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by Thomas Stoffel, Joseph Michalsky, Frank Vignola
Solar and Infrared Radiation Measurements
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Contents
Chapter 1 Measuring Solar and Infrared Radiation
Questions
Chapter 2 Solar Resource Definitions and Terminology
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The Sun
2.3 Extraterrestrial Radiation
2.4 Solar Coordinates
2.5 Zenith, Azimuth, and Hour Angles
2.6 Solar, Universal, and Local Standard Time
2.7 Solar Position Calculation
2.8 Sunrise and Sunset Times
2.9 Global, Direct Normal, and Diffuse Irradiance
2.10 Solar Radiation on Tilted Surfaces
2.11 Spectral Nature of Solar Radiation
2.12 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
2.12.1 CONDUCTION
2.12.2 CONVECTION
2.12.3 RADIATIVE HEAT TRANSFER
2.13 Photodiodes and Solar Cell Prerequisites
2.14 Models
Questions
Chapter 3 Historic Milestones in Solar and Infrared Radiation Measurement
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Earliest Observations of the Sun and The Nature of Light
3.3 Nineteenth-Century Radiometers
3.3.1 POUILLET'S PYRHELIOMETER (1837)
3.3.2 CAMPBELL-STOKES SUNSHINE RECORDER (1853, 1879)
3.3.3 Ångström Electrical Compensation Pyrheliometer (1893)
3.3.4 CALLENDAR PYRANOMETER (1898)
3.3.5 ANGSTROM TULIPAN PYRGEOMETER (1899)
3.4 Operational Radiometers of the Twentieth Century
3.4.1 ABBOT SILVER-DISK PYRHELIOMETER (1906)
3.4.2 SMITHSONIAN WATER-FLOW PYRHELIOMETER (1910)
3.4.3 MARVIN PYRHELIOMETER (1910)
3.4.4 ÅNGSTRÖM PYRANOMETER (1919)
3.4.5 KIPP & ZONEN SOLARIMETER (1924)
3.4.6 ROBITZSCH BIMETALLIC ACTINOGRAPH (1932)
3.4.7 EPPLEY 180O PYRHELIOMETER (1930)
3.4.8 EPPLEY MODEL PSP (1957)
3.4.9 YANISHEVSKY PYRANOMETER (1957)
3.4.10 EPPLEY MODEL NIP (1957)
3.4.11 EPPLEY MODEL FIR (1968)
3.4.12 PRIMARY ABSOLUTE CAVITY RADIOMETER (PACRAD) (1969)
3.4.13 EPPLEY MODEL 8–48 (1969)
3.4.14 LI-COR MODEL LI-200SA (1971)
3.4.15 ROTATING SHADOWBAND RADIOMETER (1975)
3.4.16 WORLD STANDARD GROUP (1979)
3.5 Recent Advances in Solar Measurements
3.5.1 AUTOMATIC HICKEY-FRIEDEN CAVITY RADIOMETER
3.5.2 TOTAL IRRADIANCE MONITOR (TIM)
3.5.3 PMOD MODEL 8 (PM08)
Summary
Questions
Chapter 4 Direct Normal Irradiance
4.1 Overview of Direct Normal Irradiance
4.2 Pyrheliometer Geometry
4.3 Operational Thermopile Pyrheliometers
4.4 Absolute Cavity Radiometers
4.5 Uncertainty Analysis for Pyrheliometer Calibration
4.6 Uncertainty Analysis for Operational Thermopile Pyrheliometers
4.6.1 WINDOW TRANSMITTANCE, RECEIVER ABSORPTIVITY, AND TEMPERATURE SENSITIVITY
4.6.2 SOLAR ZENITH ANGLE DEPENDENCE
4.7 Uncertainty Analysis for Rotating Shadowband Radiometer Measurements of Direct Normal Irradiance
4.8 Direct Normal Irradiance Models
4.8.1 GROUND-BASED MODELING
4.8.2 SATELLITE MODEL ESTIMATES
4.9 Historical and Current Surface-Measured Direct Normal Irradiance Data
Questions
Chapter 5 Measuring Global Irradiance
5.1 Introduction to Global Horizontal Irradiance Measurements
5.2 Black-Disk Thermopile Pyranometers
5.2.1 THERMAL OFFSETS
5.2.2 NONLINEARITY
5.2.3 SPECTRAL RESPONSE
5.2.4 ANGLE OF INCIDENCE RESPONSE
5.2.5 RESPONSE DEGRADATION
5.2.6 TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE
5.2.7 ICE AND SNOW ON DOME—VENTILATORS
5.2.8 AN OPTICAL ANOMALY
5.3 Black-And-White Pyranometers
5.3.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF BLACK-AND-WHITE PYRANOMETERS
5.3.2 LACK OF THERMAL OFFSET
5.4 Photodiode-Based Pyranometers
5.4.1 CHARACTERIZING A PHOTODIODE PYRANOMETER
5.4.2 CORRECTIONS MADE TO PHOTODIODE PYRANOMETERS
5.4.3 REFERENCE SOLAR CELLS
5.5 Calibration of Pyranometers
5.5.1 SHADE-UNSHADE CALIBRATION METHOD
5.5.2 SUMMATION METHOD CALIBRATION
5.6 Pyranometer Calibration Uncertainties
5.6.1 UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS APPLIED TO PYRANOMETER CALIBRATION
5.6.2 AN EXAMPLE OF THE GUM PROCEDURE APPLIED TO THE CALIBRATION UNCERTAINTIES OF A PYRANOMETER
Questions
Useful Links
Chapter 6 Diffuse Irradiance
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Measurement of Diffuse Irradiance
6.2.1 FIXED SHADOWBAND MEASUREMENTS OF DIFFUSE IRRADIANCE
6.2.2 CALCULATED DIFFUSE IRRADIANCE VERSUS SHADE DISK DIFFUSE
6.2.3 ROTATING SHADOWBAND DIFFUSE MEASUREMENTS
6.3 Calibration of Diffuse Pyranometers
6.4 Value of Accurate Diffuse Measurements
Questions
Chapter 7 Rotating Shadowband Radiometers
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Rotating Shadowband Radiometer
7.3 Multifilter Rotating Shadowband Radiometer
Questions
Chapter 8 Measuring Solar Radiation on a Tilted Surface
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Effect of Tilt on Single Black Detector Pyranometers
8.3 Effect of Tilt on Black-and-White Pyranometers
8.4 Effect of Tilt on Photodiode Pyranometers
8.5 Recommendations for Tilted Irradiance Measurements
8.6 Notes on Modeling PV System Performance With Data From Photodiode Pyranometers
Questions
Chapter 9 Albedo
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Broadband Albedo
9.3 Spectral Albedo
9.4 Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function
9.5 Albedo Measurements
9.5.1 BROADBAND ALBEDO
9.5.2 SPECTRAL ALBEDO
Questions
Chapter 10 Infrared Measurements
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Pyrgeometers
10.3 Calibration
10.4 Improved Calibrations
10.5 Other Pyrgeometer Manufacturers
10.6 Operational Considerations
Questions
Chapter 11 Net Radiation Measurements
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Single-Sensor (All-Wave) Net Radiometers
11.3 Two-Sensor Net Radiometers
11.4 Four-Sensor Net Radiometers
11.5 Accuracy of Net Radiometers
11.6 A Better Net Radiation Standard
11.7 Net Radiometer Sources
Questions
Chapter 12 Solar Spectral Measurements
12.1 Introduction
12.2 The Extraterrestrial Solar Spectrum
12.3 Atmospheric Interactions
12.3.1 RAYLEIGH SCATTERING
12.3.2 AEROSOL SCATTERING AND ABSORPTION
12.3.3 GAS ABSORPTION
12.3.4 TRANSMISSION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
12.4 Broadband Filter Radiometry
12.4.1 PHOTOMETRY
12.4.2 PHOTOSYNTHETICALLY ACTIVE RADIATION (PAR)
12.4.3 UVA AND UVB
12.5 Narrow-Band Filter Radiometry
12.5.1 AEROSOL OPTICAL DEPTH
12.5.2 WATER VAPOR
12.5.3 SUN RADIOMETERS
12.6 Spectrometry
12.6.1 SPECTROMETERS
12.6.2 SPECTRAL MODELS
Questions
Chapter 13 Meteorological Measurements
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Ambient Temperature
13.2.1 TYPES OF TEMPERATURE SENSORS
13.2.2 RESPONSE TIMES
13.2.3 MEASURING TEMPERATURE
13.3 Wind Speed and Wind Direction
13.3.1 SENSOR TERMINOLOGY
13.3.2 ANEMOMETER
13.3.3 CUP ANEMOMETERS
13.3.4 PROPELLER ANEMOMETERS
13.3.5 SONIC ANEMOMETERS
13.3.6 INSTALLING ANEMOMETERS
13.3.7 WIND VANES
13.4 Relative Humidity
13.5 Pressure
13.5.1 ANEROID DISPLACEMENT TRANSDUCERS
13.5.2 PIEZORESISTIVE BAROMETERS
13.5.3 PIEZOCAPACITANCE BAROMETERS
13.6 Recommended Minimum Accuracies for Operational Instruments
Questions
Chapter 14 Setting Up a Solar Monitoring Station
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Choosing A Site
14.3 Grounding and Shielding
14.4 Data Logger and Communications
14.5 Measurement Interval
14.6 Cleaning and Maintenance
14.7 Record Keeping
14.8 Importance of Reviewing Data
14.9 Quality Control of Data
14.10 Field Calibrations
14.11 Physical Layout of a Solar-Monitoring Station
Questions
Appendix A: Modeling Solar Radiation
Appendix B: Solar Radiation Estimates Derived from Satellite Measurements
Appendix C: Sun Path Charts
Appendix D: Solar Position Algorithms
Appendix E: Useful Conversion Factors
Appendix F: Sources for Equipment
Appendix G: BORCAL Report
Appendix H: Sunshine Duration
Appendix I: Failure Modes
Index
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SOLAR AND INFRARED
RADIATION
MEASUREMENTS
Frank Vignola
Joseph Michalsky
Thomas Stoffel
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