■ filtering out non-focused information, even though it seems relevant in a broader sense.

■ offering ‘most wanted’ information to satisfy the user’s immediate desires.

■ providing the user with answers as quickly as possible.

■ A library user needs a reference service. In this situation, the user usually brings specific questions relating to his or her current research project to the reference desk and asks the librarian on duty for help. The librarian follows five steps:

(1) initiation—listening to (or reading) the question(s) carefully

(2) communication—interviewing the user in order to understand the user’s actual need

(3) investigation—analyzing the problem with the user

(4) instruction—guiding the user in finding the relevant sources and teaching information-searching techniques, and

(5) conclusion—summarizing the key points and offering additional suggestions if needed. The service is focused on satisfying the user’s current research requirement.

■ A faculty member asks for a research consultation. General procedure may include:

(1) discussion—understanding the research topic as thoroughly as possible

(2) introduction—outlining the resources that are most suitable for literature search and the sources that are most relevant to the subject

(3) demonstration—showing database search techniques, and

(4) conclusion—offering suggestions for further investigation. The consultation is focused on satisfying the professor’s research needs.

■ A class wants to know about relevant but focused information resources. A typical example is a one-shot, theme-based workshop designed for a specific class assignment, for example, a nursing class needs to know the availability of health science databases via the library’s subscriptions. Common practice may include:

(1) initiation—receiving a request from a classroom professor who may provide his or her own designed library assignment with specific tasks

(2) negotiation—communicating with the classroom professor to fine tune and finalize the library assignment, especially when the professor is not fully aware of changes in information sources, e.g. new additions to the library database collection

(3) modification—updating the library assignment if necessary to utilize the most current library resources

(4) presentation—teaching the class how to locate relevant sources and how to search for needed information, and

(5) revision—if necessary, the professor and the librarian may work together to revise the library assignment for future use based upon class results. The workshop is focused on teaching students information-seeking strategies and techniques.

■ A librarian is invited to be embedded in a class, either briefly or for a semester-long period to help the course professor teach information-related segments for the course. In this role, the librarian acts as a co-teacher in the classroom, responsible for specific areas, that is, library science and information literacy. It is a relatively new form of library instruction, which is still developing. Basically, the procedure may include:

(1) familiarization—making the course content and objectives familiar beforehand. Ideally, the class is co-taught by a subject liaison librarian whose educational background (other than library science) fits the subject area

(2) discussion—communicating with the course professor to design an instructional plan

(3) preparation—performing an information resources survey is more than necessary (see Philosophy and practice, pp. 33–4, for detail)

(4) instruction—co-teaching as planned, and

(5) revision—if necessary, the course professor and the embedded librarian may work together to revise the instructional plan for future use, based upon class results. The embedded librarian co-teaching involvement is focused on teaching students library research skills in application to their ongoing studies as the course progresses.

■ Communication is two-way. A good instructional librarian should be a good listener. Through effective communication the librarian will be able to gain better understanding of clients’ needs (when providing a reference service to users), course contents and learning objectives (when designing a library instruction program with a course instructor), and thus, set appropriate instructional goals accordingly.

■ Interaction is part of instruction. A good presentation alone does not serve the purpose of instruction completely. Does the learner understand the lecture? How well? The learner learns better when he or she is given the opportunity to ask questions. The librarian should also ask the learner questions (yes-or-no, open-ended, etc.) to make sure that the audience is engaged. During the question-and-answer session, the librarian gets an opportunity to offer further clarifications, detailed explanations, proper directions, and relevant suggestions.

■ Discussion is thorough. No one knows everything. When designing a library instruction program, whether it is a one-shot workshop or an embedded librarian, the librarian should never assume that he or she knows the topic completely. There is always something new to learn, even for an expert in the field. It is crucial to discuss with the course instructor:

(1) the purpose of the library assignment

(2) the subject and topics

(3) course objectives

(4) scope and depth

(5) time-frame, and

(6) expected outcomes. The discussion is situational, depending on the nature of the request; therefore, more or different topics for discussion are possible.

■ Collaboration between librarians is an effective way to improve the quality of teaching. Several brains are better than one. Libraries have different instructional structures; some have designated instructional librarians who are responsible for the majority of teaching activities; while others follow more casual practice in which librarians teach on a voluntary basis. In any case, a proactive library instruction program should be a team effort involving all librarians. Forms of collaboration can be:

(1) information exchange between reference librarians about current issues at the reference desk

(2) ad hoc meetings on teaching issues

(3) an agenda item in regular library departmental meetings

(4) peer observations

(5) scheduled discussions among individual librarians on specific instructional projects

(6) participation in online discussion groups (internal and / or external) to keep up with current issues and future trends, and

(7) casual conversations between colleagues on any topics related to library instruction.

■ Collect reference questions at the reference desk. In our daily life, it is not unusual that users bring in ‘seasonal’ questions. For example, at the beginning of a semester library users (especially freshmen, transfer students, and new faculty members) may often ask questions related to library resources (e.g. available books, periodicals, and databases); information technology (e.g. database remote access); and library operations (e.g. circulation, hours, policies, and machines). As the semester progresses, more research-oriented questions may appear. For example, we begin to see library assignments from course instructors who require students to familiarize themselves with library sources suitable for their research in a given subject area, so that they can use the learned library skills to complete their course study effectively. Towards the later part of a semester, more help is needed in students’ term papers or final projects. In this period, detailed research methods and strategies, critical analysis of research topics, appropriate guidance, and constructive suggestions are eagerly desired. These commonly asked questions can be documented, updated, and maintained for future use, since they occur on a relatively regular basis.

■ Compile reference questions from electronic reference services (email and / or chat). Compared with reference desk service, an electronic reference service may encounter a wider range of users and, therefore, receive more varied questions, owing to the fact that it is not restricted by the library’s physical location. Librarians may build a special database to store the compilation, share data in real time, and retrieve suitable answers for speedy service.

■ Keep a record of classroom teaching professors’ library instruction requests. Besides library science schools’ library degree programs, academic libraries routinely offer library classes. Some are credit-bearing (core or elective),⁴ and some non-credit-bearing. Another frequently used library instruction form is library instruction upon request. Although we believe that learning library skills should be mandatory in all academic disciplines and that information literacy is the foundation of higher education, library instruction requests do not come from academic departments and / or individual professors equally. Some courses use library instruction more often than others and some classroom professors request library workshops more frequently than others. Keeping a record of requests helps us prepare instruction beforehand, update contents accordingly, and fine tune lesson plans for better presentation in the future.

■ Keep copies of library assignments created by course instructors. From the library assignment we can see what exactly the course instructor wants his or her students to learn. It serves the purpose of keeping up with the course instructor’s teaching goals. It also provides an opportunity to inform the course instructor about any—extremely likely—changes and updates in information resources.

■ Distribute questionnaires and surveys in classroom and on campus. Collecting feedback at the end of library instruction sessions and during semesters helps us assess our existing instructional programs and student learning outcomes. We can then revise the programs for better teaching results based upon learners’ feedback.

■ Send questionnaires and surveys to library users by electronic mail. Once a year or once a semester we may email questionnaires and surveys to faculty, students, staff, and anyone who uses our library. From users’ responses we can get the sense of their overall experience and satisfaction. We can see our reference service through users’ eyes. We can analyze deficits and improve our service to meet users’ expectations.

■ Post surveys on the library’s website. This is another way to gather users’ feedback. It is unsolicited, volunteerbased, and 24/7.

■ Utilize reputable resources of data and standard statistics to keep up with library instruction trends.⁵ Periodically, organizations release reports, studies, statistics, and similar publications to the library community. These sources are important for future and long-term library instructional program planning, since they reveal the current status and future trends. Libraries benefit from data-sharing by participating in national surveys, such as the Academic Libraries Survey⁶ and ACRL Academic Library Trends and Statistics.⁷ Another well-established statistical service is LibQUAL +, which is a web-based survey that ‘helps libraries assess and improve library services, change organizational culture, and market the library.’⁸

■ Library orientation: to tell patrons what they want to know

■ reference service: to satisfy patrons’ current needs

■ research consultation: to aid faculty and students in their research

■ one-shot workshop: to be tailored to class needs

■ embedded librarian: to help students apply library research skills to course study.