 58, 145, 203, 352
leadership: effects of leadership position, 282; female leaders, 78, 82, 144; leader or leaders, 11–12, 34, 85; leadership behavior, 38, 52–53, 54, 71, 84; perceptions of, 72–73; seeking of leadership roles, 45–46, 48, 57–58; styles of, 67
liberalism, 100, 108, 132n32, 163–164, 166, 169, 196–197, 313–314
Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count software (LIWC), 174, 184, 389–390
majority rule, See decision rule
Mansbridge, Jane, xv, 10, 11, 13, 20–22, 25–26, 68, 88, 90–92, 115, 142, 144–146, 197, 203, 236–237, 317, 325, 346–348, 354, 357–358, 364
masculine: masculine styles, 21, 33, 47, 52–53, 59–60, 65–66, 77–78, 94, 165, 308; masculine subjects, 116
maximize the floor, 103
men, 116; confidence of, 159–151, 156, 158–159, 165; effects of women’s participation on, 318–319; overconfidence in, 54, 63, 144; perceptions of, 116, 166; political priorities of, 170–171; type of speech, 188
mention, definition of, 174
minimum guaranteed income, 240, 396. See also income redistribution experiment
minority status hypothesis, 74–77, 80, 87–88, 94–95, 117–118, 120, 122, 135
motions. See school board study
motivation, 29, 33–34, 37, 40–46, 50, 51
my voice was influential, See influence
negative feedback, 55–57, 145, 149, 159–162, 166; negative quiz feedback, 149, 159, 160, 165–166
no taxes or redistribution, 103. See also income redistribution experiment
norms of interaction, 77–80, 165, 316
opinions: expression of, 38, 41–42, 70, 84–86, 147–148
perceived influence, 23–24, 38, 72
PEW Research Survey, 240n4
political information or knowledge, 37, 40, 42–43
political participation, 10–11, 15, 20–22, 34–35, 65, 279; activism, 170; authoritative acts, 39, 72; contributing money, 37; meeting attendance, 11–14, 38, 110–111, 113, 164; party affiliation, 16; pathways to, 39–40, 43, 49; proselytizing, 49, 80; resources, 33, 37, 39–42; political standing, 22–23, 139; running for office, 44–45, 57, 80, 82; serving in office, 11, 20–22, 44–47, 72, 110, 198, socialization effect, 279; voting, 33, 35–36, 38, 86, 133–134
poor or needy, 2, 3, 20, 30, 99, 104, 168–171, 173, 188–189, 194–198. See also income redistribution experiment; words associated with, 389–390
postdeliberation survey, 367–369, 396. See income redistribution survey
power: See authority
predeliberation preferences, 313, 367–368, 396. See also income redistribution survey
preferences hypothesis, 123–126, 135, 140
preference minorities, 89, 93, 310
presidential candidacies, 47, 80
priorities: issue priorities, 16–17, 19–20, 26, 30, 67, 166, 168–170, 172–173, 189–191, 195–198
procedural rules, See decision rule
PROPA (Private Roots of Public Action), 34, 37, 83, 86, 278
proportion talk, 11, 99, 120–122, 124–128, 131, 134, 151, 223, 227–228, 268; effects of liberalism on, 374
prosociality, 147–148, 167–168
public discussion or talk (speaking), 43, 52, 81, 84, 114, 133
public meetings, 8–11, 23, 38, 112–113, 145–146, 164, 305–306; devaluation of women, 307–308; examples of, 17; importance of, 306; underrepresentation of women, 14–16
public talk, 305, 329, 31, 37, 40, 85, 111–112, 169
race, 31, 112, 301–303, 328–329
range constraint, 103–104, 106–107, 241. See also income redistribution experiment
Rawlsian theory of justice, 241
recorded comments. See school board study
recorded seconds (to a motion). See school board study
redistribution, 99, 119, 123, 194. See also income redistribution experiment; principles of, 103–106, 241
representation: equalization of, 234
Ridgeway, Cecilia, 52–53, 59, 69–71, 73, 78, 84, 116, 166, 202–203, 316–317
“rich” words, 180–181, 375, 390–392
rules, See decision rule
safety net, 103, 106, 240–241, 253, 255–256, 259, 261–263, 264, 266, 270, 318
Sapiro, Virginia, xvi, 19, 42, 47, 70, 142, 150, 169, 235, 335
satisfaction with discussion, 89
Schlozman, Kay Lehman, 9, 10, 19, 22–23, 33, 34–42, 48–49, 58, 80, 82–83, 84–86, 116, 141, 164, 170, 194, 276–278, 320, 354
school boards, 31, 112–113, 273–278, 313; agenda issues, 276–278; decision making, 275; gender composition, 275–278, 405; general information, 275–276; power of, 275–276
school board study, 274, 280–300; board composition, 284, 324; effects of deliberative conditions, 297; effects of gender composition, 283–300; effects of gender enclaves, 296–298; equality ratio, 284, 288; formal leadership, 274, 282, 287, 288–295, 304; gender composition, 280–283, 324; gender gap, 299–300; gender tokens, 295, 304; men at a disadvantage, 287; motions, 283, 284–289; participation equality, 284, 286, 290, 298, 304; procedures of, 280–283; recorded comments, 283, 284–289; results of, 274–275, 284–300, 303–304; seconds, 283, 295–296; speaking turns, 285, 289; talk time, 297; verbal participation, 283; women at a disadvantage, 286–287
self-efficacy, 22, 27–28, 44, 54, 56, 131–132, 145
self-effacement: behavior, 60–61; statements, 45–46
self-regulation, 236
sex, See gender
“silent sex”, 1, 29, 32–33, 143, 165, 275
sociability, 202
social connections: social bonds, 27, 53, 65, 67–68, 146–147; sense of community, 67–68, 94, 146
social sanctions or dislike, 59–61, 144
social identity minorities, 89–90, 93, 118, 139
social rapport, 27–28, 79, 203, 321–322; instead of civility, 236; relation to enclaves, 229
solidarity, 28, 87, 95, 201, 204–205, 212. See also interpersonal support.
speaking turns, 10–11, 208–231, 273–274, 284–302, 329–333, 366
speech: as a status indicator, 201, 202–203; dimensions of, 201; formal speech, 58, 95; speaking behavior, 43–45, 58, 99, 114, 130, 133, 137, 142–144; political participation, 279; public speaking, 58, 70
speech participation, See speech and gender gap
status, 1, 5, 22, 23–25, 28, 70–71, 202–203; inequality, 73–74, 77, 115, 139, 156–159, 163, 166, 202; relation to authority, 133, 202–204
stereotypes, 76, 117, 139; female, 22, 23, 47–48, 56, 58–60, 66–67, 74, 77, 144, 165–166; male, 47, 55–56, 72, 77, 116
substantive representation, 16, 20–21, 74, 77, 168, 175, 189, 193, 195–196; numbers not determinant of, 16–18, 29, 47–49, 52, 279, 282, 317–318
symbolic representation, 16, 21–22, 48–49, 74, 200, 279, 309, 317–318
talk time, 227, 312. See also proportion talk
Tannen, Deborah, 58, 79, 201–202, 205, 236
Thatcher, Margaret, 20, 78, 334, 336, 339
TM module, 174
Tocqueville, 9, 30, 234, 236n40, 305, 306, 307, 356
unanimous rule, See decision rule
unelaborated interruption, See interruptions
validation, 227
Verba, Sidney, 3, 9–10, 19, 22–23, 33–42, 48–49, 54, 58, 80, 82, 83, 84–86, 116, 141, 164, 170, 194, 276–278, 320, 354
violated entitlement hypothesis, 117, 127–128, 138
voice, 114–116, 141–144, 164, 166, 195–197; gender gap, 85, 190, 198; lack of, 35; relation to authority, 25, 139; women’s voice, 182, 184, 190–193,
volubility, 308
volunteerism, 33
Wald test, 220
women: disempowerment of, 313; effect on men, 239–240; empowerment of, 278–280; inclusion of, 236; influence of, 308; low confidence of, 226; participation of, 315–318; effects on men, 318–319; preferences in deliberation, 64–65, 119; preferences of, 319–321; representation of, 315–318; underrepresentation of, 307; women’s issues, 193–195, 274, 276–278, 319–321