Chapter 31
Developing Intrapersonal Skills

Maria P. Aristigueta and Robert B. Denhardt

Knowledge of ourselves, or intrapersonal skills, are critical to success and satisfaction in our work lives. Many contemporary public organizations are experimenting with new approaches to organizing and managing that take them far beyond the top-down, rule-bound hierarchies of the past. These changes are not easy for organizations or for the individuals who work in them. Adopting new ways of operating often requires significant changes in our basic thinking about work and our psychological response to it. For example, most upper-level public sector managers were promoted professionally during an era in which success was defined as attaining a position of power and then using that position to direct public programs. Management had a distinctive top-down character; the manager presumably was in a position to know what was best for his or her organization and to control the behavior of the staff so as to achieve the organization's goals. Moreover, success for these managers also was defined in terms of increased budgets and increased personnel. Today, public administration requires a far different mind-set for these managers, one in which measures of success are far more ambiguous and requirements for accessibility are constant. These managers are moving away from top-down management to more collaborative environments and are increasingly having to find ways to do more with less.

Middle managers are also facing changes as they are empowered to take on assignments that previously were left to upper management and finding new ways of relating to others both within and outside their organizations. Meanwhile, lower-level personnel are being asked to be more productive and to serve their “customers” better, but with decreasing resources. Regardless of level, we are experiencing greater information, globalization, and increasing complexity. These changes have created considerable ambiguity, confusion, and stress. More than ever before, the need is for managers to be able to deal with complexity, ambiguity, and change, all within an ethical context that demands moral reasoning, values management, and prudent decision making (Bowman, West, Berman, & Van Wart, 2004). All of these qualities are based in the personal capabilities we have and the commitments we make as individuals; they arise from a deeply personal foundation. Our ability to deal with these difficult times will be greatly enhanced by our knowledge of ourselves.

Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Skills

We are familiar with interpersonal skills such as leadership, communications, and the ability to motivate others. In our view, public administrators also need intrapersonal skills, especially as they cope with changing conditions. Intrapersonal skills, based in self-knowledge and self-understanding, allow individuals to act positively in creating more effective and responsible organizations and to recognize their shortcomings and seek assistance when necessary. Unfortunately, while much is known about developing cognitive knowledge and interpersonal skills, not as much is known about developing intrapersonal skills.

Research on identity is suggestive of ways to understand the development of intrapersonal skills. A major breakthrough in research on identity occurred with Brewer and Gardner's 1996 “contrast of the three levels of self” (Sluss & Ashforth, 2007, p. 9):

  • The individual level, which focuses on oneself as a unique being in which self-esteem derives from intrapersonal comparisons of traits, abilities, goals, performance, and vision. The individual is essentially independent and autonomous. As an example we might think of a newly graduated MPA who seeks a job placement near home in order to spend more time with his family and friends instead of a more prestigious one with a long commute.
  • The interpersonal level, which focuses on role relationships such as supervisor-subordinate or colleague-colleague. At this level, individuals are interdependent, but a premium is placed on the nature of the interaction, the potential for personal connection and intimacy. The basic motivation is the relationship, while welfare and self-esteem derive from fulfilling one's role obligations.
  • The collective, where the focus is on oneself as a prototypical member of a group such as the organization or of a social category, such as gender. Self-esteem derives from intergroup comparison, and the basic motivation is on the welfare of the group. An example may be a group of employees banning together to protect the welfare of their program when others in the organization are bringing its worth into question.

Individuals maintain a sense of self from all three levels, and cognitive shifts between the levels are generated by situational cues, such as names, rewards, and incentives. However, “changes in levels of self-categorization reflect not only differences in views of the self but also different worldviews” including goals, values, and norms (Brewer & Gardner, 1996, p. 91).

The focus of this chapter is on the individual level of self—what we refer to as the intrapersonal level. In our view, understanding oneself is essential to managerial success and lies at the basis of all other skills and attributes of successful managers. The question is, how can we further develop these intrapersonal skills? One way to think about that question is to examine the process of skill development as it applies to any skill-based discipline. Denhardt and Aristigueta (1996) suggest that focusing on skill development is a useful way of thinking about these multiple aspects of self-awareness and knowledge. Think about the way in which people learn any skill-based discipline—sports, art, music, or management. The first level of skill development in any discipline involves cognitive knowledge, or an intellectual understanding of the basic technical skills that the discipline requires, such as a correct bat swing or a proper approach to organizational change. People also must develop the behavioral skills to accomplish these technical moves on every occasion. They must know not only how to swing the bat; they must be able to do so time after time, and this requires extensive practice or rehearsal. The same is true of managers, who can develop these skills through watching and modeling others—through workshops, simulations, case studies, and (most important) experience.

But even those who fully understand their discipline and have acquired the necessary behavioral and technical skills through practice and experience might not always follow the correct course of action. Managers today know the importance of involving employees in organizational change. But even those who have done so effectively in the past might—under conditions of complexity, uncertainty, and stress—fail to consult and involve others. Something beyond cognitive knowledge and behavioral practice is needed: a moral and psychological grounding to enable them to act with consistency and integrity. Their actions must be based on a strong sense of self and the capacity to learn from experience and self-reflection.

In our view, a strong sense of self provides the core from which we can cultivate a personal vision, be more creative, and deal with ambiguity and change. To become more effective managers, we must engage in learning about ourselves and gaining greater maturity and self-confidence based on self-reflection and personal learning. It is clear, then, that people who seek to manage others must first learn to manage themselves. Indeed those who master “self-leadership practices are far more likely to be successful in gaining higher leadership positions and in being considered more effective in those positions” (Van Wart, 2005, p. 364).

A closely related quality, evident in virtually every great entrepreneur, manager, and leader (Tjan, 2012), is self-awareness. The best thing we can do to improve our effectiveness is to become more aware of what motivates us and our decision making. “Without self-awareness, you cannot understand your strengths and weakness, your ‘super powers’ versus your ‘kryptonite’” (Tjan, 2012). It is self-awareness or intrapersonal skills that allow the best public managers to walk the tightrope of leadership: projecting conviction while simultaneously remaining humble enough to be open to new ideas and opposing opinions. The conviction that public managers need for their vision makes them less likely to embrace vulnerabilities or lead with humility.

Tjan (2012) refers to the trinity of self-awareness as know thyself, improve thyself, and complement thyself by adding others with different skills, worldviews, and preferences to your team. The last is important because organizations and society stand to gain much from diversity. In order to be able to benefit our work environment, we must surround ourselves with those who complement our traits and improve our performance. It is going to be impossible for a single individual to have all of the traits necessary for the success of the public organization.

Developing Intrapersonal Skills

Public administrators, like people in other skill-based occupations, need not only cognitive knowledge and behavioral or interpersonal skills but also a certain moral and psychological grounding based in self-knowledge and self-awareness to enable them to act in the real world. We refer to this grounding as intrapersonal skills—the skills that allow us to act with integrity and consistency in any situation and enable us to translate norms and ideas into action. They are based on a strong sense of self and the capacity to learn from experience.

This chapter examines four intrapersonal skills needed now and in the future: establishing a personal vision, understanding personal values, addressing challenges with emotional intelligence, and dealing with ambiguity and change. It then suggests some specific ways in which administrators can develop them. We would also like to encourage managers to energize their subordinates to develop intrapersonal skills too.

Establishing a Personal Vision

The first dimensions of self-awareness is vision, which is best stated in terms of directions, themes, values, or statements such as, “I exist to . . . ” Whereas we all have an implicit sense about the direction of our lives, many psychologists and experts in management stress the importance of consciously creating a personal vision or a preferred future. Creating a vision for ourselves provides us with a sense of direction and helps us to clarify our values. One way of assisting that process is to think in terms of images. According to Gosling and Mintzberg (2003), the great visions are not immaculately conceived; they are painted, stroke by stroke, out of the experience.

Developing a vision also can help in clarifying our core values or those deep-seated, enveloping standards that influence every aspect of our lives: our moral judgments, our responses to others, our commitments to personal and organizational mission (Kouzes & Posner, 2007). Values help us to determine what to do and what not to do when we are unsure or conflicted about a situation. When we have a clear sense of our values, it becomes easier to make decisions about our lives and to become aware of circumstances in which our behavior is inconsistent with our values. Clarifying our values also serves as the first step in recognizing that many of the ideas we hold dear are values rather than facts. Value clarification opens the door to the acceptance of the views and values of others.

Understanding Personal Values

What we value has a direct bearing on the decisions we make at work and at home. We differ in our level of value maturity, so individuals at different stages of development hold different values. Kohlberg's (1971) model of moral development is helpful for analyzing the kind of reasoning used to reach a decision with value or moral connotations. At the preconventional level, moral reasoning and instrumental values are based on personal needs or wants and the consequences of these acts. For example, cheating on an exam is considered okay at this stage because it achieves the personal need of passing the exam and it does not hurt the person whose paper one copied. At the conventional level of moral development, people behave morally by conforming to standards as determined by society, and respect from others is valued. Individuals at this stage of moral development may think of cheating on an exam as wrong because there are rules against it, and respect for one's ability will be lost from the professor and peers. Most adults continue to operate at this level of moral development. The final stage is the postconventional. In this stage, right and wrong are judged on the basis of the internalized principles of the individual. Thus, cheating on the exam continues to be wrong because one has developed this principled judgment.

Understanding our own level of moral development helps us to be aware of our instrumental values, sometimes referred to as personality or a set of psychological characteristics that make each person unique. It is stable and tends to stay the same over time and across situations, although it is not rigid and evolves gradually. While instrumental values refer to character and temperament, terminal values are stable long-lasting beliefs and preferences about what is worthwhile and desirable. Like personality traits, values guide our behavior and are influenced by a combination of biological and environmental factors. For example, if you hold the value “honesty is the best policy,” you will attempt to behave fairly and honorably and show integrity in your words and actions. Like personality, values are shaped early in life and are resistant to change. They are also influenced heavily by culture.

Developing Emotional Intelligence

How we deal with challenges is critical to the success of today's complex organizations. Emotional challenge refers to any real or perceived threat to our security, self-image, or sense of self-worth that stimulates our instinctive self-protective tendencies to withdraw or become aggressive. Interestingly, when facing emotional challenges, most of us try to change or control other people's behavior. However, the truth is that we can control only ourselves. If we can develop our understanding of ourselves and how our personality, abilities, and values influence our behavior; gain insight into how our attitudes and behaviors affect others; and accept that how we view the world is not necessarily how others view the world, we can build resiliency to handle emotional challenges and maintain positive and productive relationships. Those who master resiliency prepare for emotional emergencies with flexibility rather than rigidity and demonstrate emotional intelligence during trying challenges.

Emotional intelligence, a term coined by Goleman in 1995, is required to deal effectively with these emotional challenges. Think of someone with technical and professional expertise getting promoted to a managerial job and failing. The failure may be attributed to management tasks such as planning, organizing, and controlling the use of resources. But it is likely that it is due to a failure to manage personal relationships as a leader. This is often attributable to a lack of understanding of our own emotions and an inability to appreciate the emotions of the people we work with (Armstrong, 2004).

Emotional intelligence, which describes the social and interpersonal aspect of intelligence, is the key to understanding others' perspectives and needs, resolving conflicts, and wielding influence (Lubit, 2006). It has four components (adapted from Armstrong, 2004):

  • Self-management—the ability to control or redirect disruptive impulses and moods and regulate your own behavior, coupled with a propensity to pursue goals with energy and persistence. The six competencies associated with this component are self-control, trustworthiness, integrity, initiative, adaptability and comfort with ambiguity, openness to change, and a strong desire to achieve.
  • Self-awareness—the ability to recognize and understand your moods, emotions, and drives as well as their effect on others. Competencies are self-confidence and knowing yourself.
  • Social-awareness—the ability to understand the emotional makeup of other people and skills in treating people according to their emotional reaction. This is linked to six competencies: empathy, expertise in building and retaining talent, organizational awareness, cross-cultural sensitivity, valuing diversity, and service to stakeholders.
  • Social skills—proficiency in managing relationships and building networks to get the desired result from others, reach personal goals, build rapport, and find common ground. The five competencies associated with this component are leadership, effectiveness in leading change, conflict management, influence/communication, and expertise in building and leading teams.

Dealing with Ambiguity and Change

We are living in times of rapid change characterized by increasing information, globalization, and increasing complexity. Coping, growth, and survival all involve maintaining the integrity of the system in the face of a changing environment that is constantly various kinds of disequilibrium (Schein, 1992). To be successful in changing public organizations, managers must develop a fairly specific set of skills necessary to the change process. Many of these skills are what are called process skills—skills related to how things are done as opposed to what things are being done. A task can be completed in a variety of ways depending on the manager's orientation; the difference largely lies in the area of process skills: “Process skills have to do with the dynamics and quality of interaction among members of management and between managers, supervisors, and employees. The cultivation and development of effective process skills depend on having a supportive atmosphere in the organization, on personal willingness to take risks in trying new modes of interpersonal behavior, and on personal sensitivity to the behavioral clues offered by others” (Judson, 1991, p. 148). Thus, these skills are largely interpersonal and include such issues as communications, power and authority, and motivation.

These skills must be complemented by intrapersonal skills as well. Change is difficult for many people, and the role of the manager in part is to manage that condition—to show people how the change will benefit them as well as the organization and to provide the reassurance they need that everything will be okay. Moreover, the success of organizational change efforts depends not only on what the manager does but also on how he or she does it. And most important, the manager must feel secure in his or her own position so as to trust the suggestions that others make. Indeed, if the manager is insecure and unable to demonstrate emotional intelligence in times of ambiguity and change, employees probably will not trust him or her.

Improving One's Sense of Self

There is considerable empirical evidence that self-awareness and self-acceptance are strongly related to personal adjustment, interpersonal relationships, and life success (Whetten & Cameron, 1998). The knowledge we possess about ourselves is central to improving our management skills and our sense of well-being in challenging times. Indeed, self-knowledge may be the most important skill for employees to possess in a rapidly changing organization.

Well-known and thoroughly researched assessments are available to the individual interested in self-knowledge. We have identified four for the journey to self-awareness: cognitive styles, career anchors, personal values, and interpersonal orientation.

Cognitive Style

Cognitive style refers to the manner in which individuals gather and process information. Carl Jung developed a holistic framework for describing the differences in human adaptive processes. He began by distinguishing between people who were oriented toward the external world (extroverts) and those oriented toward the internal world (introverts). He then identified two modes of decision making in the individual occurring through perception or judgment and then four basic functions of human adaptation—two describing alternative ways of perceiving (sensing and intuition) and two describing alternative ways of making judgments about the world (thinking and feeling) (Kolb, 1984), The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a widely used self-administered inventory to assess an individual's Jungian personality types (Myers & Briggs, 1985). You may want to access a similar instrument available online through David Keirsey's webpage (http://www.keirsey.com). The online instrument does not have the reputation of the MBTI but as a rough guide to personality preferences, it can be extraordinarily helpful.

Career Anchors

Knowing one's career orientation, defined as a self-perceived talent, motive, or value that serves to guide, stabilize, and integrate a person's career, is also quite helpful. Schein (1978) developed the Career Orientation Inventory that assesses the career anchor of the individual. He identified eight career anchors: technical functional competence, managerial competence, autonomy, security, entrepreneurialism, service, challenge, and lifestyle. A career anchor may be viewed as a concern or value that a person would not abandon if given a choice. This inventory is highly useful in making career decisions and helping supervisors maximize their employees interests and talents. The inventory may be taken online (http://www.careeranchorsonline.com/SCA/startPage.do).

Interpersonal Orientation

Interpersonal orientation refers to behavior and interpersonal relationships, not just personal inclinations and psychological attributes regarding other people. It describes the underlying tendencies individuals have to behave in certain ways regardless of circumstances or the presence of others. Schutz's classic theory (1958) of interpersonal orientation states that interpersonal needs exist that must be satisfied if the individual is to function effectively and avoid unsatisfactory relationships—the need for inclusion, the need for control, and the need for affection. Each of these three needs has two aspects, a desire to express the behavior and a desire to receive it from others. (These tendencies may be assessed by the Schutz FIRO-B Inventory.) Personal values lie at the core of a person's behavior and play a large part in unifying his or her personality. What we value has a direct bearing on the decisions that we make. W. J. Reddin's Values Inventory (1978) describes six personality types based on values:

  • Theoretical—interest in ordering and systematizing knowledge; likes to reason and think and is rational and analytical
  • Power oriented—interest in the use, implications, and manifestations of power
  • Achievement oriented—practical, efficient, and concerned with obtaining results
  • Human oriented—views people and relationships in a positive manner, a humanitarian
  • Industry oriented—likes to work and sees work as an end in itself
  • Financial oriented—interested in the power of money and in rewards for effort and personal gain

Practical Advice for Developing Intrapersonal Skills

Engage in Reflection

An essential aspect of management and leadership development is self-awareness. There are several things you can do to develop your self-awareness. First, become a reflective practitioner, and engage in reflection-in-action in order to allow practice to provide the laboratory where learning can take place (Schön, 1983). Through reflection, you can develop your personal narrative about who you are, what you value, what you stand for, and what your personal vision. A self-narrative speaks to your identity. Telling your story allows you to interpret the events in your life, invent and reinvent yourself in light of those events, and create and reinforce your identity (Ibarra & Barbulescu, 2010).

In addition to self-narrative, you can develop your self-awareness by being attentive to feedback that you receive from others informally through personal conversations or formally through performance evaluations. The information gained through these interactions can provide you with knowledge about how others perceive you and offer opportunities for improvement. For example, you might find that others perceive you as concentrating so strongly on the details that you lose sight of the overall goals with which you have been charged. You might not always like the information that you learn through feedback and self-discovery, but that information can be quite valuable. The key is to use it to enhance your self-awareness, personal growth, and competence.

Self-disclosure requires revealing ourselves to others by disclosing our beliefs, values, and desires not only through conversation but also through artifacts and nonverbal communication. For example, the pictures that we have in our offices speak of our families, preferred landscapes, places we have traveled, and so on. We become human by sharing our interests and desires with others. Self-disclosure also affects the way in which others see us, particularly as it pertains to trust.

Practice self-disclosure by answering the following questions: Who am I? What are my values? What are my strengths? What are my weaknesses? What will be necessary for me to be happy in a career or in my personal life? What changes do I need to make in my life? What legacy do I want to leave? Spend an evening with a relative or close friend discussing the results, and ask that person if your responses are in keeping with their personal views of you. A case illustration shows the benefit of reflection and self-disclosure.

Amy Garcia is an accomplished, educated, highly sought-after public manager in midcareer, with two young children and a working spouse. She is in the job market due to her personal desire for career advancement from what she considers to be currently a dead-end position in New York City. She has three job offers:

  • A nonprofit organization in the Midwest that would provide her with a leadership position and much responsibility. She has been working for government, so this would be a new position that would allow her to manage and seek grants and contracts, fundraise, and work with a board. Her salary would remain close to what she is currently making, but the cost of living is considerably lower than where the family currently resides, and this job would provide her with new skills.
  • A management consulting firm in Washington, DC. The firm is interested in more work in the public sector and sees her as a great asset to this endeavor. The salary is higher than what she is currently making in New York City. She would be expected to live in Washington and travel extensively. She will eventually be expected to bring in her own contracts in order to remain employed.
  • A state agency in New York State where she would become the assistant director to a large agency. She would be working for a director who brings much experience to the job. The salary is lower than what she is making in New York City and she would be expected to move to Albany where the cost of living is lower. All of her work would be in the Albany area. She would supervise a large staff comparable to the one she currently has in the city.

Amy spends a week narrowing her decision and engages in self-disclosure with her mentor and friend, Annabel; her husband, Daniel; and her coworker and friend John. She greatly values spending time with her family, and her parents have moved to New York City to be close to their grandchildren. Her career anchor is service/dedication to a cause. Her mentor knows that in order to advance, she needs to leave her current position, but she wants to make sure that she balances her needs with those of her family. Amy finds her husband is very supportive. His job allows him to work from home when he is not traveling, so moving is not an issue. Her coworker reminds her how much she enjoys being in a supervisory role and opportunity for growth. Which position do you think she will take? If your values are different, what position would you take?

Develop a Personal Vision and Value Statement

In developing your personal vision and value statement, think of the answers to the previous questions and allow yourself to dream and rely on your intuition. Try to focus on what you believe an ideal future would look like, or consider looking back on your life and career at an advanced age and ask yourself what things you would have liked to have accomplished. Write your vision and value statement:

  • Describe key areas of your life that are important to you.
  • Write down a set of values that are important to you.
  • Write down one or two things that you would like to have accomplished in each of these areas.
  • Imagine what having achieved these to your full satisfaction may look like.

Use this information to write a personal vision statement that sets an agenda for the coming years and expresses fully the aspirations you have for yourself. Develop a detailed action plan to achieve this vision, and make commitments for the actions necessary to bring your vision to fruition. Share it with close friends and colleagues. Ask family members and friends to encourage you to live according to your values. Once your personal vision and values are written, compose a short phrase of five to nine words that capture the essence of your vision as a personal reminder.

Practice Resiliency

Most of us have come across people who seem to accomplish more than others and deal with difficult situations while maintaining emotional intelligence. We also all know individuals who become defensive, and maybe even combative, when others disagree with their ideas. Other individuals at work are able to maintain a calm, professional demeanor while publicly criticized.

What is it about these individuals that appears to make them resilient while others encounter difficulties in trying times? Resiliencies are necessary in order to maintain emotional intelligence and not experience the long-term consequences that lack of resiliency will have on you and the organization. A way to improve resiliency is to practice the characteristics that Waters (2013) has found in emotionally resilient individuals:

  • Identify those things that are causing you stress as temporary and do not let them become part of your permanent identity.
  • Surround yourself with resilient people, particularly those who have a calming effect during stressful situations.
  • Cultivate self-awareness, and listen to your internal cues.
  • Accept the full range of emotions, including discomfort.
  • Remain mindful of the situations in your surroundings without judgment or avoidance.
  • Seek assistance from your family, friends, and coworkers when you feel the situation calls for it.
  • Consider that your interpretation of the situation will change with time.
  • Practice writing down your thoughts when you are in the middle of an overwhelming situation. This has been found to relieve stress and anxiety.

Engage in Profound Learning

In summarizing your new skills, consider not only the knowledge you have or the interpersonal skills you develop, but also these intrapersonal qualities (Denhardt, 2013):

  • Sense of purpose: Envisioning a new direction, committing yourself fully to the chosen path, and showing the patience, persistence, drive, and determination to stay on that path—until a better path comes along. This must be coupled with the capacity to know when a better path comes along.
  • Learning agility: The ability to learn on the go so as to shape and reshape your character, especially developing integrity, honesty, trustworthiness, self-esteem presence, flexibility, resilience, discipline, mindfulness, and focus, that is, being present to the moment.
  • Courage: Required for being creative and innovative, plowing new ground, and assessing the risk in a situation and then exercising good judgment and engaging in appropriate risk taking.
  • Caring and compassion: Acting with charity, respect, and love in your dealings with clients, customers, employees, and even your boss.
  • Empathy: The sensitivity to and deep understanding of the emotional and psychological state of another, taking his or her point of view, then acting based on a concern for not just “me” but also “we.”

Summary

The pressures and complexity of life in contemporary public organizations require that those in leadership positions are sensitive to developing not only their interpersonal skills but also intrapersonal skills. These skills—which enable people to act with integrity and consistency despite the pressures of an interconnected, globalized world—include establishing a personal vision, understanding personal values, addressing challenges with emotional intelligence, and dealing with ambiguity and change. In the organizations of the future—organizations with strong leadership, rapid change, a clear vision, and a strong emphasis on service quality—employees will find it more and more necessary to have self-confidence, emotional intelligence, and self-esteem. One way to accomplish this is through careful attention to one's moral and psychological grounding—that is, through sharpening one's intrapersonal skills.

..................Content has been hidden....................

You can't read the all page of ebook, please click here login for view all page.
Reset