Chapter Ten. Case Studies: The Global Power of the Upper Right
In this chapter, we present additional case studies of products and companies that have successfully moved to the Upper Right. This time, however, they are case studies from or about companies across the globe. We include case studies from three of the BRIC countries, highlighting their emerging impact on the marketplace through breakthrough innovation. One of those examples is a global project in which U.S. designers worked in India through a nonprofit to fulfill one of the goals of Victor Papanek’s book from the 1970s, Design for the Real World, focused on designing for the bottom of the economic pyramid. We also cite Singapore as a country that runs as if it is an integrated innovative company. This chapter supports the ideas of Thomas Friedman’s concept of a flat world where innovation is a globally decentralized ability, and it can come from any country, company, or individual. New hybrid models of innovation are emerging around the world. They are challenging and broadening the traditional G7-based global economy.
The BRIC Countries
In 2001, Jim O’Neil, Chief Economist for Goldman Sachs, first conceived of the term BRIC nations. He was the first to see Brazil, Russia, India, and China as an economic block and predicted that they would become four pillars of the global economy by 2039. Goldman Sachs soon adopted the concept after O’Neil published an internal paper Building Better Global Economic BRICs.1 Since then, the term has gained global acceptance, and the economies of these four countries continue to grow and influence the global economy and their own growth in the way that O’Neil predicted. In a 2010 article for Financial Times,2 Gillian Tett wrote that O’Neil saw the similarity in the economies of Brazil, Russia, India, and China. These emerging economies would become a new global force that would change the balance of global economic power in the twenty-first century. All four had large populations, emerging economies, government support for sustained growth, and the interest and ability to interact on a global scale.
Case studies in this chapter reflect the innovation and growth of BRIC countries: Embraer and Positivo from Brazil, Haier in China, and Design Impact, a nonprofit with an initial focus in India. We have also written about Be Green, a company that started in the United States but codeveloped its core material and manufacturing with China. Finally, beyond the BRIC countries, we have written about Singapore, a country with a national initiative in design and innovation.
Brazil: Innovation and Growth in South America
For the last two decades of the twentieth century, Brazil was an unstable country with a volatile economy. A constant flow of articles and news focused on how Brazil was destroying the rainforests. This destruction was viewed as having a global environmental impact and locally destroying the habitat of both its indigenous people and a number of endangered species. That view of Brazil changed dramatically when Curitiba became known as one of the most environmentally responsible cities in the world. The redesign of Curitiba started in the 1970s. By 1990, under a plan started by Jaime Lerner, the city’s mayor, the city had become so successful that it was given the United Nations’ highest environmental award. The concept developed by Lerner relied on the citizens of the city to participate while given imaginative but low-cost incentives. Curitiba started the shift in the perception of the Brazilian economy and innovation capability. After almost four decades of investing in an ethanol-based fuel economy, Brazil ranks second to the U.S. but has more effectively integrated ethanol into the fuel infrastructure of Brazil. The country has designed flexible-fueled vehicles that can run on a combination of ethanol and gas. What is common to both Embraer and GrupoPositivo is their integration of technology, market strategy, design, and commitment to ethics.
Embraer: Growing One of the World’s Largest Airline Manufacturers in Brazil
In the 1990s, under the Collor and Franco governments, privatization increased dramatically. One of the resulting companies was Empressa Braasileira Aeronautica, now known as Embraer. Since then, Embraer has become the fourth-largest manufacturer of aircraft in the world. The company started producing military and agricultural aircraft in 1969. When the company privatized, it shifted its focus to executive and small aircraft for 120 and fewer passengers. Embraer read the SET Factors. The company was not going to compete with Boeing, Airbus, and Bombardier manufacturing large airliners. Embraer also anticipated correctly that regional routes would grow in several parts of the world, requiring smaller, more fuel-efficient aircraft to create more effective use by having fuller aircraft for each flight.
As a company in a BRIC nation, Embraer had the ability to build on its heritage as a government-owned aircraft company focused on military and agricultural aircraft and the emerging aircraft market in Brazil, and then move into international competition. Its two best jets are the EMB-110 Bandeirante, for 19 passengers, and more recently, the EMB-120 Brasilia, for 30 passengers.
Embraer’s technical advantage came in the development of subsystems for quality manufacture and its CAD integration throughout manufacturing. The company developed a human resources system that provided a sufficient level of pay and work environment to attract high-quality labor. It also developed a strategy to leverage a government-supported research center and develop appropriate market strategies to compete in global markets.
Embraer understood the need to push the value component based on style (see Figure 10.1). In 2010, Embraer partnered with BMW Designworks USA to design the interior of the Embraer 100 and 300 Phenom executive jets.3 The design has focused on all aspects of the interior and brought sophisticated detailed interior design to the cockpit as well as the passenger area. The steering controls have been elegantly redesigned with an appropriate blend of style and ergonomics. The control panels have been redesigned to reduce visual clutter and deliver an overall design layout with a composition that focuses on the appropriate hierarchy of controls. This design approach has since extended to the design of Embraer’s commercial regional jets.
Figure 10.1. Sketch of Embraer plane.
Positivo: Creating a Multinational Computer Manufacturer in Brazil
It is not surprising that the most successful computer company in Brazil can trace its origin to an innovative education program that started in Curitiba in the 1970s. This small business that evolved into GrupoPositivo has three main areas: education, publishing and graphics, and information technology. The company has grown from a single-classroom cottage industry for college prep tutorials in 1972 to a company with more than 3,000 employees. The company is the largest seller of computers in Brazil, and its own laptop is the number one seller in Brazil. Just as Apple has learned to work from the consumer, to the interface, to the product, Positivo has used an education-centric approach to develop its products.
The company built its computer products as an extension of its education content and software, and now sells more than one million units per year. It sells all types of computers but designed them to be economically accessible. Positivo was a pioneer of the “family PC” concept and plans to deliver computer systems to low economic families with incomes of only about $270 per month. “Each part of the family, they are a part of the computer,” stated CEO Helio Rotenberg. “There are a lot of families that have the desire to buy their first computer, and now they can.”4
In 2011, the company introduced the Positivo Ypy, the first tablet developed exclusively for Brazilian consumers, including digital content in Portuguese. Positivo also began selling their computers in Argentina and captured market leadership there within a few months.5 During the last 17 years, Positivo has consistently read the SET Factors to meet the needs of the emerging market in computers, software, and IT for education, corporate, and small and medium businesses.
China: Haier, The First Major Chinese Global Brand
If you look at the list of appliances available in Frank Gehry’s new skyscraper, New York by Gehry, at 8 Spruce Street, Haier appliances are listed alongside Sub Zero, Bosch, and GE products. In 2008, the Haier refrigerator won a Red Dot award, with a specific callout for the U-home interface embedded in the door.6 These two benchmarks were the result of more than two decades of work by Haier Group. When Zhang Ruimin became CEO in 1984, he started to slowly build Haier into the global leader it is today. He focused on quality and avoided just being the cheapest in the market. Within 30 years, Haier has gone from the brink of bankruptcy to one of the strongest brands in world. In 2004, a Fast Company article about Chinese companies stated, “Haier Group, China’s poster company with strong management and a modern U.S. factory, is the only company close to global scale—but its revenues are just $9 billion.”7 Haier also became the top refrigerator manufacturer in the world that year.
In March 2003, BusinessWeek Beijing Bureau Chief Dexter Roberts conducted an interview with Zhang. Zhang discussed why he wanted to compete in established markets in Europe and the U.S. He stated that the challenge for Haier was to meet the standards of these markets and to find ways to compete and differentiate. Just selling products in emerging markets was easier, but this forced the company to improve to compete. When asked about the company’s advertising strategy, Zhang stated that Haier was committed to innovation through design differentiation based on consumer insight. He felt that advertising came second: “If you do not have innovative products, the best ad agency won’t help you.”8
Haier’s initial Product Opportunity Gap in the U.S. was focused on refrigerators for students living in college dormitory rooms. Zhang stated that the company saw this as a market where Haier could compete and win, to establish a foothold in the U.S. market. The company quickly became number one in the college market, thanks to their design and pricing. Haier has been consistently pointed to as one of the few original brands to come from China and compete and expand as a global competitor. We often talk about U.S. firms attempting to gain market share in China. Haier is the first Chinese company to enter the U.S. with a clear brand strategy. For example Haier reached 60% market share for wine coolers in the U.S. when they introduced free-standing models to respond to the need for coolers in living and dining rooms, not just built-ins for wine cellars.
Haier started to export its small refrigerators to the U.S. in the 1990s. The company made a strategic decision to increase sales and breadth of product offerings in the U.S. when it built a state-of-the-art manufacturing facility in Camden, South Carolina. The facility began operation in 2000 and was the first plant built in the U.S. by a China-based company. Zhang stated in the 2003 BusinessWeek interview that manufacturing in the U.S. forced Haier to meet the demanding U.S. standards, and this knowledge transferred back to all of Haier’s manufacturing facilities. The company has taken an approach similar to that of Sony, Toyota, Panasonic, and Honda, when Japanese companies started competing by being the cheapest. Now all of these companies have strategically built their brand from low end to premium, and have gained significant brand loyalty. Then Toyota moved into the luxury brand with Lexus, and also produced the first popular hybrid, the Prius, as well as the small car brand Scion. LG used to sell products under the name Lucky Goldstar, with its products all competing on price. When the company shifted from Lower Left to Upper Right consumer focused, it rebranded using LG. Haier has now achieved what Japan and Korea have been able to with products featured through the success of the Gehry building and Red Dot. Zhang has always felt that Haier can compete by being the fastest to react to opportunities in the market, turning insights into products faster than the competition: “[T]he positioning strategy of Haier cannot simply be defined as aiming at the medium, low, or high end of a market. Our strategy is to satisfy our consumers as quickly as possible.”9
The recent news for Haier is focused back in Asia. Haier purchased the Sanyo white goods division from Panasonic in 2011. Haier will move its Asian headquarters and R&D unit to Japan. This purchase is also the first time a Chinese corporation has purchased major business units from a Japanese company. This business decision gives China access to the highly protected Japanese market and allows Haier to sell under the names Haier, Aqua, and Sanyo throughout Asia. It continues to give evidence to the potential power of the BRIC nations’ potential impact on the global economy.
Two products are important to discuss as case studies: the Aqua washing machine and the Haier refrigerator sold under the Casarte brand. In May, 2012, Haier announced a new Aqua washing machine design that emulates the traditional hand washboard scrub board. The design contains a plastic molded component that resembles an updated version of the traditional wooden scrub board used in hand-washing clothes (see Figure 10.2). This design is an attempt to connect traditional methods with new technology. Most of Asia is experiencing a rapid transition from an agricultural economy to a manufacturing, then service, and next information economy. Traditional approaches to household responsibilities have been achieved through hand methods using centuries’ old products. The product opportunity was in perceiving the need to create a product that connected traditional methods to contemporary appliances.
Figure 10.2. The wooden scrub board and inspired blade from the Aqua washing machine by Haier on the left and the Aqua machine on the right.
(With permission of Haier)
The Casarte Brand is a hybrid name connecting home (Casa) and art (arte) to create an Italian-inspired brand. The three-door refrigerator/freezer design (see Figure 10.3) combines high-end exterior styling with an elegant inside and open design. Haier used new manufacturing methods and quality with an interactive RFID screen that connects to other products and the Internet through its U-Home system. The result is a high-value product that addresses many of the value opportunities around emotion, aesthetics, ergonomics, personality, and quality (see Figure 10.4). The Red Dot Web site observes the following in describing the positive attributes that won the award for the Refrigerator:
Figure 10.3. The Casarte refrigerator/freezer, by Haier.
(With permission of Haier)
Figure 10.4. Product details of Haier U-Home (Casarte) refrigerator-freezer, with product details integrating style and technology.
“The independent design concept of this fridge-freezer emphasizes the high functionality of the innovative appliance. ... Only a display, positioned at eye level, indicates the additional value of use: this combination of devices uses the innovative RFID technology, which identifies the stored food and registers the corresponding data. In combination with an internet platform, the user is also able to request online data such as recipes or nutritional analyses. ... [For] the manufacturing process, an especially developed method was applied for this refrigerator, which is also responsible for the strikingly high-grade design of the interior.”10
In China’s Design Revolution, Lorraine Justice makes clear that changes in China and their approach to product development have the potential to make China a major player in new product innovation.11 Haier is an example of what is possible. In the last two decades, Haier has emerged to become one of the most successful manufacturers of appliances in the world. It has moved from a Lower Left company to the Upper Right. Haier has moved up the experience economy ladder, from commodity to differentiation, through experience. The company is partnering effectively through open innovation and acquisition. Haier is reading the SET Factors and making adjustments for every market it chooses to compete in. The company is a benchmark for all Chinese consumer product companies as the country begins its evolution from a supplier to an originator of competitive products, with strategies to compete globally on value, not just price. If you watch any sport show on TV, you are likely to see a Haier commercial. Its tag line is, “you can go Haier (higher)” playing on the pronunciation of the name and the good luck of having a name that has a perfect English homonym. Given the consistent global expansion of the company, it will be interesting to see just how high Haier can go and how soon other companies will follow its lead.
India: Design Impact and Social Responsibility in India
During the second half of the twentieth century, the husband-and-wife team of Charles and Ray Eames were seen as design leaders in a post–World War II economy focused on their furniture, exhibit designs, and films. They were responsible for helping Herman Miller develop the modern design strategy that made them a global leader for high-end furniture in the home and the business environment. They were early proponents of integrating engineering, experimenting with materials, and understanding consumers and how they worked in the office environment. Their films for IBM and Polaroid helped to convey how these companies’ breakthrough products interpreted the SET Factors. In 1972, Victor Papanek wrote Design for the Real World: Human Ecology and Social Change, making the argument that designers were designing for the top 10% of the world’s population and neglecting the 90% who needed it.12 His work was the first step in what has become known as socially responsible design. McDonough and Braungart brought this further into consciousness by writing Cradle to Cradle.13 Kate Hansian and Ramsey Ford have conceived and built Design Impact14 in the tradition of the aforementioned innovators. After their initial work in India helping to codesign a new method for producing more efficient cooking fuel, they started their second phase. Design Impact now has an educational service whose goal is to attract and educate design interns to work in underdeveloped countries emulating the process they developed.
Hansian and Ford are a complementary team that started their nonprofit company with support from Kaleidoscope, a product design firm, and its CEO, Matt Kornau. Hansian had experience in running a nonprofit, and Ford is an industrial designer who wanted to both start his own company and focus on addressing a global need in an underserved emerging economy, a vision that Hansian shared.
Hansian and Ford decided to start their work in India and chose to work with the Organisation of Development Action and Maintenance (ODAM), based in Tiruchuli, Tamil Nadu. ODAM became the interface and support Design Impact needed in India to find an appropriate context and opportunity to start its first project: food preparation. Women spend significant amounts of time cooking over an open flame. The fuel they used was usually a combination of wood and kerosene, an inefficient and unhealthy resource that produced noxious fumes.
In the area where Design Impact initiated its services, the major economic activity is producing charcoal from trees. However, a considerable amount of charcoal turns into waste during the production process. ODAM decided that it could reuse this waste and combine it with readily available clay soil, pressed into a brick-shape charcoal for domestic cooking. Not only would this process create jobs for villagers, but the briquette could replace the firewood used in homes and could significantly improve the health of the community by reducing indoor air pollution. Thus, ODAM began to develop a press machine, although it did not know how to make this economically viable and was not sure how to convince users to adopt this new product. In this phase, Design Impact came to play. Hansian and Ford not only helped ODAM to develop a new press machine, but they also helped identify the target markets and assisted in delivering the product to those markets. In the beginning, ODAM was looking at only the rural market around the organization. But people in those areas had access to readily available and free wood and did not want to pay extra for charcoal. Design Impact helped shift the target group to urban areas, where people were actually paying for their fuel (see Figure 10.5). The resulting product prevents respiratory illness, appeals to users, and raises the standard of living for those who produce it.
Figure 10.5. Charcoal briquettes made locally in India with the Design Impact briquette maker.
(With permission of Design Impact)
Be Green Packaging: The World Is Flat Meets Cradle to Cradle in Connect+Develop
Be Green is a success story that merges the best ideas in Friedman’s The World Is Flat15 with McDonough and Braungart’s Cradle to Cradle. In two years, the “glocal” company has gone from a small start-up to a successful multinational company and is the first packaging company to get Cradle to Cradle Silver Certification. Its first breakthrough package was made for Genji, Inc., selling sushi in Whole Foods. In 2011, the company won an award for best P&G Connect+Develop (open source) partner from Jeff Weedman, vice president of P&G Global Business Development, when it reduced the plastic in the Gillette Razor package by more than 70%.
Be Green’s eco-social commitment is at the core of its mission, as stated clearly on its Web site:
“Be Green Packaging is a triple bottom line company dedicated to people, planet and profit. This philosophy is embedded in our mission, our goals and in how we measure our success. At Be Green Packaging, we strive to uphold the highest green standards to ensure product quality and performance. We also consider it a priority to maintain a beneficial presence in our local and global communities. We believe our Eco-Social commitments set us apart from our competition and help build a strong foundation for our relationships with our customers, our employees and the community at large.”16
The raw material was originally sourced from China and is a rapidly renewable fiber that does not require chemical treatment or color additives. The company helped to create a fair trade relationship with the source city in China, increasing the quality of life there. Be Green is also building a manufacturing plant in South Carolina, where it will harvest and process renewable saw grass.
The Value Opportunity for this company is as significant a breakthrough as OXO GoodGrips was for universal/inclusive design. The beige color of the basic package (see Figure 10.6) has shifted inexpensive packaging from white Styrofoam with the eco challenge it presents, to a new ecoaesthetic, with the sensual feel of the material complementing the color. The social impact of the work with China and the environmental impact is significant. As the company continues to develop, it becomes able to make more complex shapes. The growth potential for the company is now endless. One challenge that will be coming is competitive companies who want to get into this area. It will be interesting to see how Be Green’s IP will work in defending infringement. On the positive side, its breakthrough should trigger innovation in package recycling in new ways by emerging competitors who will seek to draft off Be Green’s success. This case study is similar to OXO, who has both sued competitors and also opened the category of kitchen tools to endless types of innovation that are unique, not to mention the explosion of the use of neoprene. Although neoprene is not as environmentally friendly as the materials in Be Green, the potential for extending the core products is just as strong.
Figure 10.6. Be Green sustainable packaging.
(Courtesy of Be Green)
William McDonough often makes the statement that the concept of “away” is no longer valid—it never was. We cannot throw things away in a finite world and atmosphere. Packaging of all types is one of the major offenders of this perception. Several vortexes have formed in the oceans, are collecting the output of our global consumer society, and much of it is from packaging. The approach taken by Be Green begins to make a positive impact in this seemingly inexorable trend of environmental irresponsibility.
DesignSingapore Council: The Third Component from the Little Country That Can
Singapore is committed to transforming its culture from a service economy to an innovation leader in Asia. Singapore is the opposite of a BRIC country; its small size, history of success, and government allows it to make changes faster than larger nations with more natural resources and larger populations. After receiving independence from Malaysia in 1965, Singapore went through a rapid modernization program to become one of the best service manufacturers, banking areas, and shipping ports in Asia. With the growth of the BRIC nations in 2000 and other emerging economies in Asia, the focus on low-end service manufacturing was no longer viable. Using its resources, the government formed the Economic Development Board (EDB) as a front-end structure to grow the economy internally and spur foreign corporations to establish their Asian base in Singapore. The government, education, and business are all strategically integrated to make the small country an innovation culture that both attracts and builds multinational companies. The country is changing its K–12 education structure. It built a new innovation-based pretertiary (middle and high school level) School of the Arts (SOTA). It has a new Singapore University of Technology and Design, developed collaboratively with MIT, which integrates the concept of design and innovation through research and engineering in the university.
The DesignSingapore Council, founded in 2003, is a significant component driving the shift from supplier economy to an innovation culture. The mission of the council is to develop Singapore into a global city for design where design innovation drives economic growth and enhances the quality of life. The Council promotes and develops the design industries as a creative cluster, encourages the adoption of design by enterprises, and nurtures a climate of co-creation and innovation through design. It is also using design to help its successful medium-size companies become multinational million-dollar-plus corporations. Singapore could be described as Singapore, Inc., and it is now strategically growing on three core strengths. It has a strong economic and business culture that has grown out of its service history and banking base. It has a strong commitment to technology and R&D, evolving from its history of manufacturing, the growth of research universities, and a traditional structure of polytechnics providing practical education programs. The country is essentially an interdisciplinary corporation.
The DesignSingapore Council, the national agency for design in Singapore, supports design, provides innovation education for companies, and communicates examples of successful design through its publications and Web site. In our conversation with Jeffrey Ho, Executive Director of the DesignSingapore Council, Mr. Ho cited Khoo Teck Puat Hospital (KTPH) as an example of a public hospital that has adopted design innovation effectively. Design has been used in a variety of ways to develop a new approach to health care for Singapore citizens. Singapore wants to be seen as a leader in health care in Asia. It has a significant aging population that it describes as 60-plus—because everyone retires at age 62.
Khoo Teck Puat Hospital is part of the Ministry of Health’s ambitious effort to upgrade all public hospitals and create new facilities to meet increasing health care needs. Opened in June, 2010, KTPH (see Figure 10.7) is the beginning of an integrated health care hub in the north of Singapore. Designed as both “a hospital in a garden” and “a garden in a hospital,” KTPH challenges the stereotypical view of health care environments. Roof gardens and a community garden are tended by residents living in the area. Wards were deliberately placed at the breeziest sections of the site, for optimal natural ventilation, and the hospital faces an adjacent pond to draw in the surrounding nature. The building’s scale and height were designed to integrate into the local neighborhood. Public spaces within the hospital provide a welcoming and inclusive environment for the community.
Figure 10.7. Singapore Khoo Teck Puat Hospital (KTPH).
(Courtesy of DesignSingapore Council)
A multidisciplinary innovation team is in place within KTPH, with a mix of clinicians and designers to coordinate further innovation efforts within the organization. KTPH seeks to craft human wellness through design. As one example, the hospital was designed around a simple but effective way-finding approach that ensures direct lines-of-sight from the point of entry to key visitor destinations, making the building easy to understand and move through.
Beyond physical spaces, KTPH has used design to improve its quality of health care delivery and enhance the experiences of patients, again using integrated teams led by doctors who would coordinate with the required specialists. KTPH is also incorporating state-of-the-art technology to enable health care to be delivered off-site through the use of telehealth equipment, increasing the amount of time that doctors can spend with patients without requiring them to travel to the hospital. Design of patient care flow management includes coordination and communication between doctors, pharmacists, and even housekeeping staff so that, after discharge, the rooms can be cleaned and turned around quickly to reduce bottlenecks. In addition, patient flow through the Accident and Emergency department is addressed by prioritizing patients’ conditions and sending those with less critical needs to other more appropriate clinics. Bottlenecks are again reduced, allowing more attention and care to be focused on patients who require immediate attention. To manage the patient’s expectations during waiting time in the Accident and Emergency department, empathetic touch points (such as blankets and fruits) are provided to patients, and patients are updated regularly on anticipated wait times to help manage their expectations. Within the hospital, deliberate decisions were made to co-locate related clinics; for example, the geriatric, eye, and diabetes clinics are close to one another so that an elderly patient going for a regular check-up at the geriatric clinic or having his diabetic condition monitored can be referred by the attending doctor to have his eyes checked at the clinic next door.
Finally, KTPH promotes a healthy lifestyle to staff, patients, and the public, with interactive and informative installations in public spaces that engage visitors and patients, such as a means to measure body mass index to motivate overweight people to take steps toward reducing their weight. Another example includes promoting independent living for the elderly within their own homes. The Geriatrics Department established Able Studio to inspire solutions for facilitating everyday living for the elderly. Ideas for improving independence are collected from the public, patients, and staff on a regular basis, and the studio implements the best ideas, to demonstrate how design and creativity can be applied to improve the quality of life for the elderly.
Summary Points
• Breakthrough innovation is rapidly occurring across the globe, redefining the emergence of innovation.
• The BRIC countries are taking an organized approach to create economically viable, socially relevant, and system level approaches to innovation.
• The BRIC countries are fulfilling their projected potential set forth by O’Neil through innovation of new products.
• While BRIC counties are capable of global distribution, their own domestic markets are also growing.
References
1. Goldman Sachs Global Economics Paper No. 66, 30 November 2001.
2. G. Tett, “The Story of the Brics,” Financial Times (15 January 2010).
3. www.autoblog.com/photos/embraer-bmw-phenom/#photo-2907330/
5. Ibid.
6. www.haier.net/en/research_development/rd_System/product/
7. T. Hout and J. Hemerling, “China’s Next Great Thing,” Fast Company (March 1, 2004).
8. www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/03_13/b3826123_mz033.htm
9. Ibid.
11. L. Justice, China’s Design Revolution (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2012).
12. V. J. Papanek, Design for the Real World: Human Ecology and Social Change, New York: Pantheom Books, 1972
13. W. McDonough and M. Braungart, Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things, New York: North Point Press, 2002.
14. For more information, see www.d-impact.org.
15. T. L. Friedman, The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century, New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005