CHAPTER

7   Lighting and Design

Introduction

One of the most creative and visually exciting tasks in video and film production involves lighting and creating environments with sets, properties, costumes, and makeup. Visual artists refer to lighting as painting with light. A lighting director or director of photography can use lights just as effectively and expressively as any painter uses color pigments to evoke a specific mood or visual impression. An art director can create imaginary worlds or create actual times and locations and may place actors anywhere in the universe and at anytime in history by choices available to her. Lighting can be used to emphasize and dramatize a subject by bringing objects into sharp relief or contrast, or it can be used to soften and to harmonize. Lighting directly affects the overall impressions and feelings generated by recorded visual images. It is a complex art, but basic video and film lighting can be reduced to a limited number of concepts and techniques. This chapter introduces the basic aesthetic approaches, techniques, and equipment needed to design and control the lighting of moving images and the basic principles of designing sets, props, costumes, makeup, and their use in visual productions.

The expressive design and effect of a lighting setup and a scene can be described as realist, modernist, or postmodernist.

REALIST LIGHTING AND DESIGN

Realist lighting appears to come from actual light sources in a setting or location. Realist design simulates an existing setting or location with an emphasis on the illusion of reality, not necessarily reality itself. Because it enhances this illusion, realist lighting conforms to the audience’s expectations of how a scene should normally or naturally appear in real life. In conventional popular dramas, the lighting is usually realistic. The major problem for the lighting director is to determine the actual light source in the scene. The brightest lights are positioned according to the direction and intensity of the central or main source of light. Directional lighting continuity is maintained from one shot to the next in the same scene. If the main source of light is a window, the direction of the lights basically preserves the spatial positioning of the window on the set. The same holds true for firelight or candlelight. The lighting director tries to match the natural scene under normal vision using artificial lights. Multiple shadows should be minimized, if not eliminated, so that the lighting rarely calls attention to itself. There is a logical consistency to the direction and intensity of the lighting, which has a presumed cause or real source. Maintaining basic principles of spatial perspective and proportional size are extremely important in realist design, because they help to sustain an illusion of reality. Sets are often constructed out of lightweight materials that give the impression of being real but are much easier to construct and move around than actual objects. Virtual sets and backgrounds are created or stored as computer files to be used on command and at the will of the director. Such virtual sets may take the form of interiors, exteriors, space, or any location within the imagination of the creative staff of the production. Few productions are completely realist. Some degree of modernist stylization is often needed to stimulate dramatic interest. Lighting and art directors use lighting and settings to bring out and emphasize specific aspects of a personality or setting. They highlight details that add depth to performers and actions. Strict authenticity often fails to stimulate emotions and viewer interest, and a purely realist lighting setup often seems flat and boring.

MODERNIST LIGHTING AND DESIGN

Modernist lighting has no real-life referent. The lighting and design directors are much freer to design a setup according to purely abstract or subjective emotional criteria—that is, to stylize the use of light or setting. The lighting director literally paints with light to create emphasis and spatial impressions. Modernist lighting tries to achieve a specific emotional effect or abstract design through non-naturalistic patterns of light. The actual sources of light are often of little interest.

Modernist lighting and settings stimulate emotions and create a dynamic visual impression. For example, the lighting setup for a musical variety program may light an empty stage with pools of colored light, creating abstract patterns. The mood or atmosphere can coincide with the central theme or emotion expressed by a song or dance. Even in a realist drama, a dream sequence might call for highly stylized lighting and location that mirrors the internal state of mind of the central character. These are often highly abstract and unrealistic visual sequences, but they effectively convey the character’s feelings, emotions, and state of mind. Excessive or inappropriate stylization calls attention to the lighting and distracts viewer attention from the central message or information of a nonfiction program. It can also destroy the illusion of reality in a realistic drama, but the absence of any stylization at all leads to viewer disinterest. Innovative television programs and films by many experimental artists have shown how a formative or modernist approach to scenic design can break down conventional illusions of reality by ignoring spatial perspective and using highly artificial, stylized sets, backdrops, and lighting, such as those used on the Entertainment Tonight program.

POSTMODERNIST LIGHTING AND DESIGN

Postmodernist lighting and settings often mix a variety of styles drawn from different genres or modes, such as narrative fiction and documentary. For example, highly stylized Hollywood studio lighting and setting normally associated with fiction films is used to record documentary interviews in Errol Morris’s The Thin Blue Line (1987) and a Brief History of Time (1992). The former film also mixes clips from old Hollywood B movies with contemporary interviews that features this highly stylized lighting. Postmodernist lighting offers a pastiche of styles, and it appeals to the emotions on a different level from most modernist or realist lighting and locations. By mixing concrete realism with abstract modernism as well as different styles, genres or modes of lighting and settings can evoke a complex emotional response in the viewer. Some music videos and rock concerts use postmodernist lighting effects and locations to bombard the viewer with powerful sensations unrelated to any realist action in the film or video or any specific thoughts or feelings inside the mind of a character. These lighting effects and locations reflect the complexity and diversity of contemporary life, art, and culture. For example, postmodernist lighting in Batman Forever (1995) relies on computerized lighting effects similar to those used at rock concerts to create a feeling of disorientation at a circus. By controlling the projection of Chinese and other ethnic symbols and motifs in exterior settings of Gotham City, the film creates a multicultural (drawn for different bodies of people) and multitemporal (drawn from different historical periods) pastiche of different cultures, times, and places through lighting in distinctly postmodernist ways. A blend of classical and modern, traditional and contemporary, elite and popular patterns and combinations of colors and textures can serve as the basis for postmodernist designs.

LIGHT AND COLOR

A variety of light sources can be used for television and film recording. Each of these can be distinguished in terms of the color temperature of the light it emits. Color temperature is usually defined in technical terms of degrees Kelvin (K). Degrees Kelvin is a unit of measurement that refers to the type of light that would theoretically be given off by a perfect light radiator (what physicists call a black-box radiator) when it is heated to a specific temperature. White light is actually composed of relatively equal amounts of all the colors in the visible spectrum; but light sources with different color temperatures emit slightly different amounts of the various color wavelengths (red, green, blue light), which together make up white light and the visible spectrum. Sunlight has a relatively high color temperature, about 5400 or 5600 degrees K, whereas tungsten or incandescent light, such as that given off by many living room lamps and some professional lighting equipment, has a much lower color temperature, about 3200 degrees K.

Sunlight has somewhat more blue light (short wavelengths) than does tungsten light, which has slightly more red light (long wavelengths.) As a result, a film stock or video camera designed or preset for tungsten light will record bluish images when it is exposed under sunlight, and a film stock or video camera rated or adjusted for daylight (sunlight) will record reddish images under tungsten light. Because video and film recording devices are often more sensitive to these differences in color temperature than our eyes, specific light sources must be carefully selected and controlled (Figure 7.1).

FIGURE 7.1 The differences in the actual color of light sources range from full summer sun to a candle flame. Fluorescent light sources also vary over a range, but not as widely as incandescent and natural light sources.

Sunlight

Sunlight is a natural light source. Burning gases on the sun’s surface emit light that has a relatively high color temperature when it reaches the earth’s surface, or 5400 degrees K. Sunlight contains approximately equal proportions of all color wavelengths in the visible spectrum. Unless it is broken up and diffused by clouds, direct sunlight produces intense, harsh, contrasty light. This kind of light quality is called hard as opposed to soft light. It creates harsh shadows. Diffusion screens and reflectors can be used on location to reduce the intensity and contrast of direct sunlight and to create soft light. Indirect sunlight, often called skylight, has a higher color temperature than direct sunlight: from 6000 degrees K to 20,000 degrees K. Indirectly lit shadow areas also contain a higher proportion of ultraviolet (UV) light than areas lit by direct sunlight. To reduce the bluish cast that is often produced by this ultraviolet light, an ultraviolet or skylight filter can be placed over the camera lens.

Tungsten Light

One of the earliest sources of electrical lighting was Thomas Edison’s incandescent bulb. An incandescent bulb consists of a tungsten filament in a glass-enclosed vacuum. A strong electrical current encounters considerable resistance at the filament, generating both heat and light. In general, a tungsten light source produces somewhat more light of longer wavelengths, such as red and orange, than of shorter wavelengths, such as blue and violet. Professional tungsten light has a color temperature of 3200 degrees K. Incandescent lamps in the home and office may emit a much lower color temperature.

The color temperature of all tungsten lamps decreases with age. Tungsten-halogen-quartz bulbs (usually called quartz lights) have become an important source of 3200 degree K indoor lighting. Caution needs to be exercised in the handling of quartz bulbs, however. They should never be touched, because the oil in your skin breaks down the quartz-like glass and reduces the life of a bulb. Quartz lights are usually rated in terms of the watts of electrical energy they consume. The most common sizes are 650 and 1,000 W.

Carbon Arc Light

Carbon arc lights produce intense light, which has very high color temperature. Light is produced by passing a spark between two carbon poles. Carbon arcs generally require vast amounts of DC electrical current and produce intense heat and noxious vapors and exhaust, which must be ventilated. The high intensity and high color temperature of arc lights make them useful for location production in combination with sunlight. However, they are extremely bulky and require special electrical generators on location.

Metal Halide Light

The latest development in location lighting is the metal halide light, three of which are in use today: halogen-metal-iodide (HMI), compact iodine daylight (CID), and compact source iodide (CSI). HMI and CID lamps provide light at approximately 5400 degrees K and now are replacing carbon arc lamps. HMI lamps, the most popular of the three, give almost four times the amount of light for the same electrical input as tungsten-quartz-halogen lamps. This light source produces high-intensity, high-color-temperature light (similar to daylight) with great efficiency. It generates little heat and operates on standard 120-volt, 60 Hz AC current (although a few use 220-volt current) ranging in power from 150 to 18 kW. Like fluorescents, HMIs are discharge type of light but designed with a specific spectrum of light. The pulse is set at 120 Hz and can cause flickering in film production and video productions unless film rates and scan rates are changed to avoid matching the rate of the ballast. HMI lights are frequently used to raise the lighting level at outdoor locations, which may be partially lit by indirect sunlight. HMI lights are fully glass-enclosed arc lamps that require separate start and ballast mechanisms to control electrical current. Smaller 10 W to 18 W units now are available for portable cameras and fast-moving production like documentaries and news coverage. They are also available in soft-lights and both open-faced and PARs. HMI lights can also be filtered so that they duplicate 3200 degree K tungsten light sources.

Fluorescent Light

Unlike all the other types of light sources discussed thus far, fluorescent light is discontinuous throughout the visible spectrum (Figure 7.2). Certain bands of colored light, such as bands of red, yellow, green, or blue light, are strong, whereas others are almost non-existent in a fluorescent light source. Light is produced through phosphorescence rather than incandescence, and different phosphors produce different wavelengths of light. In film recording, color filters placed over the light source or camera lens can compensate for some of this spectral discontinuity, but there are so many differences between most fluorescent bulb types and brands that no simple filter or combination of filters will properly remedy every situation. Video recording devices can be at least partially adjusted for fluorescent light sources by white-balancing the camera under fluorescent lighting, but not for film. Professional fluorescent lighting instruments have been developed that produce highly intense but diffuse light of 3200 degree K color temperature using minimal electricity. Although these instruments are expensive, they are also highly efficient sources of fill light and now are available in small tubes and mountings for location and handheld shooting situations with the new small digital camcorders.

FIGURE 7.2 Fluorescent lamps are designed in various shapes and sizes depending on their uses—from circular to surround lens, to large banks for fill and even key light. (Courtesy of KimoFlo.)

Conventional fluorescent lighting often produces humming and flickering. The alternating current mechanisms used to create fluorescent light can cause flicker in a recorded image and produce an audio hum, which is easily picked up by even distant microphones and affects the recorded sound track, but professional fluorescent systems are designed to avoid hum and flicker. Because of negative audio and visual effects, it is often advisable to shut off conventional fluorescent lights, if possible, and to use professional fluorescent, tungsten or HMI lighting instead. Fluorescent fixtures designed for media production use may change color temperature by changing tubes with specific color temperature ratings. The intensity of each unit for any one scene may be altered by increasing or decreasing the number of tubes in each fixture. Fluorescents may act as either key or fill light, although generally they provide a soft flat light rather than a harsh controlled light. Fall-off from fluorescents is easily controlled by barn doors and the design of the fixture (Figure 7.2).

In some situations, such as certain industrial locations, it is virtually impossible to replace all the preexisting fluorescent lights in the room with other artificial lighting. In this case, one type of light source is selected as primary, and all other light sources are reduced as much as possible in intensity. Light sources having different color temperatures should not be used simultaneously unless filters can be placed in front of light sources, including windows, to change and equalize different color temperatures.

LED Lights

Light-emitting diodes (LED) lights are clusters of red, green, and blue LED chips controlled by a built-in microprocessor. The mixture of different chips and voltages applied to each chip determine the color temperature the fixture offers. The normal LED chip actually produces a blue light, but some of the light stimulates a yellow phosphor to compensate the blue to create a white light. The increased efficiency and luminosity of LEDs was developed through major breakthroughs in technologies of manufacturing chips, structural design, and light beam shaping, combining advances in solid-state physics and optics. The optics usually consist of two parts: a primary and secondary lens. The primary lens collects the light emitted by the LED close to the chip, combining it to form a beam, and the secondary lens blends the light beam colors together to form “white light.” The result is a high-energy, efficient white light source that remains cooler to the touch. Typical LED luminous (energy) efficiency is near 90 percent compared to 20 percent or less with typical tungsten-halogen lights, resulting in high output light intensity with virtually no heat. Unlike traditional tungsten-halogen or HMI light fixtures with single lamps, multiple LEDs are packaged into panels with 50 or more LEDs, with each LED having its own reflector. Spot and flood illumination is accomplished by using different reflectors, usually varying from a 5-degree (spot) to a 50-degree (flood) beam angle.

Individual panels of LEDs are designed to produce a 5600 to 6000 degree K source. Panels may be dimmed without changing color temperature by changing the voltage applied to individual chips. Small panels may be mounted on a camera, easily running on 12 volts from a battery pack or from the camera’s power source. Panels may be mounted on a stand or camera, taped to a wall, or handheld. The units are heat-free, flicker-free, and have a long life. As many as 140 small LEDs mounted in a 6.75 × 2.25 panel will provide 80 foot candles of light. A 5-inch diameter disk of chips will deliver 130 foot-candles of light. Groups of panels may be mounted in racks to provide a wide, even source of light suitable to act as fill light for an entire scene. Panels can be designed to be used as floods with a 50-degree spread of light or as a spot with a 20-degree spread. Panels can be fitted with barn doors, egg crates, filter frames, or intensifiers as needed (Figure 7.3).

FIGURE 7.3 LED fixtures come in different sizes and shapes, but primarily provide a flat even soft light. They may be used directly on a camera, as a fill light, as in small space powered by batteries. (Courtesy of LitePanels, Inc.)

White Balance

To adjust either video or film systems to various Kelvin temperatures, compensation must be provided. Video cameras can be adjusted to the degree Kelvin of the light source through the process of white balancing. Once the lighting has been determined and set, the camera(s) are pointed at the subject area, focused on a white card. A switch is thrown on the camera or camera control unit and held until an indicator shows that the camera has adjusted its electronic circuits to that lighting temperature. A video camera must be white balanced again each time the location or light source has been modified. Some new digital cameras now contain automatic white balance circuits that “read” the color temperature of a scene and adjust internal circuits to maintain proper light color relationships. Video cameras are designed to operate under 3200 degree K tungsten lighting without filters. If operated under daylight or other 5,400-degree light sources, a filter must be inserted to compensate for the difference in light temperature. Normally an 85 (yellow-orange) filter is used (Figure 7.4).

FIGURE 7.4 With the proper filter placed between the video camera lens and pickup chips or tubes, the camera’s internal circuits will automatically white balance when focused on a pure white card and when the white balance switch is thrown. Film camera white balance is dependent on the type of film stock and filter arrangement, not on the camera or the camera’s internal operation.

Film systems, on the other hand, must match the film stock to the lighting temperature. If shooting under tungsten, a film balanced for 3200 degree K must be used, or daylight film with an 80 blue filter can be used. If shooting under daylight conditions, a film balanced for 5400 degree K or tungsten film with an 85 filter must be used to compensate for the difference in Kelvin temperature (Figure 7.5).

FIGURE 7.5 The design and manufacture of motion picture film stock determines whether the film is designed to be shot under daylight or tungsten light sources. The speed of film stock also is determined by the manufacturing process. Each of these characteristics can be adjusted with filters and processing modifications. (Courtesy of Eastman Kodak, Fuji Films, and Agfa Films.)

LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS

The housing within which a light source or lamp is encased is called a lighting instrument or luminaire. Lighting instruments can be generally classified according to the directness or indirectness and hardness or softness of the light they emit. Sharply focused and concentrated light produces harsh shadows and high contrast.

Diffused or softened light minimizes shadows and reduces contrast. Lighting instruments with lenses that sharply focus light are referred to as spotlights. Lighting instruments without lenses that have reflectors that spread and soften light are called floodlights.

Spotlights

Fresnel and ellipsoidal lighting instruments are two different types of spotlights. Fresnel refers to a specific type of lens, which bends the light so that it travels in a relatively narrow path. The term ellipsoidal refers to the shape of a mirror or reflector at the back of the instrument that concentrates the light rays focused by a lens. Both types of spotlights concentrate the light emitted by a lamp or bulb into a narrow, intense band of light (Figure 7.6).

FIGURE 7.6 The light pattern from a Fresnel lighting instrument is controlled by moving the lamp inside the fixture closer or farther away from the stepped lens in the front of the instrument and by adjusting the barn doors mounted on the outside front of the lamp (top). The light pattern from an ellipsoidal lamp is controlled by adjusting shutters mounted inside the case of the lamp between the lamp and the front lens. Barn doors also may be mounted on ellipsoidal lamps (bottom). (Courtesy of Arri and ETC Lighting.)

Floodlights

The most commonly used types of floodlights are scoops, broads, soft lights, strip lights, and banks of Parabolic Aluminized Reflector (PAR) bulbs. These lights lack mirrors that focus light into a narrow beam. Instead, they diffuse or spread light, decreasing both its intensity and harshness. Scoops, broads, and soft lights usually consist of one, two, or three lamps and have somewhat larger and more diffuse reflectors than spotlights. Strip lights and PARs have several bulbs, each with its own built-in reflector, placed close to one another so that they diffuse and soften the light in combination. Strip lights may be equipped with colored lenses to throw a “colorized” wash onto a cyc, or cyclorama (a large plain background scenery, usually stretched cloth), or other neutral background. Floodlights are frequently used to light wide areas. They are also used to fill in the shadows created by spotlights and thereby reduce contrast within a scene (Figure 7.7).

FIGURE 7.7 Flood lamps are manufactured in a variety of shapes and sizes, but the purpose is to provide a soft, diffused light. Control of light from flood lamps is more difficult because of its diffused nature. (Courtesy of Lowell and Arri Lighting.)

Portable Lights

A wide variety of lighting kits are available for use on location. Portable lighting kits usually have open, nonlensed lighting instruments, quartz lamps, and LEDs rated from 80 to 2,000 W. These instruments lack some of the controls of studio spotlights. Lighting kits contain several open-reflector quartz lights and collapsible light-mounting equipment, power cords, and other lighting accessories. Photofloods, such as Lowell Light units, are highly portable lamps with self-contained reflectors inside the bulb (Figure 7.8). Some lightweight lighting instruments have their own portable power supply or rechargeable battery pack. Battery-powered lights, such as the Sylvania Sun Gun, can be used in moving vehicles or on remote locations where a standard power supply is not available. The batteries should be fully charged, because the color temperature gradually decreases as the battery weakens and the voltage drops.

FIGURE 7.8 Portable light kits are designed to provide the maximum amount of light output in small, easily moved and controlled lighting fixtures that also draw a minimum amount of amperage. The kits are designed to provide both spot light and flood light with a variety of designs or adjustments of the lamp fixtures. (Courtesy of Lowell Light.)

With the increase of available power in newer battery designs, more efficient luminaires, and cameras and films that are more sensitive, battery-powered lighting has become more practical. Standard alternating current power sources are still preferable to batteries for lights, whenever possible.

New Lamp Designs

Digital techniques in cameras as well as other electronic devices have led to new and inventive lighting fixture designs. Pursuing bright color and color constant light source has led to the development of a ceramic light source. Today’s productions require smaller, easily portable, and flexible fixtures. Fixtures that allow the light source to be changed from incandescent, to fluorescent, to LED in one fixture that can be easily folded and moved in a light-weight container has led to several different designs fulfilling these characteristics (Figure 7.9).

FIGURE 7.9 New light fixtures include ceramic replaceable sources in one fixture. (Courtesy of Lowell and Arri Lighting.)

Mounting Devices

Studio lighting is accomplished with overhead lighting instruments, which are attached to a grid. This makes it easier for cameras and performers to move about the studio floor without running into lights. The grid, which consists of a series of pipes suspended in parallel rows above the studio floor to which instruments are attached with C-clamps, is probably the most common type of grid. Safety chains or heavy-gauge wire loops ensure that no accident will occur if the C-clamp slips on the pipe. Another type of grid has a sliding track to which instruments can be attached and along which they can be moved (Figure 7.10).

FIGURE 7.10 The lighting grid in a studio is constructed to support both the batten, which carries the power to the pigtails, and the lighting instruments. The grid must be high enough to allow wide-angle shots, but it also must allow for space above the grid to dissipate the heat generated by the lighting instruments.

A collapsible floor stand is one of the most frequently used light-mounting devices on location. The seven- or eight-foot stand telescopes for portability. Sandbags can be placed over the three legs of the stand for added stability. Lights can also be mounted on special clips and clamps, such as a spring-tension alligator clip, or simply taped to a wall with a strong adhesive gaffer’s tape. The latter must be used with care as it sometimes damages paint or wallpaper on removal (Figure 7.11).

FIGURE 7.11 The design of portable light fixtures allows them to be mounted on floor stands, anchored by sand bags, hung from doorways, or clipped to other handy positions on the set. (Courtesy of Lowell Light and Colortran.)

Shaping Devices

Light can be shaped, manipulated, and controlled by a variety of devices, such as barn doors, scrims, diffusers, flags, gels, cookies, and reflectors. These are often attached to a lighting instrument. Barn doors are black metal flaps that can be attached to the top, bottom, and sides of a lighting instrument. When properly positioned, they prevent light from spilling into areas of the set where it is not wanted. Screens are pieces of wire mesh that can be placed over the front of a lighting instrument to cut down the amount of light transmitted. Scrims and diffusers are pieces of translucent material, such as spun glass, that break up direct light and spread it out in all directions. Flags are opaque pieces of metal, plastic, or cardboard that prevent light from spilling into an undesired area.

Gels are flexible sheets of transparent colored plastic that can act as color filters when they are placed in front of light sources, such as windows or lamps. A gel can be used to convert 5400 degree K light coming through a window to 3200 degree K light, which is the same color temperature as interior room lighting. A cookie or cukaloris is a piece of opaque material with holes in it, which patterns the light into shadowed and brightly lit areas. Cookies are built to be slipped into a slot between the lamp and the lens of the body of an ellipsoidal spotlight. Reflectors provide indirect, reflected light, which is usually less harsh than the primary direct light. Sunlight, for example, can be reflected to function as fill light outdoors, whereas direct, unreflected sunlight functions as a key light (Figure 7.12).

FIGURE 7.12 The control and shape of light as it falls on the set may be controlled by barn doors mounted on the front of the instrument, by reflecting light from a light surface such as an umbrella, or by placing scrims, flags, and diffusers between the lamp and the subjects. (Courtesy of Colortran and Lowell Light.)

LIGHT CONTROL

Electrical lighting in a studio can be controlled by means of patch panels and dimmer boards operated either electronically or digitally (Figure 7.13). A patch panel or electrical distribution center consists of a series of plugs for specific electrical circuits to which lighting instruments can be connected.

FIGURE 7.13 Light control patch bays may be designed to require physically placing patch cords into patch panels (top), or all connections can be performed through a computer program and computer-controlled distributor systems. (Courtesy of ETC Lighting.)

Lighting Control in the Studio

The voltage carried by each circuit can be controlled by a dimmer board. Each circuit has a limited electrical capacity, varying from about 20 to >50 amps. Using the formula watts = amps/volts (W = A/V), you can determine the maximum number of lamps that can be safely attached to each circuit without blowing a fuse or tripping a circuit breaker. For example, five 1,000 W, 110-volt lamps can be safely plugged into a 50-amp circuit, because each lamp will draw slightly more than 9 amps (watts/volts = amps; 1,000/110 = 9.1 amps per lamp; 5 × 9.1 = 45.5 total amps) (Figure 7.14).

FIGURE 7.14 As complicated as it may seem, calculating the amount of power required to power equipment and lighting instruments can be accomplished with simple formulas dividing or multiplying by 100.

For quick reference for calculating wattage and amperage in your head, use 100 volts instead of 110 or 120. This allows approximately a 10 percent safety factor. In the preceding examples, 1,000/100 = 10 amps; 10 × 5 = 50 amps.

The dimmer board is a useful means of reducing or adjusting light intensity for black-and-white production, but it is not very useful in this respect for color recording. A dimmer board reduces the light intensity by dropping the voltage, and dropping the voltage below 120 volts causes a consequent drop in color temperature, which is not acceptable in color production. In color production, lighting intensity is reduced by moving a lighting instrument or using a scrim. To determine the result of moving a lighting instrument, the inverse square law may be used. This law of physics states that the amount of light change caused by increasing the distance between the light source and the subject will decrease by the square of the inverse of the change in distance.

Conversely, the amount of light change caused by decreasing the distance between the light source and the subject will increase by the square of the inverse of the change. For example, if the incident light from a lamp 8 feet from the subject measures 100 foot-candles and then the lamp is moved to 16 feet away (doubling the distance), the light will decrease by the square of the inverse of the change: ½ squared is ¼, and ¼ of 100 foot-candles is 25 foot-candles. On the other hand, if the lamp’s distance is cut in half to 4 feet, then the amount of light would increase by the square of the inverse of the change: ½ squared is ¼ or 4; 100 × 4 is 400 foot-candles. It is obvious that it takes very small changes in the distance between the lamp and subject to make a major change in the amount of light reaching the subject (Figure 7.15).

FIGURE 7.15 Calculating the amount of light falling on a subject as the lamp is moved back and forth is accomplished with a simple formula based on dividing by the square of the light source if the change in distance is increased, or multiplying by the square of the light source if the distance is decreased.

Dimmer boards are useful for controlling entire banks of instruments simultaneously and for presetting a series of lamps for the next scene. Modern dimmer boards are computer controlled and allow an infinite number of individual instruments or series of instruments to be preset and changed at the press of a button. Computer control boards are designed to perform complex and rapidly changing light cues in variable combinations and number of cues (Figure 7.16).

FIGURE 7.16 A modern computer-operated lighting-control dimmer board allows all of the adjustment functions of lighting instruments (except for moving the lamps) from the control board. (Courtesy of Colortran.)

Lighting Control on Location

Securing adequate electrical current for lighting on location presents more problems and hazards than does studio production. The most pressing problem is how and where to secure adequate power. If sufficient electricity is not available, portable gasoline generators are sometimes brought in. When using a private home or office, a lighting director and electrician may decide to tap the main power supply or to use the existing circuits. If the former course is taken, a qualified electrician must perform the operation of tapping into the 100 amp (or more) main supply, which can then be channeled to a portable circuit board for distribution to individual instruments. If you decide to use existing circuits in the home or office, you can determine which outlets are on the same circuits and how many amps each circuit can carry by simply checking and closing a circuit at the main circuit box or fuse box and then testing outlets in the rooms where filming is to take place. Load demands should never exceed those specified at the circuit or fuse box, because excess power traveling along a line can melt the wires and start a fire. Any situation that requires an extensive amount of lighting and electrical energy demands the expertise of a qualified electrician.

LIGHT MEASUREMENT

The basic unit of light intensity measure is the foot-candle. One foot-candle is an agreed-upon standard that represents the approximate light intensity produced by a candle one foot away. The normal measurement range of a light meter is from 1 to about 250 foot-candles. A light meter is extremely useful in both video and film production for determining lighting levels and contrast within a scene, as well as for properly positioning and setting individual lights. In film recording, a light meter must be adjusted to the proper sensitivity scale or Exposure Index (EI) number (DIN in Europe) so that it provides the correct f-stop readings for the specific sensitivity of the film stock (Figure 7.17).

FIGURE 7.17 Handheld light meters may be designed for different functions. The one on the left is designed primarily to read incident light, and the one on the right is designed to read reflected light, although both meters will read either incident or reflected light.

The three major light sources are key light, fill light, and separation light. The key light is the brightest, hardest light. It provides modeling or texture. Modeling refers to the appearance of a textured surface that has shadows where there are indentations in the surface. A surface with good modeling looks three-dimensional. Fill light is softened, lower-intensity light that helps to fill in some of the shadows created by the key light and to reduce the contrast between light and shadow areas. Separation light comes from behind the subject. It creates a halo effect, which outlines the subject and helps to separate it from the background.

Types of Light Meter Readings

There are two basic types of meter readings: incident and reflected. Spot meters are a specialized type of reflected meter. Another type of reflected reading may be gained through a meter built into the film camera or electronic circuits built into a video camera. This type of metering is called through the lens (TTL). Some light meters are capable of producing only one type of reading. Others can be used for several different types of readings. Each reading has a specific purpose in terms of lighting control. On some light meters, a white hemisphere or flat circle is placed over the photoelectric cell so that the meter can measure the intensity of the light falling on the subject, or the incident light. This white surface gathers and diffuses light falling on the meter from several directions. For a reading of direct light falling on the subject, the meter is pointed at the camera from the position of the subject (Figure 7.18).

FIGURE 7.18 To take an incident light reading, the meter should be held close to the subject pointing toward the light source(s). A wide-angle light meter with a diffusion cap provides the most accurate incident meter reading.

A reading of incident or direct light is called an incident reading. Because such a reading measures the light falling on the subject, it is not affected by the reflectance of the objects to be recorded.

A measurement of indirect light—that is, light reflected by the subject—is called a reflected reading. The white covering is removed from the photocell for a reflected reading, and the meter is pointed at the subject from the camera. A reflected reading of the subject or whole scene averages the amount of light reflected by objects in the scene to determine the best overall exposure or base light level (Figure 7.19). A spot meter reading is the reflected light from a small isolated area within the frame. Spot meter readings are often used to take light readings of objects that are too far away to make an incident reading practical or from subjects that reflect far more or less light than the average subject in the area.

FIGURE 7.19 To take a reflected light reading, the meter is held close to the camera and pointed at the major subject. A narrow-angle meter provides the most accurate reflected meter reading.

A TTL or through-the-lens reading provides a reflected reading of the exact image framed within the camera and can be used to adjust the lens automatically. Some TTL systems do not respond instantaneously to light changes, and the proper exposure lags slightly behind actual changes in light intensity. In essence, a video camera is a TTL meter. The operator can determine the proper exposure by reading an oscilloscope attached to the camera outputor by gauging the contrast and exposure through the camera viewfinder, assuming the viewfinder is properly adjusted. The operator actually is viewing the reflected light in the viewfinder.

Determining Contrast Ratios

A light meter can be used in both video and film production to determine contrast within a scene. Apparent contrast within the image area can affect image clarity as well as the overall emotional mood. There are two important contrast ratios in any lighting setup: lighting ratio and contrast ratio. The mathematical relationship between light intensity in foot-candles or between f-stops on a light meter can be used to determine these specific ratios. (Foot-candles can be directly compared, whereas each higher f-stop number indicates a doubling and each lower f-stop a halving of the light intensity.)

Lighting Ratios

Key-to-Fill Ratio

Key-to-fill ratio indicates the proportion of key light to fill light in any lighting setup. This is called the lighting ratio but should not be confused with the inherent contrast ratio of a video camera or film stock, as will be discussed in Chapter 8, The Camera. Lighting contrast is caused exclusively by lights. It is actually a comparison of key-plus-fill light to fill light alone.

Some fill light always spills over into the key light area and increases its intensity. An incident reading is taken of the key and fill lights together. Then the key light is shut off and a fill light reading is taken. A comparison of the two readings in terms of foot-candles or recommended f-stop readings indicates the key-to-fill light ratio. A key-plus-fill light reading of 250 foot-candles compared with a fill light reading of 125 foot-candles equals a 2:1 lighting ratio. One f-stop difference between the two indicates a 2:1 ratio, two f-stops a 4:1 ratio, three f-stops an 8:1 ratio, and so on. In most situations, video and film recording is done under a key-to-fill light ratio of 4:1 or less, unless a highly dramatic effect with high contrast is desired. Because video has less tolerance for contrast than film, it generally is advisable to use a 2:1 or lower key-to-fill light ratio in video recordings or film recordings that will be transferred to video. The key-to-fill ratio determines whether a high-key or low-key aesthetic of lighting is in effect. Low-key lighting has a high key-to-fill ratio, whereas high-key lighting has a low key-to-fill light ratio.

Key-to-Back Ratio

The relative proportion of key light to backlight is called the key-to-back ratio. In most instances, backlights and key lights should have approximately the same intensity. This ratio is usually kept at about 1:1 or 1:1.5. A weak backlight does little to separate the subject from the background or to create a halo effect. An extremely strong backlight, on the other hand, can cause an excessively bright halo to form around the subject’s head and back.

Lighting Ratios (Incident Meter Readings)

Contrast Ratios

Contrast ratios can be determined by taking reflected light meter readings of the brightest and darkest reflecting objects in the scene. A spot meter is a great help in isolating a specific object, although moving a standard reflected light meter closer to an object without interrupting the light falling on it accomplishes the same goal. Again, a comparison of light meter foot-candle or f-stop readings indicates the contrast ratio between the brightest and darkest reflecting areas in the scene. Video cameras cannot record a reflectance contrast ratio greater than 50:1 (approximately five f-stops). Some standard film stocks, such as color negative, can often record reflectance contrast ranges as high as 100:1 (six or seven f-stops).

Adjusting Contrast

There are several ways of altering a scene’s contrast to make it more acceptable for visual recording. Specific lights that are too strong or too weak can be moved farther from or closer to the subject. Scrims and diffusion materials can be used to cut down on the light intensity. Additional instruments can be focused on the subject, although care must be taken to keep these multiple keys and fills close together so that objectionable multiple shadows are not created. Altering the lighting contrast ratio can affect the reflectance contrast ratio because the two are interdependent: objects reflect key and fill light. In some cases, a change in the color or brightness of props, sets, or costumes may be required to increase or decrease light reflectance.

SETTING LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS

Three- and Four-Point Lighting

Three-point and four-point lighting are realist techniques that help create an illusion of three-dimensionality and depth in two-dimensional media such as video and film (Figures 7.20 and 7.21). Three-point and four-point lighting setups use three specific types of light, which have different directional placements, degrees of softness and hardness, and intensities.

FIGURE 7.20 A subject lit with one harsh luminaire that represents the sun or major light source is called a key light. Such a lighting design is not flattering nor particularly revealing. Using both a key light and an additional softly diffused luminaire from the opposite side of the subject from the key light creates a more pleasant and useful subject.

FIGURE 7.21 To separate the subject from the background and to highlight the subject’s hair, a luminaire is placed directly opposite the camera focused sharply down on the subject.

A fourth luminaire may be used to throw a pattern on the background, erase unwanted shadows, or light an area not covered by the other three luminaires.

Key Light

The key lights are the brightest and, in some ways, the most important lights on the set. The key light determines the overall recording or exposure level. The placement of a key light suggests the direction of the primary source of light within a scene, such as a window, an overhead light, the sun or moon, or even a candle or fireplace. When the key light strikes a subject directly from the front or camera side of the subject, few shadows or variations in surface texture are created and the result is a flat, uninteresting image. For optimal modeling and aesthetic effect, the key light should be 30 to 40 degrees away from the camera-subject axis, and it should light the short or narrow side of a face, that is, the side of the face that is least exposed to the camera. Moving the key light up and down, and from side to side, affects the direction and length of facial shadows and increases or decreases facial modeling.

Key light usually has a hard quality. The beam of light is narrowly focused and rarely if ever diffused or softened, except perhaps in a situation where softness is needed to create a romantic or light mood. The height of the key light affects the length of shadows falling on the set. Key lights should be placed high enough that long shadows do not spill onto the background from foreground subjects. The key light is usually placed much higher than the camera, unless a special effect is desired, such as the presentation of a flat, untextured image (in which case, the key light is at camera height) or a mysterious and horrifying face (in which case, the key light is placed lower than camera height). In multiple-subject setups, the same light that functions as a key light for one subject can also function as the fill light or backlight for another. The term key light simply refers to the brightest light source striking a subject from the camera’s viewpoint. The specific instrument designated as the key light can change as the camera or subject moves.

Fill Light

Fill light is used to provide general illumination on the set and to fill in the shadows created by the key lights. Fill light is usually softer than key light. Reflectors or translucent materials placed in front of the lighting instrument are used frequently to diffuse the light. The fill light is often placed at approximately camera height or just slightly above so that shadows created by overhead key lights can be properly filled in. It is usually on the opposite side of the camera from the key light. The intensities and physical placement of the key and fill lights will determine to a significant extent the emotional mood and lighting atmosphere within the scene.

Separation Light (Backlight)

One or two separation lights complete the three-point lighting triangle or four-point rectangle. A backlight is usually placed above and behind the subject to create a halo effect that outlines the subject, separating it from the background. The backlight completes the three-point lighting setup, but it is not the only light that can be used to separate the subject from the background. In a four-point lighting setup, another separation light, called a kicker, may be placed exactly opposite the key light on the set. A kicker functions similarly to a backlight, but it is directed from the back and the side of the subject (usually opposite or facing the key light) rather than from directly behind and above the subject’s back and head. Separation of subject and background through backlights and kickers is extremely important in black-and-white recording. The height of the backlight or kicker and its intensity in comparison with the key light affect the amount of separation that takes place.

Background Light

Background light illuminates the background or set. It affects every lighting setup and is extremely important in the overall aesthetic appearance of a scene. Although fill lights and key lights frequently spill over onto the background and partially illuminate it, it is important to light the background separately so that its appearance can be more carefully controlled. The amount of light cast on the background obviously affects subject/background separation. It can also affect visual emphasis within a scene. If the background is brighter than the subject, the viewer’s attention will be distracted from the primary focus of interest. If the background is too dark, the set may look unnatural or the scene too high contrast. To add interest and texture to an otherwise flat, monochromatic background, patterns can be cast on the background to break it up and give it some modeling and texture. Although too much patterning can be distracting, a flat, monochrome, evenly lit background looks dull and unimaginative. The use of different colors for the subject and background can affect much the same separation in color production, but separation lights have not been entirely abandoned in color production because they add so much texture, dimension, and depth to the visual image. In an optimal three-point lighting setup, the keys, fills, and backlights form the points of a triangle or a Y. When a kicker and a backlight are used together, the four lighting points form a rectangle or an “X.” Such ideal placements are rarely, if ever, consistently maintained. Only static, artificial, intensely boring still scenes with subjects and cameras that never move would allow for a permanent, perfectly triangular three-point or rectangular four-point lighting setup. A more typical situation is characterized by the constant movement of the subject(s) and cameras and a complex, constantly varying relationship between keys, fills, and backlights or kickers. The three-point and four-point lighting procedures outlined earlier simply provide a starting point and an idealized model that is necessarily and continually manipulated in complex recording situations.

Controlling Shadows

Background light should not be used to try to burn out shadows from foreground performers that fall on the background. The most effective means of eliminating bad shadows is proper placement of the key lights. Key lights should be placed high enough above the performers so that prominent shadows are not cast on background walls as they move around the set. Performers should also be kept at a safe distance from the back wall whenever possible. Another complicating factor in three- and four-point television and film lighting is the creation of objectionable shadows by microphone booms. Because the key light creates the most noticeable shadows, microphone-boom placement and movement must be arranged to minimize interference with the key lights. Sometimes this can be accomplished by adjusting the barn doors of the key lights so that light does not spill into the microphone boom area. In other cases, the key lights may have to be placed higher overhead than normal, so that boom shadows fall on the floor, rather than on more noticeable parts of the set. A microphone-boom shadow can often be hidden in a part of the set that is already riddled with a shadow pattern. Obviously, the planning of the lighting setup must include consideration of the placement and movement of the microphone boom, before the key and fill lights are firmly positioned.

Cross Key Lighting

Cross key lighting uses two key lights to light two subjects equally. A fill light is not needed because the spill light from the key lights acts as fill.

Lighting Moving Subjects

The discussion of lighting to this point has assumed that the subject to be recorded is relatively stationary. A moving subject significantly complicates a lighting setup. The major problem inherent in lighting a moving subject is how to maintain relatively consistent light levels as the subject moves about the set. Multiple key lights must be used to light a moving subject in the studio.

If a subject were to walk too close or too far away from a single key light, he or she would become too light or too dark, and realist continuity in lighting would be lost. Multiple key lights are hung at constant distances from the moving subject so that the subject can move from one key light to another without a noticeable change in lighting. Problems arise when key light beams overlap or when there are gaps of darkness between key lights. To prevent these problems, the barn doors or shutters on the key lights are adjusted so that key light beams are exactly adjacent to each other along the performer blocking line (where a subject will move on the set). As long as the talent follows this prearranged line of action and hits his or her marks, no gaps or overlaps of lighting will occur.

Low-Key versus High-Key Lighting

The terms low-key and high-key lighting originated in the studio eras of feature film production in Hollywood. They seem counterintuitive—that is, the terms mean the opposite of what we think they should mean. Low-key lighting refers to the minimal use of fill light—that is, a relatively high key-to-fill ratio. This kind of lighting creates pools of light and rather harsh shadows. Many Warner Bros. gangster films and detective films produced in the 1930s and 1940s used low-key lighting for aesthetic effect. However, a whole genre of Hollywood films called film noir (literally, “black film” in French) relied on low-key lighting in the 1940s. Low-key lighting evokes a rather heavy and serious mood or feeling that enhances the emotional atmosphere of certain types of films. Low-key lighting is similar to an effect in painting known as chiaroscuro.

This technique is evident in the paintings of Rembrandt, for example, where shafts of light illuminate central figures in the painting, while the remaining parts of the scene are dimly lit and heavily shadowed. Low-key lighting can have a similar effect in video and film, although contrast ratio differences between video and film call for different lighting techniques to create the same effect in the two media.

High-key lighting presents a brightly lit scene with few shadow areas. It has been suggested that during the 1930s and 1940s, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) studios used high-key lighting for its lavish musicals so that no detail in its elaborate and expensive sets would be hidden in the shadows.

In any case, the use of high-key lighting in musical comedies is another example of form following function. The term notan is often applied to high-key lighting. The word notan refers to the bright, low-contrast paintings of the Japanese master painters. The light, happy atmosphere stimulated by high-key lighting contrasts with the somber, mysterious, or threatening atmosphere of low-key lighting. Thus, an important consideration in selecting either high- or low-key lighting styles is attempting to match the form of the lighting to the specific function it is intended to serve.

Single-Camera versus Multiple-Camera Situations

In single-camera recording situations, the lighting is sometimes changed for each shot or each major change in camera position. Of course, changing the lighting slightly for each separate shot can be extremely laborious and time consuming. Subtle changes in lighting are made in realist productions, not drastic changes that call attention to the lighting. Lighting continuity from shot to shot and scene to scene will break down with too much shifting of lighting instruments. Feature films and network television commercials, which have big budgets, long shooting schedules, and large production crews, can better afford the luxury of lighting each separate shot perfectly than can lower-level productions.

The aesthetic expectations of audiences and the demands of clients make lighting a high priority in some single-camera productions. Still, the lighting for any single-camera production can benefit from the added time and care this production method affords. Because recording is continuous in multiple-camera production, the lights cannot be reset for different shots. Lighting decisions and compromises must be fully worked out before the actual recording. The same lighting setup is used for long shots, medium shots, and close-ups. The lighting director must be able to anticipate every camera angle and placement that will be needed before arranging and setting up the lights on the set.

Lighting for Digital Cameras

Digital cameras see light in the same way as analog cameras. The digital signal maintains an apparently higher level of resolution because no defects are added to the picture. For this reason, many fine details lost with an analog camera will stand out visibly in the digital mode. It is imperative, then, that light falls only on areas that need to be lit and that accurate lighting ratios are developed in the lighting plan. Sloppy work in all aspects of digital production, especially in high-definition production, such as set design and construction, costumes, and makeup, will become obvious in areas that would not show in an analog production. Lighting for digital signals simply requires greater care for the small details than lighting for analog signals. Although modern digital cameras are more sensitive than older analog cameras, requiring less base light, they still need well-balanced light sources. The difference between key and fill need not be as great on a digital set, but there is no such thing as a true realistic light situation. The lighting in a normal living room, office, or even an outdoor setting will not appear as a professionally lit scene; instead it will look like someone forgot you were shooting film or video and left the camera running. Some key or fill lights, with back or set lights are needed in a digital setting as well as any analog setting.

Lighting Plots

A specific lighting setup can be outlined or diagrammed on a piece of grid paper that represents an overhead scale diagram of the studio. This outline is called a lighting plot. The overhead lighting grid to which specific instruments can be attached is drawn onto the studio diagram. The basic elements of the set are added to this overhead view. The placements and movements of the talent and camera(s) can be added to the diagram after preliminary performer and camera blocking, so that the lights can be positioned accordingly. Lighting plots also may be created using specifically written computer programs that allow for manipulation of diagrams of sets, instruments, and performers. Such programs also allow for the printing of hard copies of the diagrams as well as storage of the files on discs for recall at a later time. The lighting director equipped with such computer programs uses the computer graphics to create these plots quickly and efficiently without tediously hand drawing each instrument and connection.

The program also will create lists of the instruments required and indicate patch-board connections. Several key lights may have to be arranged so that they maintain an even or balanced brightness on the moving performer throughout the set. Only when the exact blocking line of the talent is known can these lights be properly placed. The distance of the key lights from the talent can be determined by relying on the inverse square law (light intensity changes according to the square of the distance of the light source from the object) and the scale dimensions of the grid paper. One-quarter inch on paper may equal one foot of actual studio floor space for example (Figure 7.22).

FIGURE 7.22 Lighting plots provide a means of carefully planning ahead of time for the placement of lighting instruments to avoid unnecessarily moving fixtures once the sets and blocking have been completed. The plot must be drawn to scale or it is of little value for accurate planning.

Composing a lighting plot allows the lighting director to consider all relevant factors that can affect the selection and placement of lighting instruments before actual production. He or she must consider the placement and movement of the talent, cameras, and microphone booms, as well as the electrical and spatial capabilities and limitations of the studio or location environment. The lighting plot must also incorporate many aesthetic or stylistic variables. It can be low key or high key; realist, modernist, or postmodernist. The lighting director must develop a lighting setup that is both aesthetically satisfying and practical from an engineering standpoint.

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN

Design has three basic functions in a dramatic production: to establish the time, place, and mood; to reflect character; and to reinforce specific themes. A historical time period and setting must be easily identifiable. Costumes, sets, props, and titles denote a specific time and place at the same time that they reflect a specific style or mood. The mood or atmosphere results primarily from the abstract, emotional aspects of design elements and principles. Specific colors and shapes create an emotional mood that can reveal character and reinforce themes. The idea that you can tell a great deal about people from where they live and what they wear can be applied to scenic design. A cold, formal setting or costume reveals a great deal about a character, as does a warm, relaxed setting or costume.

An art director works with three basic principles of design: design elements, color, and composition in creating settings, properties, costumes, and makeup. The ways in which these elements are selected and combined determines the nature and success of each aspect of the design. The selection of design elements must support the themes, plots, and characterizations of a drama or the central message of a nonfiction production.

Design Elements

Design elements shares the same history, theory, and techniques as the same elements used in two-dimensional and computer graphic design.

Shape

A combination of lines creates a shape. An infinite number of different shapes reflect specific objects, but some common, recurring shapes with which all designers work are circles, squares, rectangles, triangles, ellipses, trapezoids, octagons, and hexagons. Shapes can carry symbolic meaning. A square-straight flat gives the viewer a different impression than a set constructed using circular and curved forms in the background.

Texture

Texture provides a tactile impression of form on the walls and on the surface of costumes. Texture can be real or represented. Real textures are revealed by directional light, which creates shadows and modeling on a nonsmooth surface. Represented textures, such as granite, marble, or wood grains, have smooth surfaces that create a tactile impression. The texture of a surface affects our perception of depth. A rough texture with heavy shadows provides a greater sensation of depth than a smooth, flat surface. A heavily textured material used in drapes or costumes can create a richness that relates to a theme of opulence, splendor, or decadence. Texture, like shapes, can create a sense of space that affects our emotions and relates symbolically to the major themes of a story.

Movement

Movement can be real or imaginary. The illusion of movement can be enhanced by the use of parallel diagonals in a set, for example. It can also be limited or reduced by the use of vertical and horizontal panels. Specific shapes and lines, such as spirals, concentric circles, and radial designs, can generate significant movement and space for actors to appear and work.

Color

The three aspects of color of primary importance to a designer consist of color harmony, color contrast, and the emotional or symbolic effect of color. Chapter 11, Graphics, Animation, and Special Effects, presents detailed descriptions and uses of color; they include contrast, harmony, gray scale, and emotional and cultural responses to color.

Composition

The arrangement and selection of sets, props, furniture, costumes, and actors within the frame make up the objects of composition combined in the following elements: balance, perspective, dimensionality, and image area.

Balance

Balance in a set can give the feeling of stability, or instability. If the design seems to be out-of-line unnaturally, then it has lost its stability. Balance also may be gained by using precisely matched objects on each side of the frame, such as two chairs set the same distance from the side of the frame. This would be a symmetrically balanced design. A set may still be balanced but not have precisely the same size and graphic weighed objects on each side of the frame. Instead, one or more objects of the same weight on each side of the frame may create an asymmetrically balanced design.

Perspective

Perspective refers to the arrangement of various elements to draw attention to the most important aspect of the image, which is called the focal center. A common focal center is the performer, but for the actor to be the focal center, the objects in the set must be arranged so that they do not overwhelm, hide, or distract from the actor. Placing the actor in or near the center of the set works, but it is boring. Arranging objects within the frame so that the viewer’s eye follows the objects to the focal center accomplishes a greater purpose of the scene.

Dimensionality

The three-dimensionality of reality is created in either a video or film frame with a two-dimensional reproduction. To give the impression that the picture represents the 3-D world, an understanding of how the three dimensions relate to the frame is necessary. The movement or composition along a line running from left to right or vice versa is considered the X-axis. Any movement or composition running from the bottom to top, or vice versa, is considered the Y-axis. The Z-axis does not actually exist in a two-dimensional medium, but it can be depicted or created through the use of compositional arrangements within the frame. If objects are arranged at an angle, instead of straight across the frame, or if a series of objects diminish in size as they rise in the frame, a Z-axis is created. To avoid boring or static pictures, efforts should always be made to create a Z-axis in each sequence.

Image Area

An important determinant of composition in visual graphics is the aspect ratio or frame dimensions of the recorded and displayed image. As noted earlier, frame dimensions vary in television and film. The aspect ratio, or proportion of height to width, of standard television (SD) images is 4:3 or 1.33:1. The aspect ratio specifications for HDTV is 16:9 or 1.85:1; projected film images vary somewhat in terms of their aspect ratios, from 1.33:1 to 2:1 (Figure 7.23).

FIGURE 7.23 If a 35 mm photographic slide is converted to SD, not all of the slide will be visible on the video screen. If converted to HD wide screen, all of the slide will be visible. The 35 mm slide is wider than 35 mm film but a smaller border at the top and bottom of the slide will be lost from scanning and reproduction. SD video and 35 mm film will have to be reproduced with either a black stripe across the sides or with a portion of the sides cut off to fill the frame top and bottom.

When HDTV images are viewed on a 4:3 standard television receiver or monitor or on a small screen on a mobile device, the viewer will either not see a portion of the image on both sides of the frame, or the signal will need to be broadcast in letterbox frame. Letterbox framing refers to a widescreen image shown in its full width, but a narrow band of black across the top and the bottom of the frame fills in the areas that are not included in a widescreen production. At one time, letterbox was considered an unacceptable method of showing wide-screen productions, but with the advent of HDTV it is not only acceptable but has become fashionable, with commercials being produced intentionally in letterbox format. Some mobile devices are designed with square or variable ratio screens so the designer can only guess as to what the viewer actually will see on those screens. It is therefore best to keep as much important information as possible well within the critical area of a standard 4:3 frame.

On-Set Design Elements

Set furnishings, props, costumes, and performer makeup are not completely independent elements in the production process. Elements of scenic design interact with each other and many other areas of production to create an overall visual impression. The most important interactions are those between scenic design and each of the following: lighting, performer movement, and camera and microphone placement. Important set elements, such as key props, can be emphasized by lighting them more brightly than other elements. The texture of a rough surface can be accentuated with side lighting, which creates textural shadows in the surface indentations. Colored lighting can drastically alter the color of set elements. A colored surface can only reflect wavelengths of light that are present in the light that illuminates it. Different lighting-contrast ratios and lighting styles can enhance a specific mood or atmosphere inherent in the setting.

The most commonly used types of on-set graphics are handheld cards, photographic blowups, and three-dimensional graphic set pieces. Handheld cards are images that a performer holds up to the camera during a scene. The talent controls the timing and placement of this type of graphic illustration.

Still photographs can be blown up or enlarged so that they provide a convenient background or backdrop on the set. Such photographs should have a matte rather than a shiny or glossy surface so that they do not reflect a great deal of light, and they should be positioned so that no glare or reflection is directed toward the camera lens. Three-dimensional structures placed on the set for illustration purposes are called graphic set pieces. A graphic set piece could be an item to be demonstrated, such as a piece of machinery, or an art object. Most on-set graphics can be scanned or shot and recorded ahead of time so that the framing can be precise and the camera is not tied up with a static shot unless it is necessary for the talent to handle the graphic or be part of the action involving the graphic.

Camera cards are usually placed on an easel, which is an adjustable display platform or graphics stand (Figure 7.24). The lights on the easel, which illuminate the card, are normally placed at a 45-degree angle from the card’s surface to minimize light reflection in the camera lens.

FIGURE 7.24 A graphics stand is a handy tool to use in the studio to shoot graphics and photographs mounted on a stiff board. The lamps should be adjusted to prevent unwanted reflections and to light the stand from the studio fixtures. The graphics should be stacked with the first on the bottom and the last on top. All of the boards are held at the top and they are dropped to the stand one at a time on cue from the floor manager.

Scenic Design

Scenic design is an important contributor to overall characterization and thematic meaning. The first stage of scenic design is analyzing the script to determine what kinds of sets, costumes, and makeup will be required. A script usually provides a clear indication of general time and place, even if it does not describe settings and costumes in detail. Judgments concerning time, place, mood, character, and theme can only be made after the script has been carefully and thoroughly analyzed. The script itself can be broken down into a list of specific times and places, in much the same way as a breakdown is done for production scheduling and budgeting. A designer can then note the specific psychological mood of the action and characters for each time and place. Finally, more abstract concepts, ideas, and themes that result from in-depth analysis can be integrated with and reinforced by the selection of specific settings, costumes, and makeup.

SET CONSTRUCTION

The design of specific physical sets can be conveniently divided into two stages: layouts or floor plans and actual set construction. Design research, layouts, floor plans, and costume sketches are considered above-the-line expenses. They are created before actual production and before a commitment is made to actual construction, so that changes can be made before more sizable below-the-line construction expenses have been incurred. Each stage of design from planning to execution results in a specific two-dimensional or three-dimensional product. By following these stages, a designer refines rough ideas into workable sets that can be efficiently and economically constructed, significantly contributing to overall program effectiveness. Before undertaking the work and expense of set design and construction, some designers may consider the use of a neutral background, called a cyclorama or cyc. A cyc is a heavy, monochrome curtain that provides a neutral set backdrop. It is convenient to set up in a studio and can be used for many production settings. A cyc will often suffice in many modernist and postmodernist situations (Figure 7.25). A cyc also may be used as a green chroma key screen background if washed with the proper balanced green lights.

FIGURE 7.25 A sky cyclorama (skycyc) is a plain off-background that may be lit with a variety of different colors or patterns depending on the lighting instruments used. It also represents an infinite or nondescript background if that is called for in the set design. The cyc may be either a drape hung on a continuous rod to allow the drape to be moved and arranged as needed, or it may be hung as a hard cyc with both the corner and the section meeting the floor curved to add to the infinite background.

Virtual Sets

Design of computer-generated or virtual sets is done completely within one or more computer programs intended for that purpose. The same amount of research and planning must also precede the actual computer design as is accomplished for a set constructed of physical materials. Many Hollywood reporting and some news sets now are virtual sets.

During preproduction, a designer first draws a rough layout sketch for each set. These preliminary drawings are extremely important preproduction elements. They provide a focus for discussions at preproduction meetings, facilitate the estimation of set construction costs, and serve as a preliminary guide for the actual construction of sets.

A fully scaled floor plan translates actual set dimensions into a proportional ¼-inch or other convenient scale on a piece of grid paper. The designer creates a bird’s-eye view of the proposed set in reduced dimensions that are proportional to the actual size of objects on the set. If a wall is to be 8 feet long, it will be 2 inches long on the scaled floor plan (eight ¼ inches = 2 inches). Using a fully scaled floor plan, a director can determine if there is sufficient room to move the cameras or talent from one position to another in the set. The lighting director uses a fully scaled floor plan to prepare the studio lighting. The final floor plan layout will include such things as scenery, set pieces such as furniture and props, and set dressings such as curtains. Skilled carpenters and painters translate the drawings into set materials that conform in every possible respect to the designer’s original intentions.

Set Construction

Flats are relatively lightweight rectangular boards that are braced and supported by 2 × 3 inch or 2 × 4 inch boards on the back so that they are quite sturdy and durable. Various devices are used to connect flats together: rope tied over pegs, fastened with metal hinges, or secured with C-clamps. Angle braces usually support flats to keep them upright. Risers are hollow rectangular boxes that can be placed on the floor to raise a portion of a set. Risers might be used in a news set, for example, to raise the news desk and seated performers to camera height. Permanent sets are sometimes constructed out of more durable materials. A set that is going to be used day after day, such as for an evening news program, may be permanently secured to the studio floor for added stability. Because set materials are rarely viewed from behind, carpenters can cut costs by finishing only one side of a set piece and using inexpensive support materials.

Properties

The designer of a more realistic set must also select the necessary furniture and dressings, which fill in the set with objects and materials that add interest, realism, or atmosphere. Props or properties are functional furnishings that are integrated into the program. Hand props are actually handled by performers, whereas set pieces are simply interesting, perhaps symbolic, details on the set. Hand props are often used for bits of stage business or action, such as a gun kept hidden from the view of other characters (Figure 7.26). With virtual sets, blue-screen, or chroma key sets, the placement of props is critical because the actual set and environment cannot be seen by the actors or stage crew except by viewing a monitor.

FIGURE 7.26 Hand props are objects decorating the set that are small enough to be picked up and used by the performers.

COSTUME DESIGN

Most television and film productions require costumes and clothing that are selected and designed specifically for one show. For the majority of such productions, the wardrobe person procures costumes from rental houses that specialize in supplying costumes to theater, film, and video productions. In some cases, clothing manufacturers that want to advertise their products will supply the clothing. Higher-budget productions employ costume designers who create original costumes.

In terms of texture, designers know that shiny, highly reflective materials appear much brighter than thick or coarsely textured materials. Bold plaids and stripes call too much attention to themselves. The designer of video costumes and sets should consciously avoid certain fabric shapes and designs because they cause problems during recording. For example, parallel lines that are quite close together, as in herringbone cloth, can cause a moiré effect on a video screen. A moiré effect is a distracting vibration of visual images caused by the interaction of close-set lines in the materials being recorded and the video scanning lines. In television, the color blue or green, when used for chroma key, is usually avoided in costumes and sets (Figure 7.27).

FIGURE 7.27 Costumes and settings are crucial in the staging of historical films, such as the Miramax Films production of Restoration with Robert Downey, Jr., and fellow actors wearing the traditional clothing of the 18th century. (Courtesy of Miramax Films.)

MAKEUP

Video and film performers’ makeup can be divided into two types: cosmetic and prosthetic. Cosmetic makeup enhances the appearance of performers by hiding imperfections, adding needed color, and accentuating their better features, and prosthetic makeup transforms the appearance of a performer’s face through temporary plastic surgery and other corrective means. Prosthetic makeup can add years to a performer’s appearance or entirely transform his or her physical appearance. Prosthetic makeup gives mobility to the expressive features of an actor and allows him or her some facial versatility in terms of playing many different roles. Prosthetic appliances can be used to make changes in the apparent age, race, nationality, and even sex of an actor. Prosthetic appliances are usually made of foam latex, which can be applied to the performer’s face and hands.

Cosmetic makeup enhances the beauty of a performer. It compensates for the height-ened awareness of imperfections caused by film and video recording equipment and weak features in a performer’s face. It also brings out the best features of a performer’s face. Cosmetic makeup hides reddish cheeks and noses, beard lines, freckles, and blemishes. Eyes and lips are the most important aspects of a female performer’s face. Makeup can hide or compensate for defects in these facial structures. If a female performer’s eyes are too close together, for example, eyeliner can be placed on the outside edges of her lids to make them look farther apart.

Male performers often require makeup to cover beard lines, although many newscasters shave just before they appear on the evening news to avoid whisker stubble. Bright shades of cheek and lip color are generally avoided with males to prevent the appearance of a heavily made-up look. A weak chin can be made more prominent with a subtle accentuation of jaw lines and cheek color. Female performers are usually less concerned or embarrassed about applying makeup than are men, but properly explaining the technical need for makeup can help to assuage the timidity of inexperienced performers.

It is possible to hide blemishes and create a consistent overall facial color and texture by simply applying a base or foundation makeup to a performer’s face. Gently rubbing with cold cream and numerous tissues will remove makeup. Remember that the purpose of cosmetic makeup is usually to enhance the appearance of a performer, not to call attention to itself unless, of course, a modernist approach is employed. The best way to check a performer’s makeup is to test it with a live video camera or a digital camera. If it does not hide blemishes and improve the appearance of the talent, it should be removed and redone. The performer should look natural, except in postmodernist, avant-garde works. Makeup for digital cameras is more critical than with analog as the digital system’s fine detail will show blemishes, wrinkles, or other skin faults more readily than with an analog camera.

Summary

Aesthetic lighting and design setups can be divided into three categories: realist, modernist, and postmodernist lighting. Realist lighting and settings attempt to recreate the presumed natural sources of lighting within a natural location. Key lights are used to maintain the consistent directional placement of the presumed central light source in a room, whereas fill lights reduce contrast to a normal or acceptable level. Lighting and settings can also be used in a modernist or stylized manner to achieve a particular atmospheric effect, psychological mood, or abstract design.

Light sources, such as the sun and incandescent, carbon arc, HMI, and fluorescent lamps, emit light of a specific color temperature. Daylight, carbon arc, and HMI light have higher color temperatures and a greater proportion of blue in comparison with red light than incandescent or tungsten light. Fluorescent light is discontinuous throughout the visible spectrum. Color film stocks must be selected and video cameras balanced for the color temperature of the primary light source if a normal color rendition is to be recorded.

Spotlights and floodlights are two different types of lighting instruments. Spotlights produce bright, narrow beams of light, and floodlights provide softer, more diffused lighting for wider areas. Lighting instruments can be secured to a variety of mounting devices, including overhead studio grids and lightweight portable light stands. Light-shaping devices, such as barn doors, scrims, flags, and cookies, help direct and control lighting and create shadow patterns.

Artificial lighting consumes significant amounts of electricity. Load limits for specific electrical circuits must be carefully observed to avoid dangerous overloading.

Light meters measure light intensity. An incident light meter reading measures the intensity of the light falling on a scene, whereas a reflected reading measures the intensity of the light reflected by objects in the scene. These readings help to determine image contrast, as well as the proper exposure level. Lighting ratios can be determined by using incident light meter readings to compare specific lights in terms of their intensity. Contrast ratios in a scene affect visual aesthetics and techniques such as low-key and high-key lighting.

Three-point and four-point lighting methods consist of a triangular or rectangular arrangement of three types of light: key light, fill light, and separation light. Basic three- or four-point lighting in television and film production is complicated by the movement of subjects and cameras, which gives a dynamic, constantly changing character to a lighting situation. Multiple key lights can be used to maintain consistent light levels as a subject moves through a scene.

A lighting setup should be carefully planned to avoid problems on the set, such as blocking difficulties, unbalanced light intensities, and microphone-boom shadows. A lighting plot, which presents an overhead view of the studio floor or actual location drawn to scale, can help a lighting director to organize and plan a lighting setup.

Low-key lighting refers to a relatively high key-to-fill light ratio that creates pools of bright light surrounded by dark shadow areas. It is frequently used to effect an atmosphere suitable for horror and gangster films and television programs, although it can be an effective dramatic device in many productions. High-key lighting, which has a low key-to-fill light ratio, presents few shadows and is frequently used in comedies and musicals.

Lighting for digital cameras requires greater care and control than lighting for analog cameras. The higher resolution of digital cameras (depending on their scan and line rate) reveals details in a picture that normally are not visible or obvious in an analog signal. For that reason greater care is needed to light well-balanced scenes with light falling only where it is necessary or important.

Scenic design involves three basic design principles: design elements, color, and composition. Design elements include lines, shapes, textures, and movement. Color and contrast are interrelated aspects of design, as are color and shape. Contrasting colors can be used to separate foregrounds and backgrounds and to create various shapes, and they can be used to define specific characters, settings, and themes.

Sets, set furnishings, props, costumes, and performer makeup are not completely independent elements in the production process. Elements of scenic design interact within each other and many other areas of production to create an overall visual impression. The most important interactions are those between scenic design and each of the following: lighting, performer movement, and camera and microphone placement. Sets are usually designed to facilitate the placement and movement of the cameras and microphones, as well as the talent.

Sets are designed to provide an environment for a production. The setting and properties must be practical and utilitarian for both the performers to be able to move and interact and for the director to be able to place cameras and microphones where they are needed. Makeup is used to hide blemishes and create imaginative characters.

EXERCISES

Additional Readings

Alton, John, 1995. Painting with Light, University of California Press, Berkeley.

Baker, Georgia O’Daniel, 2000. A Handbook of Costume Drawing, second ed. Focal Press, Boston.

Barsacq, Leon, 1978. Caligari’s Cabinet and Other Grand Illusions: A History of Film Design, The New American Library, New York.

Bellantoni, Patti, 2005. If It’s Purple, Someone’s Gonna Die: The Power of Color in Visual Storytelling, Focal Press, Boston.

Bermingham, Alan, 2003. Location Lighting for Television, second ed. Focal Press, Boston.

Box, Harry, 1999. Gaffers Handbook, Focal Press, Boston.

Box, Harry, 2003. Set Lighting Technicians Handbook, third ed. Focal Press, Boston.

Burum, Stephen, ed. 2007. American Cinematographer Manual, ninth ed. The ASC Press, Hollywood, CA.

Davis, Gretchen, Hall, Mindy, 2008. The Makeup Artist Handbook: Techniques for Film, Television, Photography, and Theatre, Focal Press, Boston.

Essig, Linda, 1997. Lighting and the Design Idea, Harcourt Brace, New York.

Fitt, Brian, Thornley, Joe, 2001. Lighting Technology: A Guide for the Entertainment Industry, second ed. Focal Press, Boston.

George-Pallilonis, Jennifer, 2006. A Practical Guide to Graphics Reporting: Information Graphics for Print, Web, and Broadcast, Focal Press, Boston.

Gloman, Chuck, LeTourneau, Tom, 2005. Placing Shadows: Lighting Techniques for Video Production, third ed. Focal Press, Boston.

Grotticelli, Michael, ed. 2001. American Cinematographer Video Manual, third ed. The ASC Press, Hollywood, CA.

Huaixiang, Tan, 2007. Costume Craftwork on a Budget: Clothing, 3-D Makeup, Wigs, Millinery & Accessories, Focal Press, Boston.

Jackman, John, 2002. Lighting for Digital Video and Television, CMP Books, San Francisco.

Lester, Paul Martin, 2000. Visual Communication: Images with Messages, Wadsworth, Belmont, CA.

Musgrove, Jan, 2002. Makeup, Hair, and Costume for Film and Television, Focal Press, Boston.

Rizzo, Michael, 2005. The Art Direction Handbook for Film, Focal Press, Boston.

Uva, Michael, 2006. The Grip Book, third ed. Focal Press, Boston.

Uva, Michael, Uva, Sabrina, 2000. Uva’s Rigging Guide for Studio and Location, Focal Press, Boston.

Viera, Dave, Viera, Maria, 2005. Lighting for Film and Digital Cinematography, second ed. Wadsworth, Belmont, CA.

Williams, Robin, 2003. The Non-Designer’s Design Book, second ed. Peachpit Press, Berkeley, CA.