CHAPTER

8   The Camera

Introduction

Camera operators try to provide directors with the best possible pictures that will enhance a particular aesthetic approach. To accomplish this goal, they must know how to use basic image framing, composition, and camera movements and how to control numerous technical devices of the camera and lens. To record clear and distinct images, for example, camera operators must understand how lenses work and then place key information in sharp focus. Significant image depth—that is, placing a wide range of objects at various distances from the camera in sharp focus—can be an effective realist approach to camera operation. Image depth enhances the perception of spatial continuity, which, like temporal continuity, is one of the hallmarks of realist aesthetics. Limiting or restricting image depth can help to create a modernist perspective on everyday objects by isolating them from their surroundings and temporarily “making them strange” (a formalist and modernist characteristic), often providing an unusual perspective on them.

The differences between analog and digital cameras are subtle but important. These differences and comparisons will be explained later in this chapter. Film cameras also have benefited from the increased use of digital circuits. A professional film camera will have a video assist (video picture output) originated by one or more charge coupled device (CCD) or complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) chips. In addition, timecode signals may be recorded in a digital format for easier conversion in postproduction.

Some aesthetic aspects of camera use, such as composition and camera movement, were considered in terms of directing in Chapter 5, Directing: Aesthetic Principles and Production Coordination, but they bear repeating here from the standpoint of camera placement and control. After reading this chapter and before attempting to use any camera, you should read the instruction manual carefully for the specific camera you wish to operate. Continual practice with the camera is necessary to make it an extension of your eyes and body. Basic camera exercises, such as those recommended at the end of this chapter, can significantly improve your skills as a camera operator.

Potential camera operators should be aware of the capability of studio systems to include remote controls for all of the camera operations: panning, tilting, zooming, and even dollying and trucking across the studio floor. The cameras used on major network newscasts now are all remote controlled from the control room. One of the functions of a camera operator may be to operate several cameras simultaneously with remote controls while seated in the control room. The traditional setting of the electronic controls of cameras by a camera control operator before each production also has been replaced by a computer built into the camera control unit. With a single press of a button, the computer runs a complete check of all electronic circuits and sets the camera controls for that particular production.

CAMERA PLACEMENT

Placing a camera in the best position for recording realist or modernist images consists of three camera operations: framing, positioning, and movement. Framing refers to the arrangement of actions and objects within the camera frame. Positioning includes the selection of camera-to-subject distance and angle, whereas movement of the camera is accomplished by means of various camera-mounting devices.

Framing

Four key concepts help camera operators frame visual images: essential area, lookspace, walkspace, and headroom. Essential area refers to the safe recording area within the camera frame. All key information should be placed within the essential area of the frame so that it is not cut off by mistake. Objects and actions can be placed within the essential area by moving the camera closer to or farther away from the subject or by altering the focal length of a zoom lens. Lookspace is the frame area in front of an on-screen performer who is looking at an off-screen object or person. Leaving some space in the frame for the performer’s look or glance creates the best spatial composition. Lookspace can be increased by panning the camera. Walkspace refers to the additional space left in the frame into which a performer can walk or run. When following a performer with a camera, as during a panning or trucking shot, walkspace should be placed in front of the subject within the frame. Otherwise, the edge of the frame acts as a restrictive border and the visual composition seems awkward (Figure 8.1).

FIGURE 8.1 Camera operators, whether of film or video, need to be aware that all viewers at home will not be able to see the subjects in their receivers in exactly the same way as operators see them in their viewfinders. There is a certain amount of picture loss around the edges because of the conversion and transmission process. This trims off a border around the picture that could amount to as much as 20 percent of the total picture. To be safe, a camera operator should include within the central 80 percent all subjects that are critical to the shot, while still keeping in mind that some people may see virtually everything the operator is viewing. Regardless of the aspect ratio, 4 ´ 3 or 16 ´ 9, the critical area still needs to be observed. Also a production may be shot and recorded on a 16:9 aspect ratio camera with the intention of using the video for both 16:9 and 4:3 production, requiring the camera operator to frame for both aspect ratios simultaneously.

Another important aspect of composition is providing an appropriate amount of headroom—that is, space above the performer’s head within the frame. Too little headroom creates a sense of confinement, whereas too much gives an impression of limitless space that sometimes dwarfs the performer. Of course, tight close-ups often have little or no headroom. Changes in headroom result from tilting the camera, moving the camera closer or farther away, or zooming the lens. The rules for framing in the 16:9 aspect ratio are the same as for framing at 4:3, except much more space is available on the sides of the frames that must be filled with some objects or filler. The frame still may be split into nine areas, and the rule of thirds still pertains. But the horizontal areas require greater planning and thought to maintain satisfactory composition, especially for objects that are predominately vertical in their individual framing.

Positioning

Camera operators also need to be familiar with the basic rules of camera placement and composition. For example, the 180-degree action-axis rule should be followed in camera placement, if the directional relationship of objects in the frame and subject movements is to remain spatially consistent from shot-to-shot. Crossing the line with the camera can reverse screen direction. In terms of composition, the rule of thirds, or dividing the frame into three parts both vertically and horizontally, allows the camera operator to place objects along the lines and at the intersection points to help achieve a satisfying frame composition. Additional compositional factors from the standpoint of aesthetics, such as symmetry or balance and closure, should also be considered (see Chapter 5, Directing: Aesthetic Principles and Production Coordination).

Camera operators and directors control the placement and movement of cameras and put aesthetic principles into actual practice. A specific terminology is often used to refer to common types of camera placements and movements. Terms such as medium shot, dolly, pan, pedestal, and crane shot have specific meanings when they appear in a final shooting script or shot lists supplied to the camera operators by the director.

A close-up is basically a head-and-shoulders shot of a person. An extreme closeup fills the frame of the camera with a character’s face, a part of the face, or some specific object. Close-ups are used for emphasis, to achieve a degree of intimacy or involvement, or to focus the audience’s attention on a particular detail. Used sparingly, close-ups can be an effective way of achieving dramatic emphasis. Close-ups are created by moving the camera closer to the subject or by zooming in.

A medium shot includes one-half to three-quarters of a character’s body. The camera is placed farther away from the subject or the lens is zoomed out from a close-up. This type of shot is a compromise between the long shot and the close-up. Some details and facial gestures are readily apparent, but many broad actions of several characters can sometimes be included within the frame as well. A two-shot is generally a medium shot that presents two people or characters within the same frame. Television and film directors frequently frame an image as a two-shot so that the audience can see the actions and reactions of two characters simultaneously.

A long shot gives a full-body image of a character or characters. An extreme long shot might include a broad exterior vista. Long shots allow audiences to see broad action but do not provide emphasis or subtle details. The long shot is often called an establishing shot when it sets the character(s) in the context of the setting or location. Many standard scenes begin with an establishing shot to set the context or physical location and then cut to combinations of closer shots of specific actions and characters. A camera is normally placed at the subject’s eye height in video and film production, but some shots call for a higher camera angle, whereas others call for a much lower camera position. These high- and low-camera angles can be used to simulate the spatial positioning and points of view of specific characters, or simply to provide perspectives that will exaggerate or reduce the apparent size of the object(s) in the frame.

Movement

Camera movements in midshot should be made only when they significantly improve our understanding of what is being presented. When overused, they can be visually distracting. Moving camera shots should begin and end with the camera stationary so that they can be intercut or combined with stationary camera shots.

When a camera is placed on a moving tripod or dolly, it can be moved toward or away from the subject. These camera movements are called dolly shots. They differ from zoom shots, which result from changing the focal length of a zoom lens. Dolly shots alter perspective—that is, they change the apparent spatial positioning of objects in a scene. They give the audience the feeling that they are actually moving through the scene, as well as shifting their perspective and focus of attention.

Physically moving the camera horizontally or laterally with respect to the subject is called a trucking shot. Trucking shots can be used to keep a moving subject in frame. A lateral movement of the camera in a semicircular path is called an arc. To perform a trucking shot or arc, the camera must be mounted on a wheeled dolly. Sometimes tracks are laid on the floor or ground so that the wheels of the dolly will follow a prearranged path. If the tracks are laid properly, minimal bounce of the camera will occur, even over rough terrain. During tracking, trucking, and dolly shots, it is often advisable to use a wide-angle lens to minimize the bouncing of the image. Telephoto lenses accentuate camera bounce.

A stationary tripod usually has a panning and a tilting device. A pan action slowly and smoothly rotates the camera from side-to-side on a tripod pivot, and a tilt action moves it up and down. These movements can be used to change the angle of view or to follow action. Panning too quickly can cause vertical lines or objects to strobe or flicker. Pans and tilts can also be used to follow performer movements. Tilts are often used to follow a performer sitting down or standing up. Like all camera movements, they usually begin and end with a well-composed stationary frame. A camera can also be physically moved up and down on a pedestal dolly. A hydraulic lift pushes the camera straight up or brings it straight down. This technique is called a pedestal movement and is used to adjust the camera for a high- or low-angle shot rather than to move the camera in midshot. A crane shot uses a long pivoting arm to move the camera up and down or from side to side in the studio or on location. It is usually reserved for wide establishing shots and is often used to move the camera in midshot.

Mounting Devices

Camera placements and movements usually require the use of specific camera-mounting devices in order to record steady images. Mounting devices for video cameras range from pistol grips to cranes. A pistol grip is used to handhold a lightweight, portable, small-format camera (Figure 8.2). This device is rarely used for professional recording. The crane is a relatively large mounting device, which consists of a long counterweighted arm on a four-wheeled dolly or truck. It allows a camera to be raised to extreme heights in a studio or field situation and usually requires several technicians to assist the camera operator in actually moving the camera. In between these two extremes we find the body mount, tripod dolly, and pedestal dolly.

FIGURE 8.2 The smallest and most flexible camera mount is a pistol grip mounted on either the camera body or the lens. Using such a mount requires upper-body strength, because all of the weight of the camera and lens rests on the operator’s shoulder and right hand. Much practice is necessary to learn to handhold a camera in order to provide a steady, unwavering shot. Other devices that help operators to steady a handheld camera include a support for the wrist and extended shoulder mounts. (Courtesy Sachtler and WristShot.)

Body Mount

A shoulder harness can be anything from a built-in camera mold or special body brace that fits perfectly over the operator’s shoulder to a more elaborate servo stabilizer, such as a Steadicam, which minimizes vibration of the camera and allows the camera operator to move around freely. A body mount uses a complex system of springs and counterweights to smooth out the jerky movements of the operator and to simulate dolly or crane movements of the camera. A body mount can be used with a film camera as well as a video camera. (A Steadicam Jr. can be handheld with a lightweight video camera.) However, most body mounts position the camera in such a way that the normal film or video camera viewfinder cannot be used. The camera is usually at the operator’s waist and is detached from his or her body. A video pickup is fitted into the camera viewfinder, and a video signal is fed to a small monitor on the top of the camera where the operator can view it. The video signal can also be fed to a recorder, so that immediately viewable television images are recorded at the same time as the film. Film, of course, cannot be screened until it is developed (Figure 8.3).

FIGURE 8.3 Body mounts are manufactured to carry either film or video cameras of all sizes. They are designed with a built-in spring and gyro system to maintain positioning on a level and even keel as the operator moves about the set. (Courtesy of Cinema Products and Glidecam Industries.)

Tripods

A tripod is a three-legged device on which a stationary camera can be secured. The legs of the tripod can be extended to raise or lower the camera. Tripods are one of the most frequently used single-camera supports.

They usually consist of three extendible legs, with pointed spurs on the tripod shoes, a cradle and ball joint for leveling, a fluid head or other form of panning and tilting device, and a camera locking bolt. A fluid head allows the camera to be smoothly panned or tilted on the tripod. When used outdoors, the spurs of the tripod can frequently be secured in soft ground, but on hard surfaces and indoors, the spur must be secured in a spider (sometimes called a triangle or spreader), which provides a device for locking down the shoes of a tripod to prevent them from slipping. Tripods for small-format video cameras often have flat rubber shoes rather than pointed spurs and are intended for both indoor and outdoor use without a spider (Figure 8.4).

FIGURE 8.4 Tripods vary in size to match the size and weight of the cameras to be mounted on them. Specialized accessories include spiders to hold the tripod feet, quick release mounts to allow the camera to be quickly placed on or off the tripod as necessary to move to the next setup, and a high hat to allow the camera to be mounted close to the ground or on the side or top of a vehicle. Tripods may be designed to serve a variety of purposes using newer, stronger, and flexible materials. (Courtesy of Matthews Studio Equipment and Sachtler.)

The head of a tripod frequently has a bubble device for proper leveling of the tripod. Leveling a tripod refers to making the camera horizontally level, so that the horizontal frames of the image are parallel with the horizon outdoors or the lines formed by the floor and the back wall, or the ceiling and back wall in an interior setting. The nut that secures the head to the tripod cradle can frequently be removed to allow the tripod head to be secured to another support device, such as a high hat. The high hat places a camera just a few feet above the ground, but well below the lowest tripod height. When it is equipped with suction cups, a high hat can be secured to almost any flat surface, such as the hood of an automobile or the top of a boat. A tripod can also be secured to a hitchhiker, which is a spider with wheels on it. The hitchhiker allows a tripod and attached camera to move around the studio and transforms a stationary tripod into a movable dolly.

Dollies

A dolly is a camera platform or support device on wheels, which allows the camera to move smoothly about a studio (Figure 8.5). A pedestal dolly can be vertically moved up and down to raise or lower the camera in midshot. A tripod can be attached to a hitchhiker to create a dolly. The wheels of a hitchhiker, like those of a pedestal dolly, can usually be locked to prevent movement of the camera. Three wheels give the hitchhiker or pedestal dolly ample stability and ease of movement, although care must be taken to plan the movement of a camera so that the bulky coaxial cables connecting the camera to the camera control unit do not get in the way. A dolly should never roll over audio or video cables on the studio floor.

FIGURE 8.5 Dollies are constructed in a variety of shapes and sizes. These two are designed to be operated by hand rather than motorized. The dolly in the top photo is designed with the camera mounted in a yoke and with the operator and grip moving the camera and dolly as needed. The dolly in the bottom photo is designed for the camera operator to ride seated. (Courtesy of Miller Camera Support Equipment and Chapman/Leonard Studio Equipment.)

Various types of dollies and other mobile mounts can be used with film and video cameras. A crab dolly allows up-and-down pedestal movements. Some dollies, like the Elemac spider dolly, are collapsible yet extremely versatile and stable. Sometimes a wheelchair or moving vehicle, such as a car or van, can serve as an excellent dolly. A special mount, such as the Tyler mount, can be used to record vibrationless images from a helicopter or an airplane in combination with a special fluid-filled lens called a dyna lens. Finally, a crane can be used in studio or field productions to raise even the heaviest film camera to tremendous heights.

LENS CONTROL

Another way in which camera operators control the presentation of visual images is by using various camera lenses. A camera lens consists of one or more pieces of glass that focus and frame an image within the camera. Lens control begins with an understanding of basic optics.

Basic Optics

A lens is a curved piece of glass that causes light rays to bend. Because glass is denser than air, light slows down at the point where it enters the lens. Lenses bend light so that it can be controlled and projected in proper focus and size at a specific point behind the lens, where a light-sensitive material can record or transmit the image. The curvature of the lens, as well as the type of glass from which it is made, affects how much the light bends and, to a certain extent, determines the classification and function of a specific lens. Simple, single lenses fall into two basic categories: concave and convex (Figure 8.6).

FIGURE 8.6 Typical parts of a lens are (1) a lens front surface, (2) an iris, (3) a concave element, (4) a convex element, and (5) a focal point.

Concave lenses, which are thinner at the center than at the edges, bend light rays away from the center of the lens, causing them to diverge from each other. Convex lenses, on the other hand, are thickest at the center and bend light toward the center so that the light rays converge or intersect at a specific point behind the lens, known as the focal point. The distance from the optical center of a lens to its focal point is known as a lens’s focal length. The curvature of a lens affects its focal length.

Lenses can be classified according to their focal lengths. For example, film and video lenses with short focal lengths are sometimes called wide-angle lenses. Beyond the focal point, the light rays diverge from each other, and at some area behind the lens, known as the focal plane, they form an inverted, reversed image of the objects that are reflecting light in front of the lens. Images at the focal plane are in acceptable focus; that is, the objects are clear and sharp. A piece of light-sensitive material, such as the front surface of a film or an electronic pickup chip, placed at the focal plane will record an inverted and reversed image of the original scene. Modern film and video lenses are composed of more than one piece of glass and are called compound lenses (Figure 8.7).

FIGURE 8.7 Lenses for video and film cameras come in a wide variety of sizes and purposes. Pictured are various variable focal length studio and field lenses. (Courtesy of Angenieux, Arri, and Canon USA Corporations.)

Aberrations

Compound lenses combine several concave and convex lenses in various configurations to cut down on disruptions of, or imperfections in, light transmission, which are called aberrations. A simple convex lens, such as a magnifying glass, creates several types of aberration, including field curvature, distortion, and chromatic aberration. Field curvature refers to the fact that the image projected by a simple convex lens falls into best overall focus on a curved rather than a flat, plane, or image surface. Motion picture film and front surfaces of video pickup chips are flat, not curved.

Distortion is caused by changes in magnification that occur in different parts of the image projected by a simple, convex lens. Chromatic aberration refers to the fact that various color wavelengths bend at different angles when they enter a piece of glass, such as a prism or a simple lens.

A modern lens combines several concave and convex lenses to reduce these types of aberration. Modern lenses are also coated with substances such as magnesium fluoride that reduce the reflection of light entering the lens and therefore increase light transmission. The lens coating is usually placed on the outside element of a lens. Never touch the front surface of a lens with your finger. Body oils can etch the lens coating if they are not removed immediately with lens cleaning paper and proper cleaning solutions. Clean the lens with fluids infrequently, because repeated cleaning can wear down the lens coating. An air blower or camel hair brush usually does a good job of cleaning loose dirt off a lens. Lenses must be handled carefully, and cleanliness is essential.

Lens Perspective

Focal Length and Angle of Acceptance

Lens perspective, or the way in which a lens presents the spatial relations between the objects it records or transmits, varies with a lens’ focal length and angle of light acceptance. The angle of acceptance, or the angle at which a lens gathers light in front of a camera, is determined by the focal length of the lens and the format (size) of the recording medium. Shorter focal-length lenses generally have wider angles of acceptance than long focal-length lenses. Focal lengths usually range from 10 mm or less to 200 mm or more. Short focal-length lenses are usually called wide-angle lenses, whereas long focal-length lenses are frequently referred to as telephoto lenses. Normal lenses are so-called because they present an image perspective that seems to approximate that of normal monocular (single-eye) human vision (Figure 8.8).

FIGURE 8.8 The coverage that a lens allows the camera to cover is measured in the angle of acceptance. The shorter the focal length, the wider the angle of acceptance, and, conversely, the longer the focal length, the narrower the angle of acceptance.

Variable Focal Length Lens

A variable focal length lens (zoom) allows a camera operator to change the focal length of a lens from wide angle through normal to telephoto and vice versa by manually turning the zoom barrel (or by pushing the button for an electric zoom motor). Zoom-ins and zoom-outs in midshot are easily misused and overused by beginning students. A zoom-in should direct our attention to something within the frame, whereas a zoom-out presents new information, often clarifying the setting. A zoom-in or zoom-out during a shot should be made smoothly and precisely.

A zoom lens also makes it easier to change focal length between shots, because one lens does not have to be physically replaced by another on the camera. Changing the focal length magnifies and demagnifies the image. At a long focal length, the objects in the frame seem to be closer together, and at a short focal length, they seem to be farther apart. A zoom lens should first be focused at its maximum focal length (telephoto). This ensures proper focus at all other focal lengths, assuming the subject-to-camera distance does not vary, including the end point of a zoom-in. Zoom lenses are available in a variety of focal length ranges, with minimum focal lengths as short as 10 mm and maximum focal lengths as long as 200 mm.

Field of View

Field of view refers to the exact dimensions of the image framed by the camera. The field of view of an image captured by a specific film or video camera is largely determined by the focal length of the lens and the video or film format. Shorter focal-length lenses present a wider field of view than longer focal-length lenses when used in the same film or video format. But the field of view provided by any lens changes when the format of the recording medium changes. A 25 mm or one-inch lens provides a narrower field of view in 16 mm film or ⅔-inch video camera pickup chips than it does in 35 mm film, or the same lens provides a wider field of view for ½-inch or smaller chips. In short, lens classifications, such as wide-angle, normal, or telephoto, and fields of view for specific focal-length lenses vary from one format to another. Whether a specific lens is wide-angle, normal, or telephoto, and whether it has a wide or a narrow angle of acceptance and field of view, depends on both its focal length and the dimensions of the film or sensor format (Figure 8.9).

FIGURE 8.9 The field of view of a camera varies with the size of the sensor or the aperture opening of the film, and the focal length of the lens. A 50 mm lens would provide a narrow-angle shot on a small-format camera, a standard shot on a medium-format camera, and a wide-angle shot on a large-format camera.

Image Depth

Image depth is a general term describing the overall range of distances and objects that appear to be in sharp focus within the frame. It can be affected by a variety of specific factors, including the type of lens used, various lens adjustments, the placement of the objects within the set (see , Editing), and the lighting (see Chapter 7, Lighting and Design). In this chapter, depth is considered from the standpoint of specific lens factors that affect one aspect of image depth, called depth of field. The primary factors creating depth of field are focus distance, lens aperture, and focal length. It is easier to understand the concept of depth of field by first explaining the primary factors that can be used to control it on a lens.

Focus Distance

Focus distance refers to the distance of the subject from the focal plane of a camera. On film cameras, the focal plane is indicated on the outside of the camera by a line drawn through the center of a circle. Focus distance can be accurately measured with a tape measure stretched from the focal plane to the subject. The focus ring on the lens barrel is adjusted according to the exact distance in feet or meters. On a reflex camera or video camera, focus distances can be set by simply turning the focus ring while viewing the subject through a properly adjusted viewfinder.

The viewfinder diopter on the reflex film camera is a device that adjusts the focus of a lens to the eyesight of a particular camera operator. This can be done by setting the lens focus ring on infinity and then looking through the viewfinder at an object that is at least 50 feet away. Turn the diopter focus ring until the object appears in proper focus and then lock down the diopter. Now the focus ring on the lens can be turned to set the focus on any subject regardless of its distance from the camera. A video camera does not have a viewfinder diopter or focus adjustment, because the viewfinder is usually a small black-and-white monitor; but for accurate focusing, the contrast and brightness of the monitor must be set properly.

Lens Aperture

An aperture is an opening through which light is allowed to pass. A camera has a fixed rectangular aperture or frame with a specific aspect ratio, where the film or pickup chip actually is exposed to light. A lens has a variable, circular-shaped aperture or iris, which allows the amount of light passing through the lens to be increased or decreased. The amount of light a lens transmits to a recording device can be controlled by varying the diameter of the lens aperture.

Lens aperture settings are calibrated in sequential f-stops or T-stops. The most commonly used measure of light transmission are f-stops, which have been mathematically calculated from a lens’ physical characteristics. Some lenses have both T-stops and f-stops. T-stops provide an accurate index of actual light transmission by a specific lens. They are often used with zoom lenses, because the complex elements within the lens and the many air-to-glass surfaces can absorb a great deal of the light before it finally reaches the film or pickup tube. The most commonly labeled f- and T-stops on an aperture setting ring are 1, 1.4, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, and 22. The higher the number, the narrower the opening in the lens, and thus the less light that is actually transmitted through the lens. It is sometimes helpful to conceive of the increasing numbers as reciprocals or fractions, that is, 1.4 = 1/1.4 and 16 = 1/16. Each higher f-stop represents a 50 percent decrease in light transmission from the f-stop immediately below it in numerical scale and two times the f-stop above it. Thus, an f-stop of 2 transmits half as much light through a given lens as an f-stop of 1.4 and twice as much as an f-stop of 2.8 (Figure 8.10).

FIGURE 8.10 The numbers designating f-stops seem to act in reverse to their actual function. A small number, such as f 1.4, actually is a relatively large opening in the aperture, but f 22 is a relatively small opening, allowing very little light to enter the camera.

Deciding exactly which f-stop to use is complicated by the many other variables that can affect exposure, such as the sensitivity of film stocks and pickup chips, as well as the amount of available light. In the 1930s, many Hollywood camera operators always tried to light a scene for an f-stop of 5.6. There were several reasons for this beyond mere habit. First, and most important in terms of image quality, every lens has an optimum aperture, which is usually two to three full stops down from wide open. At an optimum aperture, such as a midrange f-stop of 5.6, the objects in focus are at their maximum sharpness. When the iris is closed down to a tiny hole, diffraction occurs around the blades of the iris, causing the sharpness of the image to be reduced. Such diffraction is more severe with wide-angle than with telephoto lenses. Studio camera operators selected 5.6 because even with poorer quality lenses, it consistently produced sharp images. Second, certain studios simply wanted to preserve a theoretical normal depth of field. A great deal of studio video recording today follows the same practice of using an f-stop of 5.6 for similar reasons.

Depth of Field

Depth of field refers to the range of distances in front of the lens that are in acceptable focus at the focal plane. Depth of field depends on the lens factors described earlier: (1) focus distance (which is usually the same as camera-to-subject distance), (2) lens focal length, and (3) the lens aperture or f-stop number. It also varies with the size of the recording format. Depth of field increases as the camera-to-subject distance increases, the focal length of the lens decreases, and the lens aperture narrows within a single format. Moving to a larger recording format increases the depth of field of a particular lens. For example, a 25 mm lens offers a greater depth of field when used with ⅔-inch diameter video camera pickup chips than when used with ½-inch pickup chips.

Depth-of-field charts for different focal-length lenses and film or video formats indicate the range of distances in front of a lens where objects will appear to be in focus at different lens settings. The range of distances is mathematically calculated from f-stop settings, focal lengths, and camera-to-subject distances. Obviously, focus does not immediately drop off beyond the nearest and farthest distances listed for each combination of focal length, camera-to-subject distance, and lens aperture setting. But the chart recommendations provide a relative standard for gauging depth of field and acceptable focus range (Figure 8.11).

FIGURE 8.11 The depth of field of a lens is determined by three factors: the f-stop, the focal length, and the hyperfocal distance, or the point of best focus. Each of these three can be manipulated to increase or decrease the depth of field, depending on the desires of the camera operator.

Changing the focal length, either by changing lenses or by zooming out or in, obviously changes the depth of field. So does moving the camera closer to or farther away from the subject and changing the focus distance setting of the lens. The same holds true if the subject moves and the focus setting is changed. If a subject begins to exceed the depth-of-field range, the camera operator may have to adjust the focus distance setting, which is known as pulling focus. Sometimes a camera operator may intentionally try to limit the depth of field, either to isolate the subject from the background by putting the background out of focus or to shift the viewer’s focus of attention by pulling focus from an object or face in the background to another in the foreground or vice versa. Depth-of-field limitations are extremely important in terms of the placement and movements of the talent, who must be accurately informed about the range of distances within which they can safely walk and still hit their marks during a shot. Controlling depth of field affects the perception and aesthetics of image depth within the frame, which was discussed more fully in Chapter 7, “Lighting and Design.” A camera operator who learns the basic principles of depth of field can fully exploit the creative and aesthetic potential of film and television images.

VIDEO CAMERAS

Video and film cameras are sophisticated pieces of electronic and mechanical equipment. There are many different types of video and film cameras, which must be fully understood before they can be artistically controlled. This section considers basic camera design, function, operation, and artistic control.

Basic Video Camera

A basic video camera consists of pickup chip(s), a black-and-white or fold-out LCD viewfinder, a tally light, a lens, and all the electronic and mechanical controls needed to operate each of these devices.

Color cameras have one or more light-sensitive CCD or CMOS sensor chips. Even on color cameras, most studio viewfinders present black-and-white images, which show the camera operator what is being framed by the camera. The lens focuses light rays on the video camera pickup chips. Most modern cameras have a single zoom lens, which allows for power or manual control of the image size. Telephoto lenses magnify the image, whereas wide-angle lenses present a wide field of view and demagnify the image. The camera tally light is usually positioned on the top of the camera. It lights up to inform the talent and crew which of several cameras in multiple-camera production is actually being used for recording or transmission. Another tally light appears in the viewfinder to warn the operator when the signal from that camera is in use.

The Camera Chain

A basic video camera chain consists of five separate parts: (1) a camera; (2) a power supply; (3) a sync generator; (4) a camera control unit; and (5) an encoder, which combines the luminance (brightness or amount of light) and chrominance (saturation or amount of color and hue, or shade of color) channels of visual information into a single video signal. The power supply for American television systems consists of either 120-volt AC current for a studio camera or a 12-volt DC battery (usually) for a field camera (Figure 8.12).

FIGURE 8.12 A basic camera chain consists of the following parts: the camera, its head, lens, and viewfinder. A camera control unit contains a vector scope, oscilloscope, digital signal monitor, and viewing monitor. A sync generator provides synchronizing signals. If the camera is used in a studio setting, then the signal is fed to a switcher with monitors and to a recording medium with its monitor. A portable camera has the camera control unit (CCU) and sync generator built into the camera body so that it can operate independently of any other equipment.

A separate sync generator (which is housed inside a field camera) supplies the signal that ensures proper synchronization between the scanning of the camera pickup chip and the scanning of a video source or a monitor, such as a camera viewfinder. A camera control unit for a studio camera allows the video engineer to shade the camera, that is, to control the levels and color values in the video camera signal. This is done by adjusting the output levels and color of the pickup chips. Multiple cameras must be shaded and white-balanced so that all shots will be comparable in brightness and color. Field cameras have built-in controls, which also allow the color signal to be properly set for white balance and brightness. Many digital cameras contain circuits for presetting controls to maintain quality and consistency between cameras throughout a production.

Video Camera Filters

Two types of filter controls are used on video cameras: a filter wheel or a filter switch. A filter wheel consists of several different filters arranged around the perimeter of the wheel so that each filter can be positioned between the lens and the camera pickup tube(s). One of the wheel settings has no filter for normal studio operation. A cap filter on the wheel is opaque. It is used to protect the pickup tube when the camera is not actually recording. Color correction filters on the wheel alter the color temperature of daylight so that it corresponds with the preset color sensitivity of the video camera. Neutral density filters reduce the intensity of excessively bright light. The amount of light or brightness in a signal can also be controlled by adjusting the lens aperture or the brightness control on a field camera. A filter switch is commonly used on a portable video camera in place of a filter wheel. This switch allows a color-correction filter to be positioned between the lens and the pickup tube(s) when recording under sunlight.

Types of Video Cameras

The most basic distinction between video cameras many years ago used to be that of color versus black and white. But because of the standardization of color for most video situations, the most important distinctions today are those between standard-definition (SD) and high-definition (HD) cameras and whether the camera is capable of producing a picture in a 4:3 ratio or a 16:9 ratio or either of the scan systems: interlace—with two fields to a frame—or progressive—with a single frame made up of the total numbers of lines in the one frame, or scan rates of 480,720, or 1,080 lines of resolution. An additional consideration becomes important between those of field cameras, studio cameras, and convertible cameras, which can be converted for either field or studio use. Within each of these categories there is a variation in terms of image quality, and a distinction is often made between professional, prosumer, and consumer-quality cameras. Prosumer cameras are those designed for lower-level professional productions such as weddings and other social events, but they are of a higher quality than typical consumer equipment. Recorded images must be of high quality to be edited and duplicated for broadcast, and this usually requires more sophisticated and expensive equipment. The most sophisticated and highest quality cameras are those that maintain the video signal in the digital domain from the pickup chips to the built-in digital recorder or storage system. Most modern cameras are capable of creating both 4:3 and 16:9 pictures with a flip of a switch. Because most of the circuits within the camera and camera control units now are digital, varying between standard-definition and high-definition signals is easily accomplished. With the coming of high-definition television (HDTV), scan rates also vary from 480 lines to 1,080, and the method of scanning varies from interlaced to progressive. The recorder could be either a digital videocassette recorder, direct to disc, either DVD or CD-ROM, or a built-in computer with either a removable hard drive or RAM memory cards.

The image quality of a video camera should be matched with the format and quality of the videotape recorder being used. It is as pointless to use an expensive, three-chip, studio camera to make a miniDV original videotape recording as it is to use a digital recording system with an inexpensive single-chip consumer video camera. The characteristics and image quality of both the video camera and recorder must be compatible with the production expectations and standards of the specific task at hand (Figure 8.13).

FIGURE 8.13 A professional video camera is a self-contained unit consisting of the camera head, lens, viewfinder, microphone, and built-in CCU and sync generator. The camera may be powered either by batteries or by an adapter pack from 100-volt power. (Courtesy of Ikegami Electronic Co.)

DIGITAL CAMERAS

A digital camera contains three basic components: viewfinder, body, and optics. If the camera includes a recording medium, the recording unit makes a fourth component.

Viewfinder

The viewfinder may be a small 1.5-inch monochrome (black and white) monitor viewed through an eyepiece, as film cameras and consumer cameras have been constructed, or a larger 2.5-inch LCD color monitor that swings out from the side of the camera. This is also a common feature of consumer cameras. With an LCD monitor, the operator stands back from the camera and monitor rather than holding it on a shoulder close to the face. Each has advantages. The eyepiece monitor provides the opportunity for the operator to concentrate on what is visible in the viewfinder only and to not be distracted by other activities outside of the frame. For most shooting situations, the lack of a color monitor is not a handicap for the operator because framing, focus, and movement are prime concerns, not the color of the object in the frame. The monitor, either black and white or color, should be properly adjusted using the color bars signal to set contrast, brightness, and chroma and not adjusted for the personal taste of the operator. All viewfinders show a certain number of functions or adjustments on the screen along with the subjects included in the frame. A tally light showing the camera is operating and recording, a zebra effect showing overmodulation, and battery and tape conditions generally are the minimum functions visible in the viewfinder. The viewfinder of a digital camera may show many more functions, often as a series of menus. Menus may indicate the adjustments for origin setup, display choices within the viewfinder, the recording medium setup, the camera setup, some possible shading or special effects available, and a series of switches required to operate the camera. Controls and choices of audio recording also are included in a menu. The operator must learn which menu contains the adjustments needed for a particular shot or setup and which adjustments are included in each menu. On the surface this makes operating a digital camera complicated, but at the same time it gives the operator of the camera/recorder a tremendous amount of flexibility in choosing how the recording will progress.

Body

The body of the camera contains the electronics starting with the charge coupled device (CCD) chips that convert light to a video signal. Newer professional cameras replace the CCD chips with complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) chips. A synchronous generator keeps all of the signals in proper alignment, and an analog to digital converter must be included because the light entering the lens is an analog variation making the first electronic signal analog. Digital signal processing (DSP) circuits within the camera may vary from simple amplifiers to complex special effects amplifiers and circuits to create a variety of output signals, both analog and digital. All cameras have audio input circuits for both microphones and high-level audio. Once again, the analog signal from the mic must be converted to a digital signal for recording and distribution. A plug for a headset provides a means for monitoring the audio signal while recording and to check during playback. All professional and many consumer video cameras are multiformat output capable. That is, the output signal may be either analog or digital, a choice of line rate from 480 interlaced (i) or progressive (p), 720i or p, 1,080i or p, a frame rate of 24, 29.97, 30, 50, 59.97, or 60 fps, an aspect ratio of either 4:3 or 16:9. All of these variations are possible through the use of digital circuits within the camera body, yet the cost for such functions is minimal compared to analog cameras of 20 years ago.

Optics

The optic system for most digital cameras begins with a variable focal length (zoom) lens. Because the back focal distance is different in video cameras from film cameras, most video cameras are not able to use high-quality film lenses without an adapter. The lenses are designed to vary their focal length at least over a 10 to 1 range, and some professional lenses vary as much as 100 to 1. The major differences between optics for analog cameras and optics for digital cameras relate to quality. Because the resolution and reproduction capabilities of a digital system are much higher, the smallest aberration or fault in the lens becomes noticeable and objectionable. Automatic iris, focus, and zoom controls are common on all levels of lenses, but they are used sparingly in professional situations. Filters may be mounted between the lens and the prism blocks that split the light into the three primary colors, or a matte box may be mounted on the front of the lens to hold filters, scrims, and other light control devices. The prism block is considered part of the optic system, but it is not physically attached to the lens. The block, through the use of filters between the sections of the block, either stops certain colors from passing or reflects them in a different direction to separate the three colors to feed the three CCD or CMOS chips. The three colors are red, green, and blue. An equal combination of light of each of the three colors creates a white light. Any variation in the amount of each color creates any color of the spectrum.

Digital lenses differ from standard lenses primarily in quality of construction and the ability to reproduce light more accurately by reducing aberrations to a minimum and through modern coatings reduce reflections. Digital lenses are superior in their ability to reproduce wider contrast ranges and greater light transmission than standards lenses through very tight tolerances in design and manufacturing. SD lenses may equal HD lenses in resolution, but not in contrast transmission. Digital lenses must be designed for specific three-sensor cameras to match the camera’s optical prism. Lenses for single-sensor cameras may be the same as high-quality lenses designed for use on modern film cameras. Because digital systems are designed to show much greater detail, HD lenses must be able to discern and reproduce fine detail in a wide range of lighting situations including low light settings.

Recording

The fourth segment of the camera is its recording section. This may be a tape deck, a CD or DVD laser burner, a solid-state chip, various types of memory cards, a variety of floppy discs, or a digital hard drive. Each of these drives may be either removable or permanently mounted within the body of the camera. The design of each camera is somewhat dependent on the recording medium, and this area of camera design is rapidly changing. The subject of recording media will be covered in greater detail in Chapter 9, Recording.

Types of Digital Cameras

The proliferation of different SD, HD, and digital cinema recording formats makes any neat, clear, and simple classification of digital video cameras into mutually exclusive categories difficult. Today, digital cameras are offered in a wide range of quality and price along a continuum from acceptable SD to the highest quality and expensive digital cinema cameras. Within this range or continuum, cameras may be separated into four basic types: (1) basic DV (including SD or DVSP, DVC PRO, and DVCAM) camcorders; (2) HDV camcorders; (3) HD cameras (including HDCAM SR, DVC PRO HD, and other full HD formats as well as broadcast HD; and (4) digital cinema cameras. Each category is vaguely separated by price, quality, and purpose. But there are no hard and fast divisions between camera types. The technology is changing so rapidly that a simple, inexpensive camera of today probably far surpasses the technical quality and at a much lower price than a camera of equal quality released two years ago, and that change will continue so that a camera of today will be outpaced in both price and quality within about two years of its manufacture and sale.

Basic DV Camcorder

Small, handheld single and multiple sensor cameras designed primarily for home and semiprofessional applications use ⅙-inch to ½-inch chips offering a 480 to 720 resolution highly compressed SD signal usually with interlaced rather than progressive scanning. Sensors rated at 6 megapixels or less recorded on miniDV tape, memory cards, of DVD-R disc. Prices range from several hundred dollars to near $1,000. The cameras are easy to operate in that they are basically point-and-shoot devices with almost all functions—focus, aperture, exposure rates—all automatically set. They are designed for quick, low-cost, fundamentally sound, but not highest quality signal output. Compared to professional SD formats, DVCAM and DVC PRO, are capable of recording at faster tape speeds, which reduces the possibility of drop out or lost picture information somewhat and produces slightly better quality images and sounds than standard DV or DVSP modes in consumer and prosumer cameras (Figure 8.14). As the size of digital cameras decreased, it became apparent that a camera could be designed that could be held in one hand, much as a still camera is held. A series of such cameras have been designed primarily for the consumer market, but the quality of the output, especially if the camera uses three chips, makes the miniature camcorder useful for news, television sales, streaming, and some professional productions. The handheld camcorders are designed with automatic focus, iris settings, white balance, and audio level controls. They come equipped with lenses that zoom in a range from 10:1 to 20:1. Most record on miniDV, discs, or memory cards. Some models are designed to output directly to the Internet for video streaming.

FIGURE 8.14 A basic DV camcorder may be as small as a consumer point-and-shoot or larger, with more professional controls and accessories. (Courtesy of Canon USA.)

HDV Camcorder

The next most common type of digital camera now available to both the general pubic and professionals are HDV cameras. HDV is a compressed high-definition format that offers an inexpensive means of producing HD programs. The convenience and low cost of using standard miniDV tapes that are similar to or the same as those used in SD or DVSP recordings makes HDV very attractive to low budget producers. HDV cameras rely on greater flexibility in operation, higher quality of signal output, and a wider choice for the operator to determine how he wants the camera to operate in frame rate, aperture, focus, and either progressive or interlace scanning as well as choosing 720 or 1,080 resolution IN “I” (interlaces scan) or “P” (progressive scan) mode.

The camera may be operated at frame rates from 24, 25, 29.97 (for PAL and SECAM systems used in Europe and other countries), or 30 frames per second (fps), making it possible to create a production to be distributed as film, video, or via the Internet. Sensors range from ¼ inch to 1 inch and are either single with built-in color filters direct to lens or triple using a prism. The output may be either SD or HD at any of the rates required for that particular production. Prices range from $1,000 to $15,000 depending on the lens, accessories, and the recording media. Pixel rates vary between 5 and 10 megapixels. Built-in storage may be miniDV, digital Beta, built-in or removable hard drive, optical disc recorder, or any of several memory cards such as Secure Digital (SD), PCMIA (P2), SxS, GFCam, or Compact Memory flash card. These cameras are used in the field by documentary makers, independent feature producers, news videographers and freelancers working in industry or education. The major growth in digital cameras since the early 2000s has been in field cameras. As digital circuits assume responsibility for many previous manual functions, as the size decreased, as battery life increases, and as flexibility of operation increases, the field camera takes on a new, higher level of creativity for the operator and director. The increase in resolution and contrast range in field cameras moves them from handy production tools to truly high-quality creative tools. The smaller size and weight allows the camera to be held on a body mount, on the shoulder, or on any number of portable camera mounts. Increased battery life permits longer shooting sessions without changing batteries and also allows for the use of portable lighting fixtures powered by the camera battery. The flexible operation permits shooting under a wide variety of lighting conditions, instant changing of settings, and utilizing built-in effects and preediting functions (Figure 8.15).

FIGURE 8.15 HDV cameras usually use built-in miniDV tape decks or limited memory flash cards. The optics are superior to basic DV cameras but not as expensive or flexible as those used on HD or broadcast cameras. (Courtesy of Panasonic USA.)

HD and Broadcast Camera

HD field cameras are designed for HD sports, high-level documentaries, high- and low-budget television dramas, and live event coverage with pixel rates above 10 megapixels. Many of the technical specifications of HD cameras are similar but slightly to considerably higher than HDV cameras. The main differences between HDV and full HD recorded images are that the latter treat each video frame individually rather than as aggregates. Full HD images are also less compressed than HDV images and they generally use 4:2:2 rather than HDV’s 4:2:0 color sampling (standard DV or DVSP uses 4:1:1 color sampling). All of these differences add significantly to the data flow rates and storage requirements compared to HDV. Many of both categories are manufactured by the same corporations, who expand their line of offerings to meet the needs of their customers on many different levels of production requirements. The cameras, if used in the field, may feed the signal through Triax cables or fiber-optic cables to a central control room rather than to a built-in storage medium. Special zoom lenses with long ranges of up to 100:1 are needed for some sporting events and live coverage. As studio cameras, they have been designed for high-definition television (HD) digital signal origination, but many still are used to feed a standard definition (SD) analog or digital signal to take advantage of the superior quality of the originating HDTV signal. Such cameras are capable of delivering high-quality signals that are superior to the highly compressed HD signals of cameras, only they have greater flexibility to increase the quality level by taking advantage of higher-level technical specifications. Prices range from $10,000 to $150,000 depending on the technical specifications, lenses, accessories, and intended use (Figure 8.16). Studio cameras generally are equipped with zoom lenses capable of a focal length range of approximately 20:1. They are mounted on large, heavy, wheeled pedestal mounts. A pedestal mount with or without an operator is capable of dolling, trucking, panning, tilting, or zooming, and any combination of the movements. As they were originally designed, an operator would stand behind these cameras, but today many programs, such as news and game shows, have replaced the operator in the studio with a single operator in a control room remotely operating several cameras simultaneously. The controls for the camera movements are preset in a specialized computer program, allowing each camera to have a series of shot positions preset to change with a touch of a button on the computer. Sports events cameras are seldom remote controlled, except for specific shots with cameras mounted in positions that are impossible or difficult for an operator to occupy, such as behind the backboard of a basketball court.

FIGURE 8.16 Broadcast camcorders record directly onto a built-in hard drive, removable disk drive, or large memory flash cards and may be equipped with long-range zoom lenses for sporting events. Broadcast news cameras must be small, lightweight, and offer as many flexible characteristics as possible. (Courtesy of JVC, USA.)

Digital Cinema Camera

DC cameras fall in the category of multipurpose because they are used both in the studio and in the field but are designed specifically to produce the highest quality signal for conversion to motion picture film or projection as a digital signal on a large theater screen. DC cameras use much larger CCD/CMOS chips, from ⅔ inch in 65 mm format to create a date stream instead of a video/audio signal, or they operate totally in an uncompressed or minimally compressed mode. DC cameras are not camcorders, because they are designed to feed either a large high-quality tape deck, a hard drive system, or a server rather than a portable media recording system (Figure 8.17). The most popular signal is a 4:4:4, 1,080 p at 24 fps, but a signal may be created with a resolution as high as 4,520 × 2,540 in the NHK Ultra HD system with 22.2 tracks of audio. The increasing possibility of projecting high-quality digital signals in theaters makes production of feature length stories more of a reality, and a greater number of cameras of different sizes, prices, and styles will be built to fill the need for these productions within this category of digital cinema cameras.

FIGURE 8.17 Video cameras are now equipped with all of the production accessories used in motion picture camera production. They are called digital cinematography cameras. (Courtesy of Ari, Dalsa, Sony, and Red Corporations.)

Specialized Digital Cameras

Micro cameras are subminiature cameras used for security, law enforcement, surveillance, and special shots used to cover sports, documentaries, and dramas where cameras shots are desired from hard-to-reach positions. Such cameras are small enough to be mounted on helmets, on race cars, on skiers, and on athletes who participate in other fast-moving sports (Figure 8.18). A micro camera has no viewfinder, all automatic operations, and a remote-controlled zoom lens or a single fixed focal length lens. Despite their small size (as small as 2 inches by 2 inches by 2 inches plus a lens not much larger), digital circuits create a reasonably acceptable output for professional productions. They use ⅓-inch sensors and can operate in as little as 2,000 Lux light levels. The signal offers a full HDTV 1,920 × 1,080 resolution at 24 fps or other frames rates as needed. Few come equipped with attached recording media; instead, the camera is hard wired or connected wirelessly to a recorder at a safe, secure location or has a small transmitter attached that is similar to a wireless mic transmitter. Such cameras are labeled as pencil cams, doggie cams, and other names to fit their purpose.

FIGURE 8.18 Miniature HD cameras may be as small as two inches by two inches, but they still create a full HD color picture. Their small size allows them to be used in places a regular-sized camera would not fit or would be too dangerous or inconvenient to place. (Courtesy of IconixVideo.)

A second type of specialized cameras developed primarily from military use require little light; they use light magnifiers and specialized lenses that respond to matching light sources not visible to the human eye but offering enough luminance to create a signal equivalent of a black-and-white picture.

FILM CAMERAS

Film cameras can also be differentiated on the basis of sound-recording capabilities. Mechanical or spring-wound cameras cannot run the film at a consistent speed and therefore cannot record synchronous or matching sounds. There are two basic systems by which electronic film cameras can record synchronous sounds: single system and double system. Single-system or sound-on-film (SOF) recording refers to the recording of synchronous sounds on the edge of the film as it runs through the camera. The camera records images and sounds at the same time. The sounds are recorded by a magnetic sound head, which is 18 (Super-8 mm) or 26 (16 mm) film frames ahead of the picture aperture, on magnetic tape striping on the edge of the film. During double-system recording, a separate high-quality audiotape recorder records sounds, which can be played back in perfect synchronization with the recorded film images. The camera and sound-recording motors for doublesystem recording are usually crystal controlled for extremely accurate and precise recording and playback.

Types of Film Cameras

8 mm Cameras

Most Super-8 mm cameras have reflex viewfinders and are used for recording home movies; a few professionals prefer to work in this small format as well. Most Super-8 mm cameras are battery powered with automatic focus and iris settings. Synchronous sound on some Super-8 mm cameras can only be recorded at 24 fps. Some sophisticated Super-8 mm cameras can be used with separate synchronous sound tape recorders. Super-8 mm cameras use single and double Super-8 mm film cassettes which contain 50 to 100 feet of unexposed film.

16 mm Cameras

There are many types of 16 mm cameras. Some lack the ability to record synchronous sound, such as spring-wound mainspring-driven cameras that create considerable camera noise and run at imprecise speeds. Cameras that have quiet-running, battery-powered electric motors and film advance mechanisms are called self-blimped film cameras. Single-system sound-on-film cameras were once widely used for recording news footage; they have been replaced by electronic news gathering (ENG) video camcorders. A few film cameras are capable of both single-system and double-system film recording. Many self-blimped, double-system cameras are driven by crystal-sync electric motors that allow the camera to be used without any cable connection between it and a separate synchronous sound recorder. The absence of a cable connection allows for more freedom of movement and is particularly helpful in documentary situations. The camera operator can move about independently of the sound recordist (Figure 8.19). With the advent of the 9:16 aspect ratio, documentary and some commercial and dramatic cinematographers are using specially modified 16 mm cameras, a format often referred to as Super-16 mm, to shoot wide-screen productions by using a wider aperture. The film stock used for Super-16 productions is standard 16 mm film, but the aperture in the camera exposes light in a path that is wider than a standard 16 mm aperture. The extra space on the film stock is gained by using the soundtrack area used for standard 16 mm films. Because the image size is larger than that of professional video camera chips, the quality is comparable for conversion to HDTV.

FIGURE 8.19 Today’s 16 mm film cameras vary from lightweight, spring-wound, nonsync sound cameras to heavier cameras with built-in videotapes, crystal-sync systems, and sound-deadening blimp cases. They may be stripped down with few accessories or fully equipped with the accessories found on 35 mm feature film cameras. (Courtesy of Arri Corp.)

Unlike video cameras, whose viewing systems can be electronically controlled, the viewing system of a reflex film camera is often quite dim during actual recording. Film cameras are often focused with the aperture wide open (at the lowest f-stop) before the actual recording; when the aperture is closed down to the proper f-stop for recording, less light is transmitted to the viewfinder. Some viewing systems reflect only 18 percent of the light to the viewfinder, and a camera operator must become used to recording under difficult conditions. Sometimes a video tap (an electronic feed from the camera’s viewfinder to a videotape deck) is attached to a film camera to monitor the image and to provide immediately viewable results.

35 mm Cameras

It is important to note that 35 mm motion picture cameras differ dramatically from 35 mm still cameras. Still cameras run 35 mm-width film horizontally through the camera, but 35 mm motion picture cameras run the film vertically through the camera, recording film frames that are not as wide as still-frame slides. The aspect ratio and image size of a 35 mm motion picture frame are thus quite different from a still-camera frame. A 35 mm still-camera frame has a much higher aspect ratio (2.35:1) than video or 35 mm motion picture film (1.33:1 or 3:4); thus, it is difficult to record complete slides on a motion picture or video camera (Figure 8.20).

FIGURE 8.20 Today’s 35 mm film cameras may vary in size from simple handheld to large multiformat cameras with a variety of accessories mounted to facilitate the best possible production. (Courtesy of Arri Corp.)

Some smaller 35 mm motion picture cameras, such as the Arriflex 35-3, are used exclusively for “mitt out” or without sound (MOS) nonsynchronous sound recording. Other, very bulky cameras, such as the Mitchell BNC and Panavision, are used almost exclusively for studio synchronous sound recording situations. A Panavision camera is frequently used for widescreen feature film recording in the studio. The latter has an extremely lightweight and portable stepchild, called the Panaflex camera, which is frequently used for feature film work on location. Only extremely high-budget feature films use 65 mm cameras for original recording. Most 70 mm feature film prints are not made from 65 mm camera originals but rather from 35 mm original recordings that have been blown up to this larger format. Most 35 mm cameras are designed to shoot a variety of aspect ratios, from 4:3 to extreme wide-screen, depending on the design of the aperture or anamorphic lens. Professional motion picture camera recording in 16 mm, 35 mm, and 65 mm sets a very high standard in image quality, which is gradually being rivaled by EC-35 and HDTV cameras.

Camera Accessories

Many cameras have attachable matte boxes or lens hoods that shade the lens from direct sunlight and allow filters to be attached to the lens for color correction or special effects. A frequently used film camera accessory is the cable release, which minimizes the vibration to the camera when single-frame images are exposed individually. Another important film camera accessory is a changing bag, which is a black, light-tight bag that can serve as a portable darkroom for loading and unloading longer rolls of film wound on open cores.

Commercial productions, newscasts, dramatic programs on video or film, as well as documentaries required some means for talent to see and read a script while performing in front of the camera. A variety of prompter devices have been employed, from handheld cardboard “idiot cards” held next to the camera to computer-driven copy projected in front of the camera lens using two-way mirrors (Figure 8.21).

FIGURE 8.21 Promoter devices may be mounted permanently on a studio camera, held to one side in the field, or mounted on a tripod in front of a field camera. Headsets may be held in place with an eye hook, around the back of the head, or a support over the top of the head. (Courtesy AutoCue/QTV and ClearCom.)

Quality audio can only be determined while working in the filed or for communication purposes using professional headsets that fit easily and carry signals accurately to the ears of the user.

CAMERA CARE

Cameras consist of extremely delicate instrument parts. They must be handled with great care because they can be damaged easily. Cameras should be kept clean and dry. Never leave a camera unprotected and exposed to elements such as rain, sleet, snow, or sand. Never leave a camera unattended or in a hazardous position where it is likely to fall or be stolen. Always make sure that you have sufficient battery power by charging batteries well before the actual recording begins. Nothing is more frustrating than having a group of people waiting around for the batteries to be recharged (Figure 8.22).

FIGURE 8.22 All cameras, whether video or film, must be treated as fine, sensitive pieces of expensive equipment. Careful handling requires knowledge of what can harm the camera and how to avoid damaging the camera either inadvertently or through ignorance.

If the video camera has a built-in recorder, use the same operating procedures that you would use for a separate VCR (discussed in Chapter 9, Recording) to avoid having the tape jam within the recorder. Video cameras are even more sensitive to high heat and humidity than film cameras are, and therefore they require shading under intense sunlight, insulation from the cold, and careful use of videotape in high humidity. Digital cameras using solid-state recording media prove to be much more rugged than cameras equipped with tape decks or film cameras.

Operating a film camera requires extreme care and sensitivity to every possible malfunction of the equipment. Because film is expensive to record, minor mistakes can translate into significant financial losses, as well as reshooting time. Digital and solid-state equipment, on the other hand, can be viewed immediately and can be reused.

It is important to develop a checklist of camera operating procedures and to make sure that every item on the list is checked off before recording. First, make sure that the lens is clean and that no hairs or pieces of film are stuck in the film gate of the camera where the film is exposed to light. On professional film shoots for commercials, the operator usually removes the lens from the camera periodically to check the film gate for hair or debris, because the image must be perfectly clean. If a filter must be placed in the camera or on the lens, make sure that the filter is completely clean so that there will be no spots or marks on the film and no loss of light.

Carefully load the film into the camera and its magazine, and then run the film with the camera and magazine cover open to make sure that it is running properly and not tugging at the film gate, which will cause jittery images. Finally, close the camera and the magazine where the film is exposed and stored, and listen to a properly running and loaded camera. It has a characteristic sound. If this sound changes during actual recording, stop shooting immediately! Something is wrong. Open the camera and inspect the aperture area for problems. The film will probably need to be reloaded. Potential problems with a videotape deck also may be determined quickly by listening carefully to the sound of the tape motor and drive movements. Follow the same care when loading tape, discs, or cards in digital cameras.

Summary

Camera operators must be thoroughly familiar with camera techniques and equipment to provide directors with the best possible visual images from the standpoint of a particular aesthetic approach. A camera operator controls image composition and camera placement by employing four key concepts: essential area, lookspace, walkspace, and headroom. Camera operators also employ the rule of thirds and realist conventions, such as the 180-degree action-axis rule.

Camera operators understand the best position and angle at which to place the camera in terms of camera-to-subject distance and high-angle versus low-angle camera positions. Camera movements alter spatial perspective and are often used to follow performer movements. Pans, tilts, and pedestal and crane movements can be made with a stationary tripod or camera-mounting device. Dollies, trucking shots, and arcs are accomplished using movable camera-mounting devices. Moving camera shots are used primarily to keep moving subjects within the camera frame or to reveal new information by altering spatial perspective.

Camera operators must understand how lenses function in order to control them. Lenses are curved pieces of glass that bend light in a predictable manner. Lenses help a camera operator control an image’s field of view, brightness, focus, perspective, and depth of field. Lenses can be categorized by their focal lengths within a specific video or film format into wide-angle, normal, and telephoto lenses. Zoom lenses allow an operator to manipulate field of view by varying the focal length of the lens. A zoom lens should usually be focused at its longest focal length (telephoto). Varying the aperture, or iris, of a lens changes the amount of light transmitted through the lens. The depth of field of an image—that is, the range of distances in front of the lens that remain in focus—will vary with changes in focal length, aperture, and camera-to-subject distance or focus distance within a specific film or video format.

A video camera contains one or more light-sensitive pickup chips. The camera chain consists of a camera, power supply, sync generator, and a camera control unit. Video cameras can be divided into three basic categories on the basis of function: field cameras, convertible cameras, and studio cameras. Field cameras are lightweight and portable. They can range from consumer cameras to sophisticated and expensive digital video recording equipment that records the highest-quality images. Digital cameras are becoming smaller, use less power, and at the same time produce a higher-quality signal for a lower cost than previous video cameras. Digital cameras are usually divided into SD (standard definition), HDV, full HD (high definition), and DC (digital cinema) cameras, but there is a broad spectrum of digital cameras in terms of price and quality, ranging from inexpensive consumer-grade SD cameras to the highest-level digital cinema cameras. The use of videotape in camcorders is being replaced with disc, solid-state circuits, and flash and hard drive recording systems.

Film cameras can be divided into different levels of image quality on the basis of film formats, such as Super-8 mm, 16 mm, 35 mm, and 65 mm, which refer to the width of the film in millimeters. Professional film camera recording still sets a high standard of image quality, which is gradually being rivaled by digital video technology.

EXERCISES

Additional Readings

Brown, Blain, 2002. Cinematography: Theory and Practice, Image Making for Cinematographers, Directors, and Videographers, Focal Press, Boston.

Burrows, Thomas D., 2001. Video Production: Disciplines and Techniques, eighth ed. Focal Press, Boston, MA.

Burum, Stephen, ed. 2008. American Cinematographer Manual, ninth ed. The ASC Press, Hollywood, CA.

Compesi, Ronald, 2007. Video Production and Editing, seventh ed. Allyn & Bacon, Boston.

Elkins, David E., 2000. Camera Assistant’s Manual, third ed. Focal Press, Boston.

Evans, Russell, 2006. Practical DV Filmmaking, second ed. Focal Press, Boston.

Fowle, Grant R., 1989. Introduction to Optics, second ed. Dove Publications, Mineola, NY.

Gross, Lynne S., Ward, Larry W., 2007. Digital Moviemaking, sixth ed. Wadsworth, Belmont, CA.

Grotticelli, Michael, ed. 2001. American Cinematographer Video Manual, third ed. The ASC Press, Hollywood, CA.

Hodges, Peter, 1995. The Video Camera Operator’s Handbook, Focal Press, Boston.

Honthaner, Eve Light, 2001. The Complete Film Production Handbook, third ed. Focal Press, Boston, MA.

Lester, Paul Martin, 1995. Visual Communication: Images with Messages, Wadsworth, Belmont, CA.

Mamer, Bruce, 2009. Film Production Techniques, fifth ed. Wadsworth, Belmont, CA.

Medoff, Norman, Fink, Charles S., 2006. Portable Video: ENG and EFP, fifth ed. Focal Press, Boston.

Musburger, Robert, 2005. Single Camera Video Production, fourth ed. Focal Press, Boston.

Roberts-Breslin, Jan, 2008. Making Media: Foundations of Sound and Image Production, second ed. Focal Press, Boston.

Ray, Sydney F., 2002. Applied Photographic Optics, Elsevier Science and Technology Books, Boston.

Swartz, Charles S., 2005. Understanding Digital Cinema: A Professional Handbook, Focal Press, Boston.

Underwood, Rich, 2007. Roll: Shooting TV News: Views from Behind the Lens, Focal Press, Boston.

Uva, Michael, 2006. Video Shooter: Storytelling with DV, HD, and HDV Cameras, Focal Press, Boston.

Uva, Michael, Uva, Sabrina, 2001. Uva’s Guide to Cranes, Dollies, and Remote Heads, Focal Press, Boston.

Ward, Peter, 2000. Digital Video Camerawork, Focal Press, Boston.

Whitaker, Jerry, 2002. Master Handbook of Video Production, McGraw-Hill, Boston.

Wheeler, Paul, 2007. High Definition Cinematography, second ed. Focal Press.

Zettl, Herbert, 2009. Television Production Handbook, tenth ed. Wadsworth, Belmont, CA.