- Acceleration, 20
- Activity coefficients, 98, 190, 191, 193, 197
- Adsorption, 107–112
- Age of universe, 31
- Amp.hour, 31
- Anode, 72
- Area capacity, 31
- Baryon-7, 32
- Batteries, –6, 290
- for bulk storage, 86–87
- history of, 307–309
- inherent failure mechanisms of, 73
- initial survey, 311–312
- for portable or electric vehicle use, 87
- problems with, 72–74
- research path, long-life high ED battery, 312–322
- Big Bang nucleosynthesis, , 32
- Biofuels,
- Biological energy storage, ,
- Biomass, 10
- Bipolar electrodes, cell arrays, 231
- Bond energies, 35
- British thermal unit (Btu),
- Capacitance, 29, 274
- Carbon conductor electrode pore, 185
- Carbon-polymer composite electrodes, 233–237
- cell spacing, 236–237
- metal to carbon resistance, 235–236
- particle shapes and sizes, 235
- Cathodes, 72
- Cell design considerations
- carbon-polymer composite electrodes, 233–237
- diffusion and reaction rates, 227
- electrodes, 228–229
- electrolytes and membranes, 239–240
- energy and power density, 240–244
- imbalance considerations, 244
- overcharging effects, 244
- physical spacing in, 229–232
- test cells, resistance measurements, 237–239
- Cell dynamics, 186–198
- electrode processes analyses, 186
- polymeric number change, 186–198
- Cell imbalance, 86
- Cell potential, 303
- Cell resistance vs. electrode separation, 238
- Ceramic or glassy electrolytes, 272
- Charge retention, 132
- “Charging” process, 119
- Chemical energy, , 31–38
- breaking and forming, chemical bonds, 35–36
- chemical vs. electrochemical reactions, 36–37
- hydrogen, 37–38
- nucleosynthesis and elements origin, 31–35
- storage, ,
- Classical mechanics, 15–28
- Classical molecular theory, 89
- Closed system gas compression, 93
- Coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE), 259
- Colligative properties
- electrochemical application of, 91–101
- of matter, 89–90
- Common Ion Redox cell (CIR), 91, 166–173
- Common Ion Redox (CIR) process, 96–101
- Competing storage methods, 71–88
- Concentration cells, 89–161, 302–305
- adsorbed state, reagents storage, 137–140
- adsorption and diffusion rate balance, 107–109
- adsorption and solids precipitation, 109–112
- aspects of, 113–116
- bulk electrolyte, storage, 134–136
- calculated performance data, 150–153
- Common Ion Redox (CIR), 96–101
- concentration cell mechanism and mathematics, 149–150
- electrical behavior, observations, 141–143
- electrode surface potentials, 119–120
- electrolyte information, 146–149
- empirical data, 160–161
- energy density, 140–141
- energy storage cells mechanisms, 127–132
- Fe+2/Fe+3, example, 155–156
- fundamental issues, 101–107
- future performance and limitations, 304–305
- general cell attributes, 146
- Nernst potentials, performance calculations, 156–160
- performance characteristics, 145
- pros and cons of, 303–304
- species balance, 118–119
- S/S–2 cell balance analysis method, 153–155
- storage mechanisms, sulfur, 116–118
- sulfide based cells, operational models, 132–134
- sulfide/sulfur half cell balance, 145
- thermodynamics of, 163–173
- van der Waals equation and, 325–326
- Concentration gradient, 122, 252
- Concentration ratios examination, 120–122
- Constant current discharge, 142
- Contact resistance, 239
- Conventional batteries, 227
- Conventional cell, 304
- Conventional energy storage devices, 290
- Conversion processes, 48–54
- multiple P-N cell structure with heat, 50
- photovoltaic conversion process, 49
- Seebeck and Peltier effects, 49–50
- thermionic converter, 51
- thermoelectric effects, 49–50
- thermoelectric generators examples, 50
- thermogalvanic conversion, 51–54
- Cooperative motion, 261
- Coulombic efficiency, 221, 225, 331
- Coulombic losses, 330
- Current density, 214–218
- Daniel cell, 103
- Dark energy, 34, 35
- Dark matter, 34
- Deuterium, 32
- Differential energy, 29, 30
- Differential equations, 207–219
- Diffusion balances, 176
- Diffusion coefficients, 112
- Diffusion rate, 107–109
- Diffusion tests, 323–325
- Dimension theory, 20
- Double-layer capacitor, 272
- Double-layer supercapacitors, 290
- Earth’s surface, 11
- Einstein’s Relativity Theory, 16
- Einstein-Stokes relation, 254
- Elastic potential energy, 27–28
- Electrical capacitors, 63
- Electrical conductivity, 112
- Electrical double-layer capacitor (EDLC), 272
- Electrical energy, 28–31
- Electrical energy storage,
- Electric car, 309–311
- Electric (ionic) current density, 183–184
- Electroadsorption, 111
- Electrochemical application, colligative properties
- compressed gas, 93–94
- electrostatic capacitor, 95–96
- osmosis, 94–95
- Electrochemical cells, 77, 289
- new chemistry for, 300–301
- Electrochemical energy,
- Electrochemical energy storage,
- Electrochemical secondary batteries, 71
- Electrochemical supercapacitors (ESs), 274
- Electrode behavior analysis, 198–206
- Electrode electronic resistance, 176
- Electrode “porosity,” 179
- Electrode processes, 167
- Electrode surface potentials, 119–120
- Electrode surface structure, 225
- Electrolyte interconnectivity losses, 326–329
- Electrolyte ionic resistance, 176
- Electrolytes, separators, and membranes (ESMs), 245–282
- electrolyte classifications, 246–247
- fillers and additives, 282
- fuel cells, 276, 279–282
- ion conduction theory, 251–262
- ionic conductivity, 247–251
- lithium ion batteries, 264–272
- supercapacitors, 272–276
- transference number, 263–264
- Electrosorption, 119
- Encapsulated laboratory cells, 286
- Energy, 15–19
- Energy bank deposit,
- Energy challenges,
- Energy consumption, –3, 296, 297
- Energy conversion efficiency, 75
- Energy density, , 74, 76, 304, 305
- Energy efficiency, 330–333
- Energy fundamentals, 15–42
- chemical energy, 31–38
- classical mechanics, 15–28
- electrical energy, 28–31
- mechanical energy, 15–28
- thermal energy, 39–42
- Energy loss mechanisms, 331
- Energy portability, –5
- Energy problem, –5
- energy portability, –5
- greenhouse effect, –4
- population and energy consumption, –3
- Energy recovery methods, 297
- Energy services, 295
- Energy sources, 10–12
- Energy storage devices, recycling, 298–299
- Enhanced concentration cell operation, 78
- Enthalpy of reaction, 36
- Equation of state, 163
- Equivalent series resistance (ESR), 276
- Eutectics, 42
- Fick’s first law, 185, 252
- Fick’s second law, 252
- “Fish bone” diagram, 262
- Fixed electrolyte redox cell, 55
- Fixed load discharge, 142
- Flash light, 68
- Flat surface electrode, 190
- Flexible energy storage devices, 290, 292
- Flexible thin film energy storage device, 290
- Flywheel, 25, 26
- Foldable energy storage devices, 290
- Forces, 21, 24
- Fossil fuels, 10, 43, 64
- Free energy, 166
- Free volume (FV) model, 259, 260
- Frenkel defect, 261
- Fuel cells, , 276, 279–282
- Fugacity, 165
- Full flow electrolyte redox battery system, 56
- Full redox couples, 83–85
- Fused salt electrolytes, 77
- Gel polymer electrolytes (GPEs), 271
- Geothermal energy, 10
- Gibbs free energy, 36
- Gibbs function, 163, 165
- Gibbs-Helmholtz equation, 53
- Glass transition temperature, 259
- Graphite particles, 233
- Gravitational field, 23
- Gravitational potential energy, 26
- Greenhouse Effect, –4
- Guoy-Chapman point charge model, 274
- Half-cell potentials, 190, 211, 224
- Half-cell representation, 108
- Heat energy, 22
- Helium-3, 32
- Helium-4, 32, 33
- Helmholtz layer, 100, 104
- Helmholtz model, 274
- Homogeneous membranes properties, 323–325
- Hydrocarbon fuel, 75–77
- Hydro-electric generation, 68
- Hydrogen fuel, 302
- Hydrogen/oxygen fuel cells, 64
- Hydrogen reference electrode cell, 105
- Hydropower, 10
- Inertia, 22
- Inorganic PHMs, 42
- Ion conduction theory, 251–262
- in ceramic electrolytes, 260–262
- in liquid electrolytes, 252–256
- in polymer electrolytes, 256–260
- Ionic conductivity, 247–251
- factors affecting, 262–263
- measurement techniques, 247–249
- Nyquist plot circuit fitting, 249–251
- Ionic species, 225
- Iron concentration cell, 106
- Iron/ferric couple, 88
- Iron/iron concentration cell properties, 126–127
- Iron redox cell, energy level diagram, 80
- Land vehicle propulsion requirements, 69–70
- Large-scale energy storage, 44
- Latent heat storage, 40
- Latimer’s “Oxidation Potentials,” 172
- Laws of motion, 21
- Lead-acid battery, 87, 229
- LeClanche (dry) cell, 78
- Length, 20
- Light elements, 32
- Linear concentration gradient, 255
- Liquid electrolytes, 247
- aqueous electrolytes, 268–270
- non-aqueous electrolytes, 264–268
- Lithium-7, 32, 33
- Lithium ion batteries (LIBs), 264–272, 291
- liquid electrolytes, 264–270
- metal recovery process for, 299
- recycling of, 298, 299
- solid and quasi-solid electrolytes, 270–272
- Lithium lanthanum titanate (LLTO), 262
- Lithium thionyl chloride cell, 72
- Machine learning, 300
- Magnetic field, 18
- Mass, 20
- Maxwell-Stefan equation, 256
- Mechanical energy, 15–28
- Mechanical energy storage, ,
- Mechanical force, 21
- Mechanically flexible energy storage devices, 290
- Metal-halogen and half-redox couples, 78–83
- Multiple themoelectric junctions, 51
- Nafion membrane, 279, 281, 282
- Nernst-Einstein equation, 254, 259
- Nernst equation, 97, 105, 114, 131, 167, 224
- Nernst-Plank equation, 255
- Nernst potentials, performance calculations, 156–160
- constant current discharge, 157–158
- constant power discharge, 158–160
- Non-electrochemical energy storage, 301–302
- Nuclear energy, 10
- Nuclear reactor systems, 10
- Observable quantity, 17
- On-the-road vehicles, 69–70
- Open-air osmosis compression system, 94
- Open top disassemblable test cell, 286
- Organic PHMs, 42
- Peltier effects, 49–50
- Phase change materials, 42
- Physical spacing, cell design, 229–232
- electrode structures, 229–232
- Physical storage, hydrogen, 37–38
- Point defects, 260, 261
- Polymer electrolytes, 270–272
- Polysulfide, diffusion analysis, 175–225
- cell and negative electrode performance analysis, 219–225
- cell dynamics, 186–198
- differential equations, solving, 207–219
- diffusion and supply, reagents, 184–186
- diffusion and transport processes, electrode surface, 177–179
- electric (ionic) current density, 183–184
- electrode behavior analysis, 198–206
- electrode surface properties, holes, and pores, 179–183
- flat electrode with storage properties, 198–206
- polarization voltages, 176–177
- reagent concentrations values, 206–207
- thermodynamics, 176–177
- Porous surface electrode, 190
- Power densities, , 87
- Power source, 309–311
- Primary energy sources, 10, 46
- Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC), 279, 302
- Purposes, energy storage, –6
- Ragone plot, , , 82, 83
- Rate of adsorption, 122
- Redox batteries,
- Redox cell reactants, 84
- Redox systems, 13
- Rejected energy, 295, 297
- Rocket propulsion energy, 70
- Room temperature ionic liquids (RTILs), 266–267
- Rotational kinetic energy, 26
- Schottky defect, 261
- Schwarz transformation, 180
- Secondary cell reactions, 71
- Secondary energy systems, need, 62–64
- comparisons and background information, 63–64
- Secondary sources of energy, 46
- Seebeck effects, 49–50
- Self-charging energy storage devices, 294–295
- Sensible heat storage, 40
- Silver iodide, 54
- Simple electrochemical cell, 98
- Single cell empirical data, 283–288
- design and construction, cells and materials, 283–287
- experimental data, 287–288
- Sizing power requirements, familiar activities, 64–69
- Archer’s bow and arrow, mechanical storage, 67–69
- arm throwing, 66
- human manual power, mechanically unaided, 66–69
- vehicle propulsion, human powered leg muscles, 66–67
- Sloping voltages, 303
- Small laboratory cells, 122–126
- Solar cells,
- Solar energy, 10
- Solid and quasi-solid electrolytes, 270–272
- ceramic or glassy electrolytes, 272
- polymer electrolytes, 270–272
- Solid electrolyte interphase (SEI), 265, 282
- Solid electrolytes, 247
- Solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs), 270
- Solids precipitation, 109–112
- Species balance, 118–119
- Specific capacity, 31
- Specific gravity, 333
- of FeCl3 solutions, 334
- sodium monosulfide solution, 334
- Specific resistivity, NaOH solutions, 333
- Spring constant, 68
- Standard reference electrode potentials, 102
- State-of-charge, SOC, 222
- Stern model, 274
- Storage, need, 59–62
- Storage methods, competing, 71–88
- Storage processes
- full flow and static electrolyte system comparisons, 55–58
- redox full-flow electrolyte systems, 54–55
- Strain energy density, 28
- Stretchable energy storage devices, 290, 293
- “Structural energy storage” devices, 292
- Sulfur/bromine couple, 88
- Supercapacitors, , , 272–276, 290
- Superconductive magnetic energy storage system (SMES), 302
- Supernova, 32
- Test cells, resistance measurements, 237–239
- Thermal energy, 39–42
- phase change materials, 42
- storage types, 40–42
- temperature, 39–40
- Thermal energy storage, ,
- Thermochemical energy storage, 40
- Time, 20
- Total energy efficiency, 332
- Transference number, 263–264
- Tritium, 32
- Vanadium redox cell, 58, 170
- Van der Waals equation, 325–326
- Vis viva concept, 16
- Vogel–Tammann–Fulcher (VTF) model, 260
- Volt, 31
- Voltage efficiency factor, 331
- Voltage losses, 330
- Voltages vs. amp-hour, 100
- Volt-amp data, 144
- Warburg diffusion impedance, 249
- Wasted energy, recovering, 295–298
- Water, 11
- Watt.Hour, 31
- Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP), 35
- Williams-Landel-Ferry (WLF) equation, 259
- Wind and tidal energy, 10
- Work, 19
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