Preface xv
Part 1 The Basics of Teamwork 1
Chapter 1 Teams in Organizations: Facts and Myths 3
What Is a Team? 4
Why Should Organizations Have Teams? 5
Information Technology 6
Competition 7
Globalization and Culture 7
Multigenerational Teams 8
Types of Teams in Organizations 8
Manager-Led Teams 8
Self-Managing Teams 9
Self-Directing Teams 10
Self-Governing Teams 12
Some Observations About Teams and Teamwork 13
Teams Are Not Always the Answer 13
Managers Fault the Wrong Causes for Team Failure 13
Managers Fail to Recognize Their Team-Building Responsibilities 14
Experimenting with Failures Leads to Better Teams 14
Conflict Among Team Members Is Not Always a Bad Thing 14
Strong Leadership Is Not Always Necessary for Strong Teams 14
Good Teams Can Still Fail Under the Wrong Circumstances 15
Retreats Will Not Fix All the Conflicts Between Team Members 15
What Leaders Tell Us About Their Teams 16
Most Common Type of Team 16
Team Size 16
Team Autonomy Versus Manager Control 16
Team Longevity 17
The Most Frustrating Aspect of Teamwork 17
Developing Your Team-Building Skills 19
Skill 1: Accurate Diagnosis of Team Problems 19
Skill 2: Research-Based Intervention 20
Skill 3: Expert Learning 20
A Warning 21
Chapter Capstone 21
Chapter 2 Performance and Productivity: Team Performance Criteria and Threats to Productivity 22
An Integrated Model of Successful Team Performance 23
Team Context 23
Essential Conditions for Successful Team Performance 26
Performance Criteria 39
The Team Performance Equation 43
Chapter Capstone 44
Chapter 3 Rewarding Teamwork: Compensation and Performance Appraisals 45
Types of Team Pay 46
Incentive Pay 48
Recognition 50
Profit Sharing 53
Gainsharing 54
Teams and Pay for Performance 55
Team Performance Appraisal 56
What Is Measured? 56
Who Does the Measuring? 58
Developing a 360-Degree Program 59
Rater Bias 61
Inflation Bias 62
Extrinsic Incentives Bias 62
Homogeneity Bias 64
Halo Bias 64
Fundamental Attribution Error 64
Communication Medium 64
Experience Effect 64
Reciprocity Bias 65
Bandwagon Bias 65
Primacy and Recency Bias 65
Conflict of Interest Bias 65
Ratee Bias 66
Egocentric Bias 66
Intrinsic Interest 66
Social Comparison 67
Fairness 67
Listening to Advice 68
Guiding Principles 69
Principle 1: Goals Should Cover Areas That Team Members Can Directly Affect 69
Principle 2: Balance the Mix of Individual and Team-Based Pay 70
Principle 3: Consult the Team Members Who Will Be Affected 70
Principle 4: Avoid Organizational Myopia 70
Principle 5: Determine Eligibility (Who Qualifies for the Plan) 71
Principle 6: Determine Equity Method 71
Principle 7: Quantify the Criteria Used to Determine Payout 71
Principle 8: Determine How Target Levels of Performance Are Established and Updated 71
Principle 9: Develop a Budget for the Plan 71
Principle 10: Determine Timing of Measurements and Payments 71
Principle 11: Communicate with Those Involved 72
Principle 12: Plan for the Future 72
Chapter Capstone 72
Part 2 Internal Dynamics 73
Chapter 4 Designing the Team: Tasks, People, and Processes 75
Building the Team 76
The Task: What Work Needs to Be Done? 77
Is the Goal Clearly Defined? 77
How Much Authority Does the Team Have? 78
What Is the Focus of the Work the Team Will Do? 79
What Is the Degree of Task Interdependence Among Team Members? 82
Is There a Correct Solution That Can Be Readily Demonstrated and Communicated to Members? 84
Are Team Members’ Interests Perfectly Aligned (Cooperative), Opposing (Competitive), or Mixed-Motive in Nature? 84
How Big Should the Team Be? 85
Time Pressure: Good or Bad? 86
The People: Who Is Ideally Suited to Do the Work? 88
Member-Initiated Team Selection 89
Diversity 90
Processes: How to Work Together? 98
Team Structure 98
Team Norms 98
Team Coaching 101
Chapter Capstone 103
Chapter 5 Team Identity, Emotion, and Development 104
Are We a Team? 105
Group Entitativity 105
Group Identity 105
Self-verification and Group-verification 107
Group-Serving Attributions 108
Group Potency and Collective Efficacy 109
Group Mood and Emotion 110
How Emotions Get Shared in Groups 110
Emotional Intelligence in Teams 114
Leadership and Group Emotion 115
Group Cohesion 115
Cohesion and Team Behavior 116
Building Cohesion in Groups 116
Trust 118
Types of Trust 119
Psychological Safety 121
Status 122
Perceptions of Status 122
Status Competition 123
Team Development and Socialization 123
Group Socialization 123
The Phases of Group Socialization 124
Old-Timers’ Reactions to Newcomers 127
Newcomer Innovation 127
Turnover and Reorganizations 128
Chapter Capstone 129
Chapter 6 Sharpening the Team Mind: Communication and Collective Intelligence 130
Team Communication 131
Message Tuning 132
Message Distortion 133
Saying Is Believing 133
Biased Interpretation 133
Perspective-Taking Failures 133
Illusion of Transparency 134
Indirect Speech Acts 134
Uneven Communication 135
Absorptive Capacity 135
The Information Dependence Problem 137
The Common Information Effect 138
Hidden Profile 140
Best Practices for Optimal Information Sharing 142
Collaborative Problem Solving 147
Collective Intelligence 148
Team Mental Models 148
The Team Mind: Transactive Memory Systems 150
Team Learning 157
Learning from the Environment 158
Learning from Newcomers and Rotators 158
Learning from Vicarious Versus In Vivo Experience 158
Learning from Threat, Change, and Failure 158
Team Longevity: Routinization Versus Innovation Trade-Offs 159
Chapter Capstone 161
Chapter 7 Team Decision Making: Pitfalls and Solutions 162
Decision Making in Teams 163
Individual Decision-Making Biases 163
Framing Bias 164
Overconfidence 164
Confirmation Bias 165
Decision Fatigue 166
Individual Versus Group Decision Making in Demonstrable Tasks 167
Group Decision Rules 169
Decision-Making Pitfall 1: Groupthink 171
Learning from History 173
How to Avoid Groupthink 175
Decision-Making Pitfall 2: Escalation of Commitment 178
Project Determinants 179
Psychological Determinants 180
Social Determinants 180
Structural Determinants 181
Avoiding Escalation of Commitment to a Losing Course of Action 181
Decision-Making Pitfall 3: The Abilene Paradox 182
How to Avoid the Abilene Paradox 184
Decision-Making Pitfall 4: Group Polarization 185
The Need to Be Right 187
The Need to Be Liked 187
Conformity Pressure 188
Decision-Making Pitfall 5: Unethical Decision Making 190
Rational Expectations Model 190
False Consensus 191
Vicarious Licensing 191
Desensitization 191
Chapter Capstone 194
Chapter 8 Conflict in Teams: Leveraging Differences to Create Opportunity 195
Types of Conflict 196
Relationship, Task, and Process Conflict 196
Proportional and Perceptual Conflict 199
Types of Conflict and Work Team Effectiveness 200
Conflict in Teams 201
Power and Conflict 202
Conflict in Cross-Functional Teams 202
Minority and Majority Conflicts in Teams 203
Conflict in Culturally Diverse Teams 205
Work–Family Conflict in Teams 206
Conflict Management Approaches 206
The Managerial Grid 206
A Contingency Theory of Task Conflict and Performance in Teams 208
Interests, Rights, and Power Model of Disputing 209
Wageman and Donnenfelds’ Conflict Intervention Model 210
Fairness and Conflict 212
Norms of Fairness 212
Distributive and Procedural Justice 214
Chapter Capstone 214
Chapter 9 Creativity: Mastering Strategies for High Performance 215
Creative Realism 216
Measuring Creativity 218
Convergent and Divergent Thinking 220
Exploration and Exploitation 221
Creative People or Creative Teams? 222
Brainstorming 223
Brainstorming on Trial 224
Threats to Team Creativity 226
Social Loafing 226
Conformity 226
Production Blocking 227
Performance Matching 228
What Goes on during a Typical Group Brainstorming Session? 228
Enhancing Team Creativity 229
Cognitive-Goal Instructions 229
Social-Organizational Methods 233
Structural-Environmental Methods 237
Electronic Brainstorming 240
Advantages of Electronic Brainstorming 240
Disadvantages of Electronic Brainstorming 242
Chapter Capstone 243
Part 3 External Dynamics 245
Chapter 10 Networking, Social Capital, and Integrating across Teams 247
Team Boundaries 248
Insulating Teams 249
Broadcasting Teams 251
Marketing Teams 251
Surveying Teams 251
X-Teams 252
External Roles of Team Members 253
Networking: A Key to Successful Teamwork 255
Communication 255
Human Capital and Social Capital 256
Boundary Spanning 258
Cliques Versus Boundary-Spanning Networks 259
Team Social Capital 261
Leadership Ties 262
Increasing Your Social Capital 263
Analyze Your Social Network 264
Identify Structural Holes in Your Organization 265
Expand the Size of the Network 266
Diversify Networks 266
Build Hierarchical Networks 268
Understand Gender Scripts in Networks 268
Multiteam Systems 269
Types of Ties in Teams 271
Knowledge Valuation 273
Chapter Capstone 275
Chapter 11 Leadership: Managing the Paradox 277
The Leadership Paradox 278
Leadership and Management 279
Leaders and the Nature–Nurture Debate 280
Trait Theories of Leadership 281
Incremental Theories of Leadership 283
Leadership Styles 284
Task Versus Person Leadership 285
Transactional Versus Transformational Leadership 285
Autocratic Versus Democratic Leadership 287
Leader Mood 289
What Teams Expect of Leaders 290
Implicit Leadership Theories 290
Status, Uncertainty, and Leadership Expectations 291
Perceptions of Male and Female Leaders 291
Leader–Member Exchange 293
Key Attributes that Influence Differential Treatment 293
Advantages of Differential Treatment 294
Disadvantages of Differential Treatment 295
Leadership and Power 295
Sources of Power 296
Using Power 297
Encouraging Participative Management 298
Task Delegation 301
Parallel Suggestion Involvement 301
Job Involvement 303
Organizational Involvement 304
Chapter Capstone 305
Chapter 12 Interteam Relations: Balancing Competition and Cooperation 306
Personal and Team Identity 307
Individual, Relational, and Collective Selves 308
Independent Versus Interdependent Self-Orientation 308
Self-Interest Versus Group Interest 310
In-Groups and Out-Groups 310
Optimal Distinctiveness Theory 312
Balancing the Need to Belong and the Need to Be Distinct 312
Intrateam and Interteam Respect 313
Interteam Relationships 313
Social Comparison 313
Team Discontinuity Effect 314
Team Rivalry 314
Postmerger Behavior 315
Intergroup Conflict 316
Biases Associated with Intergroup Conflict 319
Stereotyping 319
Categorization: Us Versus Them 319
In-Group Bias (or “We Are Better Than Them”) 320
Racism and Racial Discrimination 322
Denial 322
Out-Group Homogeneity Bias 323
Out-Group Approach Bias 324
Reducing Intergroup Conflict 324
Contact 324
Perspective Taking and Perspective Giving 327
Apology and Help 328
Affirmation 328
Chapter Capstone 329
Chapter 13 Teaming Across Distance and Culture 330
Place–Time Model of Social Interaction 331
Face-to-Face Communication 332
Same Time, Different Place 334
Different Time, Same Place 337
Different Place, Different Time 338
Information Technology and Social Behavior 340
Reduced Status Differences: The “Weak Get Strong” Effect 340
Equalization of Participation 341
Increased Time to Make Decisions 341
Communication 342
Risk Taking 342
Social Norms 343
Task Performance and Decision Quality 343
Trust and Rapport 344
Virtual Teams 344
Threats to Virtual Teamwork 346
Strategies for Enhancing Virtual Teamwork 347
Cross-Cultural Teamwork 352
Cultural Intelligence 352
Work Ways 353
Cultural Values 354
Managing Multicultural Teams 355
Chapter Capstone 357
Appendix 1 Managing Meetings: A Toolkit 358
Appendix 2 Tips for Meeting Facilitators 366
Appendix 3 A Guide for Creating Effective Study Groups 370
Appendix 4 Example Items from Peer Evaluations and 360-Degree Performance Evaluations 374
References 381
Name and Author Index 441
Subject Index 455