CHAPTER 3
Organizing the Production

 

 

It’s about people, not hardware.

—Vincenzo Natali, Director

In dramatic productions, a director has to pour it on six days a week and twelve hours a day.

—Steven Spielberg

A lot of what is covered in this chapter is obvious—so obvious that many production people overlook these essentials in their initial enthusiasm—and their product is less effective.

3.1 ART CONCEALS CRAFT

When watching a show on television, our thoughts normally center on the program material: the story line, the message, and the argument. We become interested in what people are saying, what they are doing, what they look like, and where they are. Unless we start to get bored or the technology becomes obtrusive, we are unlikely to concern ourselves with how the production is actually made.

We believe what we see. We respond to techniques but remain unaware of them unless they happen to distract us. We even accept the drama of the hero dying of thirst in the desert without wondering why the director, camera, and sound crew do not help him.

All this is fne until you begin to make programs yourself. You soon realize the gulf between watching and enjoying from the audience’s point of view, and creating the illusion by the way the equipment is used (Figure 3.1).

FIGURE 3.1
Beginning directors often fnd that the illusion of reality is much more diffcult to create than they frst imagined.

3.2 SHOT SELECTION

You cannot just point a camera at a scene and expect it to convey all the information and atmosphere that the on-the-spot observer would experience.

A camera is inherently selective. It can only show certain limited aspects of a situation at any given time. If, for instance, you provide a wide shot of the entire feld at a ball game, the audience will have an excellent view of the movement patterns of teamwork, but the viewers will be unable to see for themselves who individuals are or to watch exactly how they are playing the game. A close-up shot gives details, even shows how a player is reacting to a foul, but prevents the audience from seeing the overall action at that time (Figure 3.2).

FIGURE 3.2
Shot selection at a baseball game determines whether you are showing the teamwork with a long shot or the emotions with an extreme close-up shot.

3.3 THE PROBLEM OF FAMILIARITY

There is an essential difference between the way any director looks at the program and how the audience reacts. That is not surprising when you stop to think about it. The director is completely familiar with the production and the circumstances in which it has been prepared. For example, let’s say that the program is showing us a collection of priceless objects in a museum. There can be signifcant differences between the critical reactions of an enthusiastic viewer seeing the program for the frst time and the director’s own reactions:

From the audience’s point of view. “there were some unusual items in the display case, but the camera continued past them. Why didn’t we have a closer look at the decorated plate so that we could read the inscriptions? there seems to be elaborate ornamentation on the other side of this vase. But we don’t see it. Why isn’t it shown? why aren’t we looking at all the interesting things there in the background?”

The director could no doubt have explained. “the camera picked out the most important details for the topic we were discussing. There isn’t time to cover everything. When shooting the vase, this was the best viewpoint we could manage. The voiceover read the inscription to us. Nearby display cases prevented a better camera position. The museum was about to close, and we were scheduled to be elsewhere the next day.”

This imaginary discourse reminds us of several important points. First, there are many ways of interpreting any situation. A good director will give the subject a great deal of thought before shooting and will rationalize how best to tackle the shoot. But most productions are a matter of compromise between aesthetics and mechanics, between “what we would like to do” and “what we are able to do.” Quite often, the obvious thing to do is quite impractical for some reason (it is too costly, there is insuffcient time, it requires equipment beyond what is available, it is too elaborate, the light is failing, etc.). In the real world, you will discover great on-the-spot opportunities that you did not anticipate. But you shall also encounter frustrating disappointments that will require you to rethink your original plans.

Directors spend a considerable amount of time on a project and become very familiar with each facet of the production as well as the locations. Members of the audience, on the other hand, are continually fnding out what the program is about; they are interpreting each shot as they see it, often with only a moment or two to respond to whatever catches their attention.

The director was not only there at the shoot but has probably seen each shot on the screen many times: when reviewing the takes, during postproduction sessions, and when assessing the fnal program. He or she knows what material was available and what was cut. The audience members are seeing and hearing everything for the frst and probably the only time. They do not know what might have been. They cannot assess opportunities missed. For them, everything is a fresh impression.

The audience only sees as much of a situation as the camera reveals, quite unaware of things that are just a short distance outside the lens’s feld of view—unless something happens to move into the shot, or the camera’s viewpoint changes, or there is a revealing if unexplained noise from somewhere out of shot (Figures 3.3 and 3.4). When the camera presents us with impressive shots of a world-famous scene, it may carefully avoid including crowding tourists, stalls selling souvenirs, or a waiting coach. A carefully angled shot of a scene can produce a powerful effect on screen but a disappointing reaction when one stands on the specifc spot and sees its true scale and its surroundings.

FIGURE 3.3
Overfamiliarity: The director knows how interesting the location is, but is it revealed to the audience? The director has to decide whether to show the context of the shot or a close-up. Directors have to determine which shot best communicates the story.
(Photo by Josh Taber.)

At times, the director is at a disadvantage. Because the director is familiar with every moment of the production, it is not possible for the director or the production team to judge with a fresh eye. It might seem to the director that a specifc point is so obvious that only a very brief “reminder” shot is needed at the moment. He or she may decide to leave it out altogether. But for viewers who are watching the scene for the frst time, this omission could prove puzzling. They may even misunderstand what is going on as a result.

To simplify the mechanics of production, scenes are often shot in the most convenient order, irrespective of where they come in the fnal script. This will all be sorted out during the editing process. While this arrangement can be a practical solution when shooting, it does have its drawbacks. Not only does shooting out of sequence create continuity problems, but it can make it diffcult for the director to judge the subtleties of timing, tempo, and pace that the viewer will experience when looking at the fnal program (Figure 3.5).

FIGURE 3.4
The audience only sees as much of a situation as the camera reveals. Note the large screen behind the talent showing what the camera is actually getting.

FIGURE 3.5
Shooting scenes out of sequence can create continuity, timing, and pace diffculties.

Show an intense close-up of an odd detail of your subject without revealing the complete subject and it can leave the audience puzzled, even though the director knows that the shot obviously comes from that subject over there. The opposite situation also occurs, when a director holds a shot for some time so that the audience can assimilate all the information in it, when in fact they have lost interest in the subject and their minds have wandered onto other things.

3.4 THE PROBLEM OF QUALITY

When shooting pictures for pleasure, you can be philosophical if the odd shot happens to be slightly defocused, or lopsided, or cuts off part of the subject. It is a pity, but it doesn’t really matter much. You can still enjoy the results. But when you are making a program for other people, any defects of this kind are unacceptable. They will give a production the reputation of carelessness, amateurishness, and incompetence so that it loses its appeal and authority. Faulty camerawork and poor techniques will not only distract your audience, but they can turn even a serious, well-thought-out production into a complete disaster.

3.5 THE PROBLEM OF “BIGGER AND BETTER”

How you tackle any program is directly infuenced by your resources (equipment, fnance, crew and their experience, etc.), time, conditions, standards, intended market, and so on. While there is no one correct way to handle any subject, there are a number of bad methods.

Suppose you want to discuss the problems of growing a specifc crop. You could make an impressive program using special computer graphics, an expert walking through the crops speaking of problems, aerial views of the felds, and time-lapse demonstrations. However, this treatment could be expensive and time consuming.

Alternatively, you could use a simpler approach. The camera could explore a typical feld and show the program title fnger-traced in the earth. It could look at typical crop features, with close-ups of specimens. A commentary could provide an explanatory voiceover to pictures. If any additional sounds are required, they could be the natural ones, such as wind, birds, or tractors, recorded as a wild track at the site.

“Bigger is better” does not necessarily translate into a better production. Sometimes it distracts viewers from the real subject itself and draws their attention to the clever techniques instead. If all the viewer remembers is the special effects, then you have not communicated your message. The treatment must be appropriate for the target audience and the program content.

3.6 COMMUNICATION CAN BE ELUSIVE

There are no absolute rules when creating a production, but there are a lot of well-established guiding principles. These principles have been discovered through years of experience. Occasionally a director can deliberately ignore these guides and create an interesting or unusual effect. However, you must be careful because the audience response may not turn out as you hoped.

The human mind is great at seeing relationships, even when there aren’t any. We all spend our time interpreting the world about us, frequently seeing meanings or signifcance where there is none. In an experimental flm made up of a random series of close-up stills from magazine covers, the disjointed fragments of buildings, foliage, and objects appeared on the screen as patches of color, progressive patterns, and geometric forms. When this film was run at 24 frames a second and accompanied by any music, from Bach to Brubeck, the audience interpreted the result as an exciting animation sequence, with the visual theme changing to the beat of the music. Yet in reality there was no theme, no editing (since the project was as shot in the camera, frame by frame). It was all in the minds of the audience. This example reminds us of how frail the process of communication really is. The audience will at times accept and interpret visual or audio garbage, for they assume that it has a valid purpose, even if they cannot understand what this purpose is.

At other times, although we select images and sound carefully, we find that the audience’s attention has been taken by some irrelevant distraction in the background. They were maybe reading the book titles on a shelf and not really listening to what was being said.

Before somebody laughs at the idea, remember that concepts like an all-news network, a food channel, and a weather channel were thought to be fallacies at the conception stage. All have developed into unquestioned broadcasting successes over the years.

—Tim Griffn, Writer

3.7 IT ALL STARTS WITH AN IDEA (CONCEPT)

It is unlikely that you will suddenly decide, out of the blue, to make a video program on a specifc subject. Something has triggered the idea. Perhaps you heard of an interesting incident that gave you the idea for a narrative. Maybe a local store asked you to make a point-of-sales video to help the home handyman. Here is how to start with the project:

You know the subject to be covered (in principle at least), what the program is to be used for, and who the audience for the program will be. The next question you should probably ask is “How long should it be?” it is important to know if the client wants a two-hour epic or a two-minute video loop.

Determine how the audience is going to relate to this program. If it is one of a series, don’t go over the same material again unless it requires revision. There is also the chance that the viewer may not see the other videos in the series (Figure 3.6).

FIGURE 3.6
The stages that a video production goes through, from idea (concept) to the viewing.

3.8 GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

What do you really want your audience to know after they have viewed your production? The answer to this question is essential because it guides the entire production process. The goals and objectives will determine what is used as a measuring stick throughout the production process. Goals are broad concepts of what you want to accomplish:

Goal: I want to explain how to feld a formula one racing team.

Objectives are measurable goals. That means something that can be tested for to see that the audience did understand and remember the key points of the program. Take the time to think through what the audience should know after seeing your program:

Objectives: when the viewers fnish watching the program, they should be able to do the following:

Identify three types of sponsorship

Identify four crew positions

Identify two scheduling issues

All three of these are objectives because they are measurable. The number of objectives is determined by the goals. This means that sometimes only one objective is needed, while other times five may be required.

3.9 TARGET AUDIENCE

Whether your program is a video “family album” or a lecture on nuclear physics, it is essential to determine whom the program is for and its chief purpose:

Who is the viewing audience?

Is it for the general public, for a specifc group, or for a local group?

What is the target age group? Is the production for children, young adults, adults, or seniors? Some age groups, such as children, have many subsets as well such as preschool, grade school, middle school, and high school. Each subset must be communicated to in a different way.

Is any specifc background, qualifcation, language, or group experience necessary for the audience?

Are there specifc production styles that this audience favors?

The target audience should determine your program’s coverage and style. It is self-evident that the sort of program you would make for a group of content experts would differ from a program made for young children (Figure 3.7).

FIGURE 3.7
The intended audience should determine how the director covers the subject. In this situation, generally a younger crowd would favor a different style of coverage than elderly people.
(Photo by Paul Dupree.)

The conditions under which the audience is going to watch the program are important too. Most video programs are not made to be broadcast. They are viewed as DVDs, stored on fash memory or hard drives, or streamed in homes, classrooms, corporate offces, and many other locations. The wise director tries to anticipate these conditions, since they can considerably affect the way the program is produced:

How and where is your audience going to see the program? Will they be a seated group of students watching a large screen in a darkened classroom?

Will the viewers be watching a streamed video off of the internet while at the offce?

Or will the program be viewed on a cell phone or player while riding in a car? (Figure 3.8).

FIGURE 3.8
With small mobile phone devices having the ability to play hours of video, as well as shoot video, they are rapidly becoming the video player of choice for many people.

If the program will be primarily viewed in direct daylight, directors may want to avoid dark or low-key scenes. The images displayed on many receivers/monitors in daylight can be poor quality, although they are continually improving in quality.

Try to anticipate the problems for an audience watching a distant picture monitor. Long shots have correspondingly little impact. Closer shots are essential since they add emotion and drama. Small lettering means nothing on a small distant screen. To improve the visibility of titles, charts, maps, etc., keep details basic, and limit the information (Figure 3.9).

If your target audience may be watching on an iPod or other very small video screen device, directors should lean toward more close-ups than usual since the long shots may not be as discernible on the small screen (Figure 3.10).

Here are a number of reminder questions that can help you to anticipate your audience’s problems:

Does the program rely on previously established knowledge? How much is known about the subject already?

Does the program relate to other programs in a series?

Does the audience need to be reminded of earlier programs?

Is the audience going to see the program individually or in a group?

Are they only watching the program once, from the beginning, or as a continuous loop?

Can they see the program as often as they want, including stopping and replaying sections?

Will viewers watch the program straight through, or will it be stopped after sections, for discussion?

Will there be any accompanying supporting material (maps, graphs, or statistics) to which the audience can refer?

Will there be other competing, noisy attractions as they watch (such as might occur at an exhibition)?

Will the program soon be out of date?

Is the program for a formal occasion, or will a certain amount of careful humor be useful?

Are there time limits for the program?

Will the program need to be updated with fresh material on an ongoing basis? If so, what is the schedule?

FIGURE 3.9
Close-up shots add emotion and drama to a production and add needed detail to small-screen productions, such as those seen on an iPod-type device.

FIGURE 3.10
As viewing screens get smaller and smaller, care must be taken to create videos that can be seen with clarity.
(Photo courtesy of Apple.)

3.10 RESEARCH

For some programs, such as documentaries, news, or interviews, the production team must conduct research in order to create the program’s content or make sure the existing content is accurate. This research may be going to the library, doing online research, or contacting recognized experts in the content area. Travel may even be required.

It is important to remember that research is time consuming and may impact the production budget. This is especially true if a content expert wants an appearance fee or if fights and lodging are included for the crew or guest.

3.11 COVERING THE SUBJECT

The kind of subject that is being covered, who makes up the audience, and the content that needs to be featured will infuence how the camera is utilized in the program, where it concentrates, how close the shots are, and how varied they are. Here are some of the areas that the director needs to think through:

What content areas need to be covered?

Is the subject (person or object) best seen from specifc angles?

Are the surroundings (context) important?

Would the addition of graphics help the audience understand the content?

How will i give the talent and crew the vision and goals for the production and then help them know what they can do to help us attain these goals?

Would it help to create a shot list for each camera operator? A shot list is a description of each shot needed, listed in order, so that the operator can move from shot to shot with little instruction from the director. Other camera operator supports may include team rosters to help the operator fnd a specifc player for the director (Figure 3.11).

FIGURE 3.11
Create shot sheets (shot card) or other support information for the camera operators as needed.

3.12 PRODUCTION METHODS

Great ideas are not enough. Ideas have to be worked out in realistic, practical terms. They have to be expressed as images and sounds. In the end, as the director, you have to decide what the camera is going to shoot and what your audience is going to hear. Where do you start?

There are two quite different methods of approaching video production:

The empirical method is where instinct and opportunity are the guides.

The planned method, which organizes and builds a program in carefully arranged steps.

3.13 THE EMPIRICAL APPROACH

Directors following the empirical approach get an idea, and then they look around for subjects and situations that relate to it. After shooting possible material, they later create a program from whatever they have found. Their inspiration springs from the opportunities that have arisen.

An example would be that the director decides to make a program about safety at sea. Using the empirical approach, the director might go to a marina and develop a production based on the stories heard there. Or the director might discuss the idea with the life-guards and decide to follow an entirely different plan. The director might also visit a commercial dock and discover material there of an entirely different kind.

After accumulating a collection of interesting sequences (atmospheric shots, natural sound, interviews, etc.), the director reviews the content and puts it into a meaningful order. He or she then creates a program that fits the accumulated material, probably writing a commentary as a voiceover to match the edited pictures.

At best, this approach is fresh and uninhibited, improvises, makes use of the unexpected, avoids rigid discipline, and is adaptable. Shots are interestingly varied. The audience is kept alert, watching and interpreting the changing scene.

At worst, the result of such shot hunting is a haphazard disaster, with little cohesion or sense of purpose. Because the approach is unsystematic, gaps and overlaps abound. Good, coherent editing may be diffcult. Opportunities may have been missed. The director usually relies heavily on the voiceover to try to provide any sort of relationship and continuity between the images (Figure 3.12).

FIGURE 3.12
Some documentaries are shot using the empirical method, which is when instinct and opportunity are the guides.
(Photo by Will Adams.)

3.14 THE PLANNED APPROACH

The planned method of production approaches the problem quite differently, although the results on the screen may be similar. In this situation, the director works out, in advance, the exact form he or she wants the program to take and then creates it accordingly.

Fundamentally, you can do either of the following:

Begin with the environment or setting, and decide how the cameras can be positioned to get the most effective shots (Figure 3.13).

Envision certain shots or effects you want to see, and create a setting that will provide those results (Figure 3.14).

A lot will depend on whether you are

Interpreting an existing script (as in drama). This will involve analyzing the script, examining the story line and the main action in each scene, and visualizing individual shots.

or

Building a treatment framework. This will involve considering how you are going to present a specifc program subject and working out the kinds of shots you want.

At best, the planned approach is a method in which a crew can be coordinated to give their best. There is a sense of systematic purpose throughout the project. Problems are largely ironed out before they develop. Production is based on what is feasible. The program can have a smooth-fowing, carefully thought-out, persuasive style.

At worst, the production becomes bogged down in organization. The program can be stodgy, routine, and lack originality. Opportunities are ignored because they were not part of the original scheme and would modify it. The result could be a disaster.

In reality, the experienced director uses a combination of the planned and the empirical approaches, starting off with a plan and then taking advantage of any opportunities that become available.

FIGURE 3.13
Production staff review a venue for an ice hockey production using the planned approach. They began with the setting (venue) and then decided where to place the cameras.

FIGURE 3.14
Narrative directors use the planned approach to production by utilizing a storyboard. However, they create the setting to ft the story.

3.15 STORYBOARDS

Storyboards generally save time on-set, help to avoid rushed decisions on-set, help you improve and get feedback on ideas, give you an idea about how many cameras and angles you will need, help you experiment with different angles and techniques, can help with continuity, and help orientate actors and crew members.

—Kyle Van Tonder, Director

Before even picking up a camera, directors need to think through each scene in their minds so that they can then capture the best images that tell their story. The storyboard is simply a series of rough sketches; these sketches help the director to visualize and organize the camera treatment. Generally, the script, if you are using a script, is broken down into segments, and each segment is visualized on the storyboard—giving the director a visual interpretation of the script. The storyboard is a visual map of how the director hopes to arrange the camera shots for each scene or action sequence (Figures 3.15 and 3.16).

FIGURE 3.15
A storyboard on the set of a production. The storyboard roughly visualizes what the program will look like.
(Photo by Taylor Vinson.)

FIGURE 3.16
The frst image is of a frame from a storyboard. The second image shows how the camera shot that specifc scene.
(Photo by Taylor Vinson.)

As a director, you will fnd that the storyboard can be a valuable aid in whatever manner you are going to shoot the action:

Continuously, from start to finish

In sections or scenes (one complete action sequence at a time)

As a series of separate shots or “action segments,” each showing a part of the sequence

Storyboards can be designed a number of different ways. There are software programs that assist the director in visualizing ideas; someone can roughly sketch them out, or a storyboard artist can create detailed drawings that can even be animated to show during the fund-raising period. You don’t have to be able to draw well to produce a successful storyboard. Even the crudest scribbles can help you organize your thoughts and show other people what you are trying to do (Figures 3.17 and 3.18).

Whether you choose a storyboarding software or drawing it by hand, you begin by imagining your way through the script, roughly creating the composition for each shot. If the action is complicated, you might need a couple of frames to show how a shot develops. In our example, the whole scene is summarized in fve frames.

Let’s look at a simple story line to see how the storyboard provides you with imaginative opportunities (see the storyboard sidebar “Analyzing Action”).

The young person has been sent to buy her frst postage stamp.

There are dozens of ways to shoot this brief sequence. You could simply follow her all the way from her home, watching as she crosses the road, enters the post offce, goes up to the counter. The result would be totally boring.

FIGURE 3.17
Storyboard programs are available on all types of devices. Both of these screenshots were taken from a storyboard program on an iPhone.
(Software by Cinemek.)

FIGURE 3.18
Computer-based storyboard programs allow the nonartist to create professional-looking storyboards.
(Software by StoryBoard Quick.)

Let’s think again. We know from the previous scene where she is going and why. All we really want to register are her reactions as she buys the stamp. So let’s cut out all the superfuous footage and concentrate on that moment.

1. The child arrives at the counter, and looks up at the clerk.

2. Hesitatingly, she asks for the stamp.

3. She opens her fngers to hand the money to the clerk.

4. The clerk smiles, takes the money, and pulls out the stamp book.

5. A close shot of the clerk tearing the stamp from a sheet (Figure 3.19).

FIGURE 3.19
When edited together correctly, a sequence looks natural. But even a simple scene showing a person buying a stamp needs to be thought through. Note how shots 1 and 3 are taken on one side of the counter and shots 2, 4, and 5 on the other.
(Illustration created by StoryBoard Quick software.)

You now have a sequence of shots, far more interesting than a continuous “follow-shot.” it stimulates the imagination. It guides the audience’s thought processes. It has a greater overall impact. However, if this type of treatment is carried out badly, the effect can look disjointed, contrived, and posed. It is essential that the treatment matches the style and theme of the subject.

You could have built the whole sequence with dramatic camera angles, strong music, and effects. But would it have been appropriate? If the audience knows that a bomb is ticking away in a parcel beneath the counter, it might have been. It is all too easy to overdramatize or “pretty up” a situation (such as star flters producing multiray patterns around highlights, diffusion flters for misty effects). Because so much is now done in postproduction, resist the temptation.

This breakdown has not only helped you to visualize the picture treatment, but you begin to think about how one shot is going to lead into the next. You start to deal with practicalities. You see, for example, that shots 1 and 3 are taken from the front of the counter, and shots 2, 4, and 5 need to be taken from behind it. Obviously, the most logical approach is to shoot the sequence out of order. The storyboard becomes a shooting plan.

To practice “storyboarding,” review a motion picture carefully, making a sketch of each key shot. This way, you will soon get into the habit of thinking in picture sequences rather than in isolated shots.

3.16 WHY PLAN?

Some people fnd the idea of planning restrictive. They want to get on with the shooting. For them, planning somehow turns the thrill of the unexpected into an organized commitment.

But many situations must be planned and worked out in advance. Directors need to get permission to shoot on private property, to make appointments to interview people, and to arrange access, among other tasks. They might occasionally have success if they arrive unannounced, but don’t assume this. However, directors also need to be prepared to take advantage of unexpected opportunities. It is worth taking advantage of the unexpected, even if you decide not to use it later.

3.17 THE THREE STAGES OF PRODUCTION

Most programs go through three main stages:

1. Planning and preparation. Also known as preproduction, this phase of the production includes preparation, organization, and rehearsal before the production begins. Ninety percent of the work on a production usually goes into the planning and preparation phase.

2. Production. Actually shooting the production.

3. Post-production. Editing, additional treatment, and duplication.

The nature of the subject will infuence the amount of work needed at each stage. A production that involves a series of straightforward “personality” interviews is generally a lot easier to organize than one on Arctic exploration or a historical drama. But in the end, a great deal depends on how the director decides to approach the subject.

Working at the highest quality, directors can create incredible programming by using simple methods. Treatment does not have to be elaborate to make its point. If a woman in the desert picks up her water bottle, fnds it empty, and then the camera shows a patch of damp sand where it rested, the shot has told us a great deal without any need for elaboration. A single look or a gesture can often have a far stronger impact than lengthy dialog that attempts to show how two people feel about each other.

It is important to understand the complexity of the production. Some ideas seem simple enough but can be diffcult or impossible to carry out. Others look very diffcult or impracticable but are easily achieved on the screen. For example:

“Hurry and arc the camera around the actor.” (Diffcult. Movement shots are always time consuming, making it almost impossible to do quickly.)

“Make her vanish!” (Simple. Keep the camera still, have the subject exit, and edit out the walk.)

3.18 COVERAGE

What do you want to cover in the available time? How much is reasonable to cover in that time? If there are too many topics, it will not be possible to do justice to any of them. If there are too few, the program can seem slow and labored. There is nothing to be gained by packing the program full of facts; even though they may sound impressive, audiences rarely remember more than a fraction of them. Unlike the printed page, on video the viewer cannot refer back to check an item, unless the program is designed to be stopped and rewound or is frequently repeated.

3.19 BUILDING A PRODUCTION OUTLINE

Directors often create a production outline. This begins with a series of headings showing the main themes that need to be discussed.

If we use the example of an instructional video about building a wall, the topics we may cover could include tools needed, materials, foundation, making mortar, method of laying bricks, and pointing. We can now determine how much program time to devote to each topic. Some will be brief and others relatively lengthy. While we will need to emphasize some of the topics, we will skip over others to suit the purpose of the program.

The next stage is to take each of the topic headings and note the various aspects that need to be covered as a series of subheadings. Under “tools,” for instance, each tool that must be demonstrated should be listed. Once this program structure has been designed, the director can begin to see the form the program is likely to take.

3.20 BROAD TREATMENT

The next stage in the planning process will be to decide how to approach each subheading in the outline. Remember, you are still thinking things through. At this stage, the idea may even need to be altered, further developed, shortened, or even dropped altogether.

This is a question-and-answer process. Let’s imagine the situation:

What is the topic, and what is its purpose?

It is discussing “animal hibernation in winter.”

How will you approach it?

It would be nice to show a bear preparing its den for hibernation and settling down. Show the hard winter weather with the animal asleep. Later, show the bear waking up in the spring and foraging. And do all of this with a commentary.

This is a good idea, but where are the pictures coming from?

Do you have any?

Are you using a film library’s services?

Does the library have that sort of material?

Let’s say that we cannot afford to obtain the pictures. We need to fnd a less expensive method.

You could have an illustrated discussion or a commentary over still photographs and drawings (graphics, artwork).

That could be boring, a little like a slide show.

Not necessarily, for you could explore the still photographs with the camera, panning or tilting the camera across the photographs. The key is to keep the shots brief and add sound effects and possibly even music.

How do you fnd bear photographs that you can use?

You could take the photographs yourself in the wild or at a museum or zoo. Stills can also come from books (with permission), online stock photo agencies, or the private collections of photographers (Figure 3.20).

Note how each decision leads to another development. For example, if you decide that you are going to shoot photographs at a zoo, you then have to fgure out how, when, and where you are going to get these shots. You have to figure out how the zoo needs to be lit. Will the glass cage cause refection problems? Can you get the viewpoint you need? You may not be able to decide at this point, but you will have to do some research to see how feasible each specifc idea is.

FIGURE 3.20
Photographs can be purchased from an online stock photo agency for use in video productions.
(Photo by Sarah Owens.)

3.21 PRODUCTION RESEARCH

There are, in fact, several stages during the creation of a program when you will probably need more information before you can go on to the next step (Table 3.1). “Research” might amount to nothing more than hearing that Uncle David has a friend who has a stuffed bear that he would lend you for the program. Additional opportunities and problems will be discovered as research is being completed. Sometimes those opportunities and problems will even alter the outcome of the project. You may encounter an enthusiast who can supply enough material to fill a dozen programs on the subject, or you might have to really dig for program content.

Table 3.1

Typical Research Information for the Planning and Preparation Phase of the Production Process

Lists can be daunting, but here are reminders of typical areas you may need to look into in the course of planning your production.

The Idea	The exploratory process: –Find sources of information on the subject (people, books, and publications). –Arrange to consult these sources. –Accumulate data. –Select material that is relevant and appropriate to the idea. –Determine whom the program is for. –What is the purpose of the program? –Does it have to relate to an existing program? (Are there specific levels or standards that must be adhered to?) –Does the program need to be a specific length? –Coordinate ideas into an outline with headings and subheadings. –Consider the program development, forming a rough script or a shooting script.
Practicality	Consider the ideas in practical terms: –What does the viewer actually need to see and hear at each point in the program? –Where can the program be shot? –What sort of props are needed for each sequence (items, furnishings)? –How should the scene be arranged? (Action in broad outline.) –What talent (people in front of the camera) are needed for the program?
The Equipment	What is needed to shoot the program: –Single camera or multicamera? –What equipment, beyond the camera(s), will be required to make the production a success? –Is equipment owned, can it be borrowed, or does it need to be rented?
Feasibility	–Check what is really involved: –Are the ideas and treatment being developed reasonable for the available resources? –Is there another way of achieving similar results more easily, more cheaply, more quickly, or with less labor? –Can the needed items be acquired? –Are the locations available and affordable? –Is there sufficient time to do research, organize, rehearse, shoot, and edit the production? Costs: –What is the budget? –How will you arrange to research possible costs for a sequence before including it in the production? –Is it possible to obtain advance payment for expenses? –Are advance payments required for some services and purchases? Assistance: –Will you need assistance, manpower, expert aid or advice, extra transport, etc., to do the job? –What talent is involved (amateur, professional, casual)? –Do you need professional services (to make items, service, prepare graphics, etc.)? Facilities: –Are there facilities available that are sufficient for the anticipated shooting requirements and the post-production work? –Will additional facilities be needed to augment the existing facilities? Problems: –What might be the impact of major problems, such as weather, on each sequence of the production? –Is there any obvious danger factor (shooting a cliff climbing sequence)? –Will the situation you need be available at the time the program needs to be shot (snow in summer)? Time: –Is there sufficient time to shoot the sequence? –What backup plans must you make to protect the production in case serious problems arise? For example, instead of taking a couple of hours to shoot a scene, it might take two days with an overnight stay if things go wrong (high wind, rain, noise, etc.).
Administration	Various business arrangements and agreements: –Obtain permission to shoot, passes, permits, fees, and so on. –Obtain copyright clearances, if using music, copying photographs, and so on. –Insurance may be necessary to cover losses, breakage, injury, and so on. –Union agreements may need to be followed. –Contractual arrangements may be needed for the talent, crew, equipment, transportation, scenery, props, costumes, and editing suite. –Arrange for transportation, accommodation, food, and storage. –Return borrowed/hired items.

3.22 REMOTE SURVEYS (RECCE)

Fundamentally, there are two types of shooting conditions: at your base and on location. Your base is wherever you normally shoot. It may be a studio, a theater, a room, or even a stadium. The base is where you know exactly what facilities are available (equipment, power, supplies, and scenery), where things are, the amount of room available, and so on. If you need to supplement what is there, you can usually do so easily.

A location is anywhere away from your normal shooting site. It may just be outside the building or way out in the country. It could be in a vehicle, down in a mine or in someone’s home. Your main concern when shooting away from your base is to find out what you are going to deal with in advance. It is important to be prepared. The preliminary visit to a location is generally called a remote survey, site survey, or location survey. It can be anything from a quick look around to a detailed survey of the site. What you find during the survey may influence the planned production treatment. The checklist in Table 3.2 gives more remote survey specifics (Figure 3.21).

Table 3.2 Checklist: The Remote Survey

The amount of detail needed about a location varies with the type and style of the production. Information that may seem trivial at the time can prove valuable later in the production process. Location sites can be interiors, covered exteriors, or open-air sites. Each has its own problems.

Sketches	Prepare rough maps of the route to the site that can ultimately be distributed to the crew and talent (include distance, travel time). Prepare a rough layout of the site (room plan, etc.). Outline anticipated camera location(s). Designate parking locations for truck (if needed) and staff vehicles.
Contact & Schedule Information	Get location contact information from primary and secondary location contacts, site custodian, electrician, engineer, and security; this includes office and cell phones as well as e-mail. If access credentials are required for the site, obtain the procedure and contact information. Obtain the event schedule (if one exists), and find out if there are rehearsals that you can attend.
Camera Locations	Check around the location for the best camera angles. What type of camera mount will be required (tripod, Steadicam, etc.)? If a multicamera production, cable runs must be measured to ensure that there is enough camera cable available. What lens will be required on the camera at each location to obtain the needed shot? Are there any obstructions or distractions (e.g., large signs, reflections)? Do you anticipate any obvious problems in shooting? Anything dangerous?
Lighting	Will the production be shot in daylight? How will the light change throughout the day? Does the daylight need to be augmented with reflectors or lights? Will the production be shot in artificial light? (If so, will you use theirs, yours, or a combination of the two?) Will they be on at the time you are shooting? What are your estimates for the number of lamps, positions, power needed, supplies, and cabling required?
Audio	What type of microphones will be needed? Any potential problems with acoustics (such as a strong wind rumble)? Any extraneous sounds (elevators, phones, heating/air conditioning, machinery, children, aircraft, birds, etc.)? Required microphone cable lengths must be determined.
Safety	Are there any safety issues that you need to be aware of?
Power	What level of power is available, and what type of power will you need? This will differ greatly between single-camera and multicamera production. What type of power connectors are required?
Communications	Are radios needed? How many? How many cell phones are needed? If it is a multicamera production, what type of intercom and how many headsets are required?
Logistics	Is there easy access to the location? At any time, or at certain times only? Are there any traffic problems? What kind of transportation is needed for talent and crew? What kind of catering is needed? How many meals? How many people? Are accommodations needed (where, when, how many)? If the weather is bad, are there alternative positions/locations available? Has a phone number list been prepared for police, fire, doctor, hotel, and local (delivery) restaurants? What kind of first-aid services need to be available? (Is a first-aid kit sufficient, or does an ambulance need to be on-site?) Is location access restricted? Do you need to get permission (or keys) to enter the site? From whom? What insurance is needed (against damage or injury)?
Security	Are local police required to handle crowds or just the public in general? What arrangements need to be made for security of personal items, equipment, props, etc.)? Do streets need to be blocked?

FIGURE 3.21
Site surveys allow you to check out the actual location to make sure it will meet the production needs.

3.23 FREEDOM TO PLAN

In practice, how far you can plan a production depends on how much control you have of the situation. If shooting a public event, planning may consist of fnding out what is going on, deciding on the best visual opportunities, selecting camera locations, and so forth. The director may have little or no opportunity to adjust events to suit his or her production ideas.

If, on the other hand, the situation is entirely under the director’s control, he or she can arrange the situation to ft the production’s specific needs. Having planned the ideas, the director can then organize the elements of the production and explain the concept to the other people involved (Figure 3.22).

FIGURE 3.22
During the fow of the video production process, the production meetings provide a forum for all parties involved in the production to hear the vision, share ideas, and communicate issues.

3.24 SINGLE-CAMERA SHOOTING

When shooting with a single camera, the director is usually in one of two situations:

Planning in principle and shooting as opportunity allows. For example, the director intends on taking shots of local wildlife, but what is actually shot will depend on what the crew fnds at the location (Figure 3.23).

Detailed analysis and shot planning. This approach is widely used in film-making. Here the action in a scene is reviewed and then broken down into separate shots. Each shot is rehearsed and recorded independently. Where action is continuous throughout several shots, it is repeated for each camera viewpoint.

Shot 1. Long shot: An actor walks away from the camera toward a wall mirror.

Shot 2. Medium shot: The actor repeats the action, approaching the camera located beside the mirror.

Shot 3. Close-up shot: The actor repeats the walk as the camera shoots into the mirror, watching his expression as he approaches.

FIGURE 3.23
Single-camera shooting.

When edited together, the action should appear continuous. It’s essential to keep the continuity of shots in mind throughout.

It is regular practice to shoot the complete action in one long shot and then take close-up shots separately. These individual shots can then be relit for maximum visual effect. Even when a person is supposedly speaking to someone else, it is quite usual to shoot the person alone, repeating a speech to the camera, to allow the camera to be placed in the best possible position.

3.25 MULTICAMERA SHOOTING

When shooting with two or more cameras, a director tends to think in terms of effective viewpoints as well as specifc shots. Cameras need to be positioned to capture specifc shots, but they also need to catch various aspects of the continuous action (Figure 3.24).

FIGURE 3.24
Multicamera shooting allows the director to think in terms of effective viewpoints rather than specifc shots.
(Photo by Jon Greenhoe/WOOD TV.)

When planning a multicamera production, directors have to consider a variety of situations:

Will one camera come into another camera’s shot?

Is there time for cameras to move to various positions?

What kinds of shots does the script dictate?

How will the microphones and lighting relate to the cameras’ movements (visible mics or shadows cast by the boom pole, etc.)?

3.26 BUDGETING

It is understandable that most directors are more creative minded than business minded. However, you have to be fnancially savvy in order to stay within the budget constraints—and every production has budget constraints.

FIGURE 3.25
Budgeting software keeps track of production expenses, comparing the estimated costs to the actual costs. Computer software is available to keep a very detailed budget. Mobile software that works on a portable device is helpful when in the field. This is a screenshot from a free iPhone budgeting app for small films.
(Software used is Film Budget.)

In table 3.1, in the feasibility study, we talked a little about budgeting. It is important to understand what you have available fnancially at the beginning of the project. Once the total budget has been established, it needs to be broken down into categories. The categories may include but are not confned to the following:

Transportation

Staff/crew

Talent/actors

Script

Equipment costs (rental or purchase)

Postproduction

Props

Permits

Food

Lodging

Supplies

An estimate needs to be made for each category. Once the estimates are completed, you can see if your project is going to ft the assigned overall budget. Most of the time you will need to trim here and there in order to fit the budget. However, occasionally you will see that you have some extra money in the budget, allowing you to increase a category or two (Figure 3.25).

Once the budget is final, it is important to begin tracking each expenditure. This enables you to keep an eye on the categories as well as the overall budget. If you go over in one category, it means that you have to take money from a different category—or you will go over budget.

Building a track record of being able to stay within budgets will increase the trust that clients have in you, knowing that you can responsibly create productions.

3.27 COPYRIGHT

If you can’t get permission from the copyright owner, you probably need to remove the item from the scene.

Whenever material prepared and created by other people is used—a piece of music, a sound recording, videotape, flm, a picture in a book, labels on a jar, CD covers, a sculpture, a photograph, and so on—it must be cleared for use in your production if it will be seen beyond the educational classroom. The copyright may even include artwork and even trademarks, and it must be cleared with the appropriate copyright owner(s). Many times the producers/directors are required to pay a fee to the copyright holders or an appropriate organization operating on their behalf for copyright clearance. The copyright law is complex and varies among countries, but basically it protects the originators from having their work copied without permission. You cannot, for example, prepare a video program with music dubbed from a commercial recording, with inserts from television programs, magazine photographs, advertisements, and so on without the permission of the respective copyright owners. Copyright fees will depend on the purpose and use of the program. Some of the exceptions to this policy occur when the program is only to be seen within the home or used in a class assignment that will not be seen by the public. In most cases, the copyright can be traced through the source of the material needed for the production (the publisher of a book or photograph).

Agreements take various forms. They may be restricted or limited. For music and sound effects, directors are usually required to pay a royalty fee per use, or it may be possible to buy the rights to use an item or a package (“buyout method”).

The largest organizations concerned with performance rights for music (copyright clearance for use of recorded music or to perform music) include the Performing rights society (PRS) in the United kingdom, the American society of composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP), the society of European Stage Authors and composers (SESAC), and Broadcast music inc. (BMI). When clearing copyrights for music, both the record company and the music publishers may need to be involved.

Music in public domain is not subject to copyright, but any arrangement or performance is. Music and lyrics published in 1922 or earlier are in the public domain in the United states. While anyone can use a public domain song in a production, no one can “own” a public domain song. Sound recordings, however, are protected separately from musical compositions. There are no sound recordings in the public domain in the United states. If you need to use an existing sound recording, even a recording of a public domain song, you will either have to record it yourself or license a recording.

3.28 CONTRACTS

Whenever you hire talent (actors, talent, and musicians) or use services (such as a scaffolding company), contractual agreements arise. Union agreements may also be involved. So before you commit in any way, find out exactly what is entailed both financially and legally.

Apart from general shots, whenever you want to shoot in the street, it is wise to let the local police know in advance. Productions may cause an obstruction or break local laws. If you are going to be shooting footage of people, you are required to get their permission in writing (with their name and address) on a talent release form (Table 3.3). While terminology varies, depending on the purpose of the production and the nature of the actor’s contribution, the release form generally authorizes the director to use the individual’s performance—free or for a fee.

Table 3.3 Sample Talent Release Form